CRIM211

Human Behavior and Victimology

WEEK 9

Personality disorders - disorders of character; problematic without psychoses; disrupted

personal relationship, dependent or passive aggressive behavior.

Cluster A (odd and eccentric)

● Paranoid personality (PPD) - suspiciousness; is a mental disorder characterized by

paranoia and a pervasive, long-standing suspiciousness and generalized mistrust of
others.

● Schizoid personality- inability to form social relationships and lack of interest in doing
so;

● Schizotypal Personality- are often described as odd or eccentric and usually have few,
if any, close relationships.

Cluster B (dramatic, emotional, or erratic)

● Histrionic personality disorder- A pervasive pattern of attention-seeking behavior and

excessive emotions

● Narcissistic Personality- exaggerated sense of self-importance and pre-occupation

with receiving attention.

● Borderline Personality- instability reflected in drastic mood shifts and behavior

problems; impulsive, unpredictable, periodically unstable.

● Anti-social Personality- Continuing violation of the rights of others through aggressive

anti-social behavior without remorse or loyalty to anyone (may be referred to
unprincipled businessman, crooked politicians, impostors, drug pushers, quack doctors,
prostitutes)

Cluster C (anxious or fearful)

● Avoidant personality - hypersensitivity to rejection and apprehensiveness alertness to

any sign of social derogation; reluctant to enter into social interaction.

● Dependent Personality - extreme dependence on other people; acute discomfort and

panic to be alone and lacks of confidence and feels helpless.
 ● Obsessive Personality - compulsive personality disorder, characterized by a rigid
conformity to rules, perfectionism, and control.

Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychotic Disorders

Psychosis - A severe mental disorder characterized by impairment in thoughts and emotion

and often involving a loss of contact with external reality.

Schizophrenia —
• "schizo" means "split"; "phrenia" means "mind"
• it describes fragmented pattern of thinking
• is a psychological disorder characterized by major disturbances in thought, perception,
emotion, and behavior.

Schizophrenia

A. Positive symptom: Any behavior not seen in people without the disorder that correlates with
a loss of contact with reality; a disorder of commission.

● Delusions
● Hallucinations
● Disorganized speech
● Disorganized behavior
● Catatonic behavior

A.Delusions - A false or erroneous belief in something which is not a fact.

Different types of Delusions

● Delusion of Grandeur - erroneous belief that he is in possession of great power,

wealth, wisdom, and physical strength. (Grandiose Type)

● Delusion of Persecution - a false belief that one is being persecuted. (Persecutory

type)

● Delusion of Self-Accusation - a false belief in having committed a crime or hurting the

feelings of others.

● Delusion of Reference - one thinks that he is always the subject matter of conversation

● Nihilistic Delusion - a false belief that there is a bio world that one does not exist and
that his body is dead.
 ● Hypochondriacal Delusion - a false feeling that one is suffering from incurable
diseases. (Somatic type)

● Delusion of Negation - feeling that some parts of the body are missing.

● Delusion of Infidelity - a false belief that one's lover is unfaithful (Jealous Type)

B. Hallucinations - It is an erroneous perception without an external object of stimulus.

C. Disorganized speech- "word salad"

D. Disorganized behavior- bizarre behavior

E. Catatonic behavior- stupor (unresponsive)

Schizophrenia

B. Negative Symptoms: are disorders of omission, meaning they are things that the individual
does not do.

● alogia (lack of speech),

● flat affect (lack of emotional response),
● anhedonia (inability to experience pleasure),
● asociality (lack of interest in social contact),
● avolition (lack of motivation),
● and apathy (lack of interest).
WEEK 10

FACTORS ALTERING HUMAN BEHAVIOR

1. Emotions
• Refers to feeling affective responses as a result of physiological arousal, thoughts, and beliefs,
subjective evaluation, and bodily expression.
• It is a state characterized by facial expressions, gestures, postures, and subjective feelings.
• It is associated with mood, temperament, personality, and disposition.
• Emotion is derived from the French word “emouvior”, Latin “emover”, where e- (variant of ex-)
means “out” and movere means “move”.

