Scalar Quantities:

Physical quantities have magnitude only but no direction are called Scalars.
Scalars are completely described by
1) A number
2) A suitable unit
Scalars can be added, subtracted, multiplied and divided by simple arithmetical
rules.
EXAMPLE:
Mass, distance, time, speed, temperature, energy, work, volume and density etc.

Vector:
Physical quantities having both magnitude and direction and also obey
commutative law of vector addition are called vectors. Vectors are completely
described by.
1) A number
2) A suitable unit
3) A certain direction
Vectors cannot be added, subtracted, multiplied and divide by simple
arithmetical rules.
EXAMPLE:
Displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, angular velocity, torque, weight,
electric field strength etc.

Representation of a Vector:
A vector us represented graphically by a directed line segment or an arrow head
line segment. The length of the line, according to the scale chosen, represents the
magnitude of the vector while arrow head indicates the direction. To represent a
vector we need:
1) A suitable scale.
2) Reference axes Example x, y and z-axis, or horizontal and vertical directions
or the directions of north, south, east and west.
Types of vector:
1) Unit vector.
2) Free Vector
3) Position vector

Unit Vector:
A unit vector is that whose magnitude is unity Equal to 1 and
has any given direction only.
A unit vector can be obtained by dividing the vector with
magnitude.
vector
Unit vector = magnitude of vector

⃗
A
If unit vector of a vector ⃗A is a^ then a^ =
|A|
Unit vector along x, y and z axes are i^ , ^j and k^ respectively.

Rectangular Components of a Vector In Terms Of Unit Vector:

Consider a vector ⃗A starting from the origin "O" of a rectangular coordinate
system, as shown in the figure.
Its rectangular components in the direction of
positive x, y and z-axis are Axi^ , Ay ^j and Azk^
respectively.
Conversely the sum of rectangular components
vector produces the original vector ⃗A as
⃗ ^ Ay ^j+ Az k^
A=Ax i+

The magnitude of ⃗A is given by formula;

| A|=A=√ A x 2+ Ay 2+ Az 2

2) Free Vector:
A vector which can be displaced parallel to itself and applied at
any point is said to be a free vector.
3) Position Vector:
A vector which represents the position of a point with reference to a fixed point
(i.e., origin) is called POSITION VECTOR.
If the fixed point is taken as origin O and the
coordinates of point P are x and y as shown in
figure then by Pythagoras theorem, the magnitude
of position vector r should me found. The
magnitude of a position vector will be determined
by the value of x and y coordinate determine by
the Cartesian coordinated system.
Cartesian coordinate system: The co-ordinate system is used to locate the
position of a point in a plane using two perpendicular lines. Points are represented
in the form of coordinates (x, y) in two-dimension with respect to x- and y- axes.
Components of position are called Coordinates.

RESOLUTION OF A VECTOR:
Definition:
The process of dividing a vector into its rectangle components, is called resolution
of a vector.
Method of resolving a vector into rectangular components:
If the components of a given vector are perpendicular to each other, they are called
as Rectangular components. The figure illustrates a vector ⃗A represented by ⃗ OP
.Through the point, O two mutually perpendicular axis X and Y are drawn. From
the point P, two perpendicular, PN and PM are dropped on X and Y axis
respectively.
The vector ⃗
Ax is the resolved part of ⃗A along the x – axis. It also known as the x –
component of A and is the projection of the ⃗A on X- axis. Similarly, ⃗
⃗ Ay is the
resolved part of the ⃗A along the Y – axis, and is therefore, known as the Y –
component of⃗A .
Applying the law of triangle of vectors to ONP,
⃗ ON +⃗
OP =⃗ NP or ⃗
A =⃗
Ax +⃗
Ay

Which also confirm that Ax, Ay are the components of A.