2. Conflict - simultaneous arousal of two or more incompatible motives resulting to unpleasant

emotions.

Types of Conflicts

● Psychological Conflict (Internal) - Conflict could be going on inside the person and no
one would know.

● Social Conflict (External) - occurs when two or more people oppose each other in
social interaction, each exerts social power with reciprocity in an effort to achieve
incompatible goals whilst preventing the other from attaining their own.

● Approach-Avoidance - Conflict can be described having features of approach and

avoidance: approach-approach (++), avoidance-avoidance (- -), approach-avoidance (+ -
). In this, two pleasing things are wanted but only one option should be chosen.

Types of Approach-Avoidance

● Approach-Approach Conflict- motivated to engage in two desirable activities

that cannot be pursued simultaneously

● Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict- a person faces two undesirable situations in

which the avoidance of one is the exposure to the other resulting to an intense
emotion.

● Approach-Avoidance Conflict- a person faces a situation having both a

desirable and undesirable feature.
3. Frustration- unpleasant feelings that result from the blocking of motive satisfaction. It is a
form of stress, which results in tension. It is the feeling that is experienced when something
interferes with our hopes, wishes, plans, and expectations.

The common sources of frustration are:

● Physical Obstacles - physical barriers or circumstances that prevent a person from

doing his plan or fulfilling his wishes.

● Social Circumstances - restrictions or circumstances imposed by other people and the

customs and laws of social living.

● Personal shortcoming - handicapped by diseases, deafness, paralysis, etc., which

serves as barrier to the things one ought to do.

Reactions to Frustrations

FIGHT-FLIGHT REACTION
● by fighting, the problem in a constructive and direct way by breaking the obstacles
barring him from his goal, or by getting angry and become aggressive; and/or
● by running away from the problem.

4. Depression- Is an illness that causes a person to feel sad and hopeless much of the time. -
Depression (major depressive disorder) is a common and serious medical illness that negatively
affects how you feel, the way you think, and how you act.

Depression symptoms can vary from mild to severe and can include:
• Feeling sad or having a depressed mood
• Loss of interest or pleasure in activities once enjoyed
• Changes in appetite - weight loss or gain unrelated to dieting
• Trouble sleeping or sleeping too much
• Loss of energy or increased fatigue
• Increase in purposeless physical activity (e.g., inability to sit still, pacing, hand-wringing) or
slowed movements or speech (these actions must be severe enough to be observable by
others)
• Feeling worthless or guilty
• Difficulty thinking, concentrating, or making decisions
• Thoughts of death or suicide
5. Stress - the physiological or psychological response to internal or external stressors. Stress
involves changes affecting nearly every system of the body, influencing how people feel and
behave.

● Stressors is anything (physical or psychological) that produces stress (negative or

positive)

Types of Stress
• Eustress
• Distress

Coping Mechanism vs Defense Mechanism

COPING MECHANISM - These are the strategies people often use in the face of stress and/or
trauma to help manage painful or difficult emotions

Types of Coping Mechanism

● Support: Talking about a stressful event with a supportive person can be an effective
way to manage stress. Seeking external support instead of self-isolating and
internalizing the effects of stress can greatly reduce the negative effects of a difficult
situation.

● Relaxation: Any number of relaxing activities can help people cope with stress. Relaxing
activities may include practicing meditation progressive muscle relaxation or other
calming techniques, sitting in nature, or listening to soft music.

● Problem-solving: This coping mechanism involves identifying a problem that is causing

stress and then developing and putting into action some potential solutions for effectively
managing it.

● Humor: Making light of a stressful situation may help people maintain perspective and
prevent the situation from becoming overwhelming.

● Physical activity: Exercise can serve as a natural and healthy form of stress relief.
Running, yoga, swimming, walking, dance, team sports, and many other types of
physical activity can help people cope with stress and the aftereffects of traumatic
events
DEFENSE MECHANISM - the unconscious techniques used to prevent a person’s self-
image from being damage; considered them normal adjustive reactions when they are use to
excess and threathen self-integrity.

● Denial of reality- refusal to perceive or face it or avoiding what is unpleasant

● Repression- the ego blocks off threatening thoughts or desires

● Fantasy- gratification of frustration desires in imaginary achievement

● Substitution - The replacement of a highly valued, unacceptable, or unavailable object

by a less valuable, acceptable, or available object

● Projection- placing blame for difficulties upon others or attributing one’s own
unethical desires to others

● Rationalization- use of excuses to an individual to him and to others.

● Reaction Formation- vigorously taking an opposite stand or preventing dangerous

desires from being expressed by exaggerating opposed attitudes and types of behavior
and using them as barriers.
● Displacement - discharging pent-up emotions on objects less dangerous than those
that initially aroused the emotion

● Intellectualization - serves to cut off the emotions from a situation which is normally is
full of feeling.

● Regression - revert from past behavior or retreating to earlier developmental level

involving less mature responses and usually a lower level of aspiration.

● Sublimation - a process by which instinctual drives, consciously unacceptable, are

diverted into personally and socially accepted channels.

● Undoing- Apologizing for wrongs, repentance, doing penance and undergoing

punishment

● Minimization- Not acknowledging the significance of one’s behavior.

WEEK 11

STRATEGIES DEALING WITH ABNORMAL BEHAVIORS

Biomedical Therapies

This are physiological interventions that focus on the reduction of symptoms associated with
psychological disorders. Three procedures used are drug therapies, electroconvulsive (shock)
treatment, and psychosurgery.

● Drug therapies (psychopharmacotherapy) This rely on medication for the treatment of

mental disorders, are sometimes used by professionals with appropriate medical or
pharmacological training in conjunction with psychotherapy. Therapeutic drugs for
psychological problems fall into three major groups. Commonly used types of each and
their generic names, trade names (and chemical names) follow:

● Antianxiety drugs (mild tranquilizers) are used to relieve anxiety.

○ benzodiazepines: Valium (diazepam), Xanax (alprazolam), Librium
(chlordiazepoxide)
○ barbiturates: Miltown (meprobamate)
○ hypnotics: Halcion (triazolam), Dalmane (flurazepam)

When people discontinue these drugs after taking them for a long time, they may
suffer rebound anxiety (a reoccurrence of the earlier anxiety). Biomedical
Therapies

○ 2. Antipsychotic drugs (also called major tranquilizers or neuroleptics) are used

primarily to treat schizophrenia and to reduce psychotic symptoms such as
hyperactivity, hallucinations, delusions, and mental confusion.
■ phenothiazines: Mellaril (thioridazine), Thorazine (chlorpromazine),
Prolixin (fluphenazine)
■ butyrophenones: Haldol (haloperidol) Biomedical Therapies

● 3. Antidepressant drugs are used to elevate mood and to treat depressions.

○ tricyclics: Trofranil (imipramine), Elavil (amitriptyline)
○ monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors: Nardil (phenelzine), Marplan
(isocarboxazia)
○ selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs): Zoloft (sertraline), Prozac
(fluoxetine), Paxil (paroxetine). Some patients taking Prozac have
developed suicidal tendencies.
○ Lithium (lithium carbonate) is used to treat patients with bipolar mood
disorders to control mood swings. The drug may have dangerous side
effects, however, such as kidney and thyroid damage.
 ● Electroconvulsive therapy- In electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), a therapeutic
procedure developed in the 1930s before many of today's psychopharmacological drugs
had been developed; an electric shock is given to lightly anesthetized patients to
produce a brief cortical seizure. The shock is administered to one side or sometimes to
both sides of the brain through electrodes placed over the temporal lobes. The electric
current produces a brief convulsive seizure during which the patient becomes
unconscious.

● Psychosurgery - a surgical procedure designed to change psychological or behavioral

reactions (also developed in the 1930s), is more controversial than ECT and is rarely
used today. The most widely used was lobotomy, also called prefrontal lobotomy, which
requires the severing of nerve pathways linking the cerebral cortex to the lower brain
centers as a means of controlling a patient's violent or aggressive tendencies. However,
even if the procedure is successful in controlling violence, it often produces other side
effects.