Moreover, in the right – angled MONP,
Magnitude of horizontal components
ON Ax
Cosθ= OP = A

Ax = cosθ A
Magnitude of vertical components
OM Ay
Sinθ= OP = A

Ay = sinθ A
Direction of the vector
ON Ax
Tan θ= OM = Ay
 ⟨ ⟩
−1
Ax
θ = tan
Ay

Addition of Vector through Head to Tail Rule:

When adding vectors, place the tail of the
second vector at the head of the first vector.
The tail of the third vector is placed at the
head of the second vector. The resultant
vector is drawn from the tail of the first
vector to the head of the last vector.
The graphical method of adding vectors A
and B involves drawing vectors on a graph
and adding them using the head-to-tail
method. The resultant vector R is defined
such that A+B=R .The magnitude and direction of R are then determined with a
ruler and protractor, respectively.
Resultant vector: The Resultant is the result of adding two or more vectors. It is
the sum of the vectors.

Addition of Vector through Rectangular Coordinate System:

If ⃗A and ⃗B represent two legs of a walk (two displacements), then ⃗R is the total
displacement. The person taking the walk ends up at the tip of ⃗R . There are many
ways to arrive at the same point. The person could have walked straight ahead first
in the x-direction and then in the y-direction. Those paths are the x- and y-
components of the resultant, ⃗ Rx and⃗Ry . If we know ⃗
Rx and⃗
Ry , we can find ⃗R
and θ using the equations R=√ R x 2+ R y 2 and θ=tan (Ry/Rx).
–1

1. Draw in the x and y components of each vector (including the resultant) with
a dashed line. Use the equations Ax=A cosθ and Ay=Asinθ to find the
components. In figure these components are Ax, Ay, Bx,
and By. Vector A makes an angle of θA with the x-axis, and vector B makes
and angle of θB with its own x-axis (which is slightly above the x-axis used
by vector A).
2. Find the x component of the resultant by adding the x component of the
vectors

Rx=Ax+Bx
And find the y component of the resultant adding the y component of the
vectors. Ry=Ay+By

Now that we know the components of R, we can find its magnitude and
direction.

3. To get the magnitude of the resultant R, use the Pythagorean Theorem.

R=√ R 2 x + R 2 y

4. To get the direction of the resultant

θ=tan−1(Ry/Rx).
Properties of vector addition:
Vector addition refers to the process of adding two or more vectors. This operation
is governed by two fundamental laws, namely, the triangle law and the
parallelogram law. Moreover, vector addition follows two main properties:
Commutative Property
Associative Property
Let's dig deeper and understand these properties in detail.
The Commutative Property of Vector Addition
The commutative property of vector addition states that for any two vectors,
a⃗ and b⃗ , the sum remains the same regardless of the order of addition, i.e.,
a⃗ +b⃗ =b⃗ +a⃗ .
Proof:
Let's consider a parallelogram ABCD. Let's assume the vectors
a⃗ and b⃗ are represented by the line segments AB and BC respectively.

Applying the triangle law of vector addition to triangle ABC, we can write:

AC =a⃗ +b⃗

Since the opposite sides of a parallelogram are equal, we have

| AD|=|BC|=b⃗
Applying the triangle law to triangle ADC, we get
|AC|=|AD|+|DC|=b⃗ +a⃗
Thus, we can conclude that
a⃗ +b⃗ =b⃗ +a⃗
Proving the commutative property of vector addition.
The Associative Property of Vector Addition
The associative property of vector addition states that for any three vectors,
a⃗, b⃗ and c⃗, the grouping of the vectors does not affect the result, i.e.
(a⃗ +b⃗ )+c⃗ =a⃗ +(b⃗ +c⃗ ).
Proof:

Let's consider that the vectors

a⃗, b⃗ and c⃗ are represented by the line segments PQ, QR, and RS respectively.
Hence, we can write:
a⃗ +b⃗ =PQ+QR=PR
And,
b⃗ +c⃗ =QR+RS=QS
Therefore, we have:
(a⃗ +b⃗)+c⃗ =PR+RS=PS, and
a⃗ + (b⃗ +c⃗) =PQ+QS=PS
This implies that
(a⃗ +b⃗)+c⃗ =a⃗ + (b⃗ +c⃗)
Thus proving the associative property of vector addition.
Product of two vectors:
When two vectors are multiplied with each other, answer may be a scalar or a
vector quantity.
Thus product of two vectors is divided into two categories.
1) Scalar product or dot product.
2) Vector product or cross product

THE SCALAR PRODUCT OR DOT PRODUCT:

When two vectors are multiplied with each other and the answer is scalar quantity
then such a product is called “Scalar product”.
A dot (.) is placed between the vectors which are multiplied with each other that’s
why it is also called “dot product” i.e. Scalar = Vector . Vector
Example:
1. The product of 𝐹 and displacement of 𝑆 is work “w”
i.e. W = 𝐹 . 𝑆
2. The product of force 𝐹 and velocity 𝑉⃗ is power “P”.
i.e. P = 𝐹 . 𝑉⃗
3. The product of electric intensity 𝐸⃗ and area vector 𝐴 is electric flus ∅𝑒
i.e. ∅𝑒 = 𝐸⃗. 𝐴
Explanation:
The dot product is defined as” The product of magnitudes of the vector and the
cosine of the angle between them”.
Consider two vectors 𝐴 & 𝐵⃗ making an angle 𝜃 with each other: -
i.e., . 𝐵⃗ = 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃
Where B Cos𝜃 is the component of 𝐵⃗ along vector 𝐴 and
0≤𝜃≤𝜋
Commutative law for Dot Product:
The dot product is commutative i.e. . 𝐵⃗ = 𝐵⃗ . 𝐴
Proof:-
Consider two vectors 𝐴 & 𝐵⃗ making an angle 𝜃 with each other. Their dot product
is given by,
𝐴 . 𝐵⃗ = 𝐴𝐵A = 𝐵𝐴𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 -------------- (1)
Where 𝐵𝐴 = 𝐵𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 is the projection of 𝐵⃗ onto the direction of . On the other
hand.
𝐵⃗ . 𝐴 = 𝐵𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 -------------- (2)
Where 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 is the projection of 𝐴 on to the direction of 𝐵⃗ .
Comparing equation(1) & (2)
AB Cos𝜃 = BA Cos𝜃
OR 𝐴𝐵𝐴 = 𝐵𝐴𝐵
OR . 𝐵⃗ = 𝐵⃗ . 𝐴
Thus scalar product of two vectors does not change by changing the order of the
vectors.
Distributive Law for Dot Product:
The dot product is distributive i.e.
𝐴 . (𝐵⃗ + 𝐶 ) = 𝐴 . 𝐵⃗ + 𝐴 . 𝐶
Proof:
Consider three vectors A,B & C. By head-to-tail rule, we get:-
𝑅⃗ = 𝐵⃗ + 𝐶
OR 𝑅⃗ = 𝐶 + 𝐵⃗
Now draw perpendiculars from P and S on the direction of . The dot product of 𝐴
and 𝑅⃗ is given by
 𝐴 . 𝑅⃗ = 𝐴𝑅𝐴
But 𝑅⃗ = 𝐵⃗ + 𝐶 and 𝑅𝐴 = 𝐵𝐴 + 𝐶𝐴
∴ 𝐴 . (𝐵⃗ + 𝐶 ) = 𝐴(𝐵𝐴 + 𝐶𝐴)
𝐴 . (𝐵⃗ + 𝐶 ) = 𝐴𝐵𝐴 + 𝐴𝐶𝐴
𝐴 . (𝐵⃗ + 𝐶 ) = 𝐴 . 𝐵⃗ + 𝐴 . 𝐶
∴ 𝐴 . 𝐵⃗ = 𝐴𝐵𝐴 , 𝐴 . 𝐶 = 𝐴𝐶𝐴
Where 𝐵𝐴 & 𝐶𝐴 are the projections of 𝐵⃗ and 𝐶 onto the direction of .

THE VECTOR PRODUCT OR THE CROSS PRODUCT:

When two vectors are multiplied with each other and the answer is also a vector
quantity then such a product is called “VECTOR PRODUCT”.
A cross (x) is placed between the vectors which are multiplied with each other
that’s why it is also known as “cross product” i.e
Vector = vector x vector
Example:
1. The product of position vector “ 𝑟 “ of force and force “ 𝐹 “ is Torque “ 𝜏 “ . i.e.
𝜏=𝑟×𝐹
2. The product of angular velocity 𝜔⃗ and radius vecotr 𝑟 is yangential velocity𝑉⃗
𝑡
.
𝑉⃗
𝑡 = 𝜔⃗ × 𝑟
3. The product of angular acceleration 𝛼 and radius vector 𝑟 is tangential
acceleration 𝑎 𝑡
i.e. 𝑎 𝑡 = 𝛼 × 𝑟
4. An electric charge moving with velocity 𝑉⃗ in a magnetic field of induction 𝐵⃗
experiences a force 𝐹 which is given
by:
𝐹 = 𝑞(𝑉⃗ × 𝐵⃗ )
Explanation:
The cross product is define by the relation
𝐴 × 𝐵⃗ = 𝐶
𝐶 = |𝐴 | |𝐵⃗ | 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃⃗⃗⃗𝑢⃗
Where 𝑢⃗ is a unit vector perpendicular to both 𝐴 and 𝐵⃗
Direction:
The direction of 𝐶 or 𝑉⃗ can be found by “Right Hnad Rule”
Properties of Vector Product:
(i) The vector product does not obey commutative law
𝐴 × 𝐵⃗ ≠ 𝐵⃗ × 𝐴 or 𝐴 × 𝐵⃗ = −( 𝐵⃗ × 𝐴 )
(ii) The vector product obeys distributive law
𝐴 × (𝐵⃗ + 𝐶 ) = 𝐴 × 𝐵⃗ + 𝐴 × 𝐶
(iii) If vector 𝐴 is parallel to 𝐵⃗ then their vector product is zero
|𝐴 × 𝐵⃗ | = |𝐴 ||𝐵⃗ |𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝐴
|𝐴 × 𝐵⃗ | = |𝐴 ||𝐵⃗ |𝑆𝑖𝑛0
0
𝜃=0
0
|𝐴 × 𝐵⃗ | = |𝐴 ||𝐵⃗ | × 0 𝐵⃗
|𝐴 × 𝐵⃗ | = 0
In case of 𝑖̂, 𝑗̂and 𝑘̂
𝑖̂× 𝑖̂= 0
𝑗̂× 𝑗̂= 0
𝑘̂ × 𝑘̂ = 0
(iv) If vector 𝐴 is perpendicular to 𝐵⃗ then their vector product is maximum
|𝐴 × 𝐵⃗ | = |𝐴 ||𝐵⃗ |𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 In case of 𝑖̂, 𝑗̂and 𝑘̂
𝜃 = 900
𝑖̂× 𝑗̂= 𝑘̂
|𝐴 × 𝐵⃗ | = |𝐴 ||𝐵⃗ |𝑆𝑖𝑛900
𝑗̂× 𝑘̂ = 𝑖̂
|𝐴 × 𝐵⃗ | = |𝐴 ||𝐵⃗ | 𝑘̂ × 𝑖̂= 𝑗̂ ∵Sin900=1

Prove that vector product is not commutative.

Consider two vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵⃗ in a certain plane. Their vector product is given by:
𝐶 = 𝐴 × 𝐵⃗
Where C is a new vector. Its magnitude is given by C=AB sin 𝜃.
The direction of 𝐶 can be found by right hand rule for cross product or right
handed
screw turning rule.
The cross product of 𝐴 & 𝐵⃗ can also be given by:
𝐶 = 𝐴 x 𝐵⃗ = (AB Sin𝜃) 𝑢̂ ------------- (1)
Where 𝑢̂ is a unit vector in the direction of .
Similarly, a right-handed screw turning from 𝐵⃗ to 𝐴 gives the direction of unit
vector 𝐷⃗ .
𝐷⃗ = 𝐵⃗ × 𝐴 = (𝐵𝐴 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃)(−𝑢̂)
OR 𝐷⃗ = 𝐵⃗ × 𝐴 = −(𝐵𝐴 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃)𝑢̂
OR −𝐷⃗ = −𝐵⃗ × 𝐴 = (𝐵𝐴 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃)̂ ---------------- (2)
Comparing equations (1) & (2)
(AB Sin𝜃)̂𝑢 = (BA Sin𝜃)̂
OR ⃗𝐶⃗⃗ = 𝐷⃗
OR 𝐴 × 𝐵⃗ = −( 𝐵⃗ × 𝐴 )
Thus 𝐴 × 𝐵⃗ ≠ 𝐵⃗ × 𝐴
This show that the vector product is not commutative