Psychotherapies

• Free association requires clients to report anything that comes to mind. The intent of the
process is to allow access to the unconscious.
• The purpose of free association is to help the patient understand their thoughts and feelings
about themselves, others, and situations they are experiencing. The technique is intended to
help the patient learn more about themselves in an atmosphere of non-judgmental curiosity and
acceptance.
• Dream analysis requires clients to report their dreams, which are then interpreted to provide
insight into unconscious conflicts and motivations. A therapist uses these two processes to find
commonalities y clients' thoughts and behaviors and to interpret them in terms of clients'
problems. At times, the treatment process clients resistance (unwillingness to provide
information)
• Dream analysis can also be used in other psychotherapies. It can help to reveal a person's:
Selfimage; Conceptions of other people; Conceptions of the world; Impulses; Prohibitions;
Conflicts.
• Transference is a condition in which clients begin to consider their therapist in the same
emotional light they would consider a person emotionally important in their lives, such as a
parent or sibling. Dealing with interpretation, resistance, and transference is sometimes called
working through, a therapeutic technique in which a therapist helps clients understand their
conflicts and how to resolve them

STANDARD PROCEDURES ON PERSONS HAVING ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR TREATMENT

AND CONSENT
● Informed Consent to Treatment. - Service users must provide informed consent in
writing prior to the implementation by mental health professionals, workers, and other
service providers of any plan or program of therapy or treatment, including physical or
 chemical restraint. All persons, including service users, person with disabilities, and
minors, shall be presumed to possess legal capacity for the purpose of this Act or any
other applicable law, irrespective of the nature or effects of their mental health conditions
or disability. Children shall have the right to express their views on all matters affecting
themselves and have such views given due consideration in accordance with their age
and maturity.

● Advance Directive - A service user may set out his her preference in relation to
treatment through a signed, dated, and notarized advance directive executed for the
purpose. An advance directive may be revoked by a new advance directive or by a
notarized revocation.

● Legal Representative - A service user may designate a person of legal age to act as
his or her legal representative through a notarized document executed for that purpose.

Functions. A service use's legal representative shall:

(1) Provide the service user with support and help: represent his or her interests; and receive
medical information about the service user;
(2) Act as substitute decision maker when the service user has been assessed by a mental
health professional to have temporary impairment of decision-making capacity;
(3) Assist the service user vis-a-vis the
exercise of any right provided under this Act; and
(4) Be consulted with respect to any treatment or therapy received by the service user. The
appointment of a legal representative may be revoked by the appointment of a new legal
representative or by a notarized revocation.

Declining an Appointment. A person thus appointed may decline to act as a service user's
legal representative. However, a person who declines to continue being a service user's legal
representative must take reasonable steps to inform the service user, as well as the service
user's attending mental health professional or worker, of such decision.

Failure to Appoint. - If the service user fails to appoint a legal representative, the following
persons shall act as the service user's representative, in the order provided below:
(1) The spouse, if any, unless permanently separated from the service user by a decree issued
by a court of competent jurisdiction, or unless such spouse has abandoned or been abandoned
by the service user for any period which has not yet come to an end:
(2) Non-minor children;
(3) Either parent by mutual consent, if the service user is a minor;
(4) Chief, administrator, or medical director of a mental health care facility; or
(5) A person appointed by a Court.
Supported Decision Making - A service user may designate up to three (3) persons or
"supporters", including the service user's legal representative, for the purposes of supported
decision making. These supporters shall have the authority to: access the service user's
medical information; consult with the service user vis-a-vis any proposed treatment or therapy;
and be present during service user's appointments and consultations with mental health
professionals, workers and other service providers during the course of treatment or therapy.

Quality of Mental Health Services - Mental health services provided shall be:
(a) Based on medical and scientific research findings;
(b) Responsive to the clinical, gender, cultural and ethnic and other special needs of the
individuals being served;
(c) Most appropriate and least restrictive setting;
(d) Age appropriate; and
(e) Provided by mental health professionals and workers in a manner that ensures
accountability.

LEGAL RESPONSES TO OFFENDERS SUFFERING FROM MENTAL DISORDERS

The Revised Penal Code

Article 12 of the Code exempts a person from criminal liability in consideration of intelligence.

Paragraph 1. Any person who has committed a crime while the said person was imbecile or
insane during the commission. When the imbecile or an insane person has committed an act
which the law defines as a felony (delito), the court shall order his confinement in one of the
hospitals or asylums established for persons thus afflicted, which he shall not be permitted to
leave without first obtaining the permission of the same court.

Imbecility vs Insanity

● Imbecile is exempt in all cases from criminal liability; while insane is not so exempt if it
can be shown that he acted during lucid interval.
● Imbecile is one who, while advance in age, has mental development comparable to that
of children between 2 and 7 years of age.
● Imbecile is completely deprived of reason or discernment and freedom of the will at the
time of committing crime
● Insanity exist when there is complete deprivation of intelligence in committing the act,
that is, the accused is deprived of reason, without least discernment because there is
complete absence of the power to discern or there is total deprivation of freedom of will.
Test for Legal Insanity

The M'Naghten Rule is a test used to determine legal insanity in criminal cases. The rule states
that a defendant is legally insane if they:
● Did not know the nature of their criminal act
● Did not know that the act was wrong
● Were unaware of what they were doing
● Were incapable of understanding that what they were doing was wrong
● Did not know right from wrong at the time of the crime

Insanity Irresistible Impulse test

The focus is on volition. Essentially, the test allows for a defendant to be found not guilty by
reason of insanity if his or her mental illness meant that, although recognizing the wrongness of
the offense, he or she was compelled to commit the offense anyway. If someone can prove that
they could not resist the urge to commit a crime because of their illness, they may be found not
guilty by reason of insanity.

Durham Rule A principle used to determine the validity of the insanity defense asserted by an
accused, that he or she was insane at the time of committing a crime and therefore should not
be held legally responsible for the action. It provides that the defendant is not criminally
responsible if his unlawful act is the product of a mental disease or defect and that insanity
defense focuses on the defendant's ability to control conduct

Insanity Substantial Capacity Test

A person is not responsible for criminal conduct if at the time of such conduct as a result of
mental disease or defect, he lacks substantial capacity either to appreciate the criminality
(wrongfulness) of his conduct or to conform his conduct to the requirements of law. It is used
when considering an insanity defense which relieves a defendant of criminal responsibility if at
the time of the crime as a result of mental disease or defect, he lacked the capacity to
appreciate the wrongfulness of his conduct.

Revised Penal Code Article 13. Paragraph 9 Such illness of the offender as would diminish the
exercise of the will-power of the offender without however depriving him of the consciousness of
his acts.
Week 12

VICTIMOLOGY

VICTIMOLOGY - studies the role of victim in the crime; it explains how people are being
victimized.

Victim - used in the modern criminal justice system to describe any person who has
experienced loss, injury, or hardship due to the illegal action of another individual, group, or
organization.

Etymology
VICTIMA - a Latin word used to refer to those who were sacrificed to please a god.

PIONEERS IN VICTIMOLOGY

Benjamin Mendelsohn (1809-1947)

● Father of Victimology.
● Mendelsohn was fascinated by the dynamics between the victims and offenders.
● Strong interpersonal relationship between victims and offenders.
● Coined the term “Victimology”

Hans Von Hentig (1852-1934)

● one of the pioneers in Victimology tried to discover what made a criminal predisposed to
being a criminal.
● In his 1941 publication, von Hentig claimed the victim to contribute to the criminal
act.
● victim contribution largely results from characteristics or social positions beyond the
control of the individual

Stephen Schafer (1911-1976)

● He revisited victim’s role in his book “The Victim and His Criminal”.
● Schafer introduced the concept of “functional responsibility” of the victim. Schafer (1968)
modified the typology provided by Hans von Hentig and presented his own
classification.
● While Hentig tried to identify the varying risk factors, Schafer sets forth the
responsibility of different victims.

Marvin E. Wolfgang (1924-1998)

● Victim precipitation deals with the degree to which victim is responsible for his/her own
victimization.
 ● Using homicide data from the city of Philadelphia, Marvin Wolfgang reported that 26
percent of the homicides that occurred from 1948 to 1952 resulted from victim
precipitation.
● Defined victim-precipitated homicide as those instances in which the ultimate
victim was the first in the homicide drama to use physical force or violence
against his subsequent attacker.
● Wolfgang views that “connotations of a victim as a weak and passive individual, seeking
to withdraw from an assaultive situation, and an offender as a brutal, strong and overly
aggressive person seeking out his victim, are not always correct.”

Menachem Amir (1921-1968)

● Menachem Amir examined the concept of victim precipitation through his empirical
analysis of rape victims in 1971.
● Amir concluded from his study of rape victims in Philadelphia that 19 percent of all
forcible rapes were victim-precipitated.
● Amir viewed that the role played by the victims and their contribution to the
perpetration of the offence becomes one of the main interests of the emerging
discipline of Victimology.

TYPOLOGY OF VICTIMS

General Types of Victims

● The Young - the weak by virtue of age and immaturity

● The Female - often less physically powerful and easily dominated by males.
● The Old - the incapable of physical defense and the common object of confidence
scheme.
● The Mentally Defective - those that are unable to think clearly.
● The Immigrant - those that are unsure of the rules of conduct in the surrounding
society.
● The Minorities - racial prejudice may lead to victimization or unequal treatment by the
agency of justice.

PSYCHOLOGICAL Types of Victims

● The depressed- Those submissive by virtue of emotional condition.

● The acquisitive or greedy- Greedy can be targeted by scammers who would take
advantage of their desire for financial gain.
● The Wanton or Overly Sensual - those ruled by passion and thoughtlessly seeking
pleasure.
● The lonesome and broken-hearted - Often prone to victimization by intimate partners.
They desire to be with someone at any cost. They are susceptible to manipulation.
● The tormented (Tormentors)- Primary abusers in relationships become victims when
the one being abused turns on them.
 ● Blocked, exempted, and fighting victims - Enter situations in which they are taken
advantage such as blackmail.

Other Types of Victims (Benjamin Mendelsohn, a European defense attorney, created his own
classification of victim types.) This includes the following six categories:
● 1. The completely innocent victim - such a person is an ideal victim in popular
perception. In this category placed persons victimized while they were unconscious, and
the child victims.
● 2. Victims with only minor guilt and those victimized due to ignorance.
● 3. The victim who is just as guilty as the offender, and the voluntary victim. Suicide
cases are common to this category.
● 4. The victim more guilty than the offender - this category was described as
containing persons who provoked the criminal or actively induced their own victimization.
● 5. The most guilty victim - who is guilty alone. An attacker killed by a would be victim in
the act of defending themselves were placed into this category.
● 6. The imaginary victim - those suffering from mental disorders, or those victims due to
extreme mental abnormalities.

Theories of Victimology

Victim precipitation theory People may actually initiate the confrontation that eventually leads
to their injury or death. Two Types:
● Active precipitation - occurs when victims act provocatively, use threats or fighting
words, or even attack first.

● Passive precipitation - occurs when the victim exhibits some personal characteristic
that unknowingly either threatens or encourages the attacker.

● Lifestyle theory - Crime is not a random occurrence but rather a function of the victim’s
lifestyle. For example, due to their lifestyle and demographic makeup, college campuses
contain large concentrations of young women who may be at greater risk for rape and
other forms of sexual assault than women in the general population.

● Deviant place theory - The greater their exposure to dangerous places, the more likely
people will become victims of crime and violence.

● Routine Activity Theory

○ The availability of suitable targets
○ The absence of capable guardians
○ The presence of motivated offenders
GENERAL TYPES OF VICTIMIZATION

1. Personal Victimization - Personal victimization occurs when one party

experiences some harm that is a result of interacting with an offending party. Personal
victimizations can be lethal (e.g., homicide), nonlethal (e.g., assault), or sexual (e.g., forced
rape). These victimizations can be violent (e.g., robbery) or nonviolent (e.g.,
psychological/emotional abuse). Examples of personal victimization also include domestic
violence, stalking, kidnapping, child or elder maltreatment/abuse/neglect, torture, human
trafficking, and human rights violations.

2. Property Victimization - Property victimization involves loss or destruction of private or

public possessions. Property victimization can be committed against a person or against a
specific place (e.g., residence), object (e.g., car), or institution (e.g., business). Encompassing
offenses include burglary, arson, motor vehicle theft, shoplifting, and vandalism. Embezzlement,
money laundering, and a variety of computer/Internet offenses (e.g., software piracy) are also
property victimizations.

CONSEQUENCES OF VICTIMIZATION

1. Physical Consequences - Presence of side effects such as increased heart rate,

hyperventilation, numbness, shock and an increase in the senses due to the fight or flight
response. Crime can cause physical injuries, ranging from minor bruises to serious injuries or
even death. Victims may require medical attention, rehabilitation, or long-term care as a result of
their injuries.

2. Financial Consequences - Includes monetary costs such as medical expenses, property

losses, lost wages and legal costs that victims and their families must bear. These are expenses
that society must bear such as victim services, witness assistance programs, costs to the
criminal justice system, and negative public opinion. Crime can also have a significant financial
impact on individuals, including loss of income, medical expenses, and property damage or
loss. Victims may also experience long-term financial consequences, such as reduced earning
potential or difficulty obtaining credit

3. Productivity Consequences - These will result into lower productivity, more frequent
tardiness, higher rates of absenteeism, job turnover and unemployment, fewer hours worked in
the past year; and a higher likelihood of receiving public assistance. This affects the ability to
obtain and maintain gainful employment.

4. Psychological Consequence - Persistent mental consequences such as acute stress

disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder, and substance dependency, can occur. Victimization
can also have significant emotional and psychological impacts on individuals. Victims may
experience feelings of fear, anxiety, depression, or posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). These
impacts can be long-lasting and may require professional support and counseling to address.
5. Social Consequences- These may result into disruptions in social activities and impaired
functioning in social relationships, leisure activities and contact with friends or relatives. There
would be difficulties in performing social roles such as work, parenting, socializing, or intimacy
with a partner can all be affected as a result of the crime. Victimization can also affect an
individual's social well-being, including their relationships with family, friends, and colleagues.
Victims may experience social isolation, stigma, or discrimination as a result of their
victimization

Types of Victims

● Primary victims: These are individuals who directly experience the harm, loss, or
suffering resulting from the crime. They may be physically injured, emotionally
traumatized, or experience financial loss. Examples include individuals who are
assaulted, robbed, or scammed.

● Secondary victims: These are individuals who have a close relationship with the
primary victim and may also experience harm or suffering as a result of the crime.
Examples include family members, friends, or colleagues who may experience
emotional distress, financial burden, or disruption to their daily lives.

● Tertiary victims: These are individuals or groups who may be indirectly affected by the
crime, such as witnesses, bystanders, or communities where the crime occurred. They
may experience fear, anxiety, or trauma as a result of the crime.

● Repeat victims: These are individuals who experience victimization multiple times, often
due to their vulnerability or circumstances. They may be targeted repeatedly by the
same offender or may become victims of different crimes over time.

Dynamics of Victimization. There are a number of procedural models which can be applied to
the study of the victimization process for the purpose of understanding the experience the
victims.

1. “Victims of Crime Model” (by Bard and Sangrey). According to this model, there are three
stages involved in any victimization:
● a. Stage of Impact & Disorganization stage during and immediately following the
criminal event
● b. Stage of Recoil stage during which the victim formulates psychological defenses and
deals with conflicting emotions of guilt, anger, acceptance, and desire of revenge (said
to last three to eight months).
● c. Reorganization Stage - stage during which the victim puts his or her life back to
normal daily living. Some victims, however may not successfully adopt the victimization
experience and a maladaptive reorganization stage may last for many years.
2. “Disaster Victim’s Model” - this model was developed to explain the coping behavior of
victims of natural disaster. According to this model, there are four stages of victimization:
● a. Pre-impact - stage describe the victim’s condition prior to being victimized
● b. Impact - the stage at which victimization occurs
● c. Post-impact - stage which entails the degree and duration of personal and social
disorganization following victimization
● d. Behavioral outcome - stage that describes the victim’s adjustment to the
victimization experience