Egael, Edralyn BS Psych 2-A

Chapter 3: Forming A New Life DNA is the genetic material in all living cells. It consists of four chemical units, called bases. These bases
are the letters of the DNA alphabet. A (adenine) pairs with T (thymine) and C (cytosine) pairs with G
Did You Know . . (guanine). There are 3 billion base pairs in human DNA. Letters of the DNA alphabet T = Thymine
Letters of the DNA alphabet
● “Identical twins” may not be exactly identical? T = Thymine
● All but 300 human genes have counterparts in mice? A = Adenine
● “Birth defects” do not always appear at birth? G = Guanine
● Fetuses can learn and remember while in the womb, and they respond to their mother’s voice? C = Cytosine
● Drinking or smoking during pregnancy can do permanent damage to an unborn child?
● Prenatal care should begin before conception? Meiosis, which the sex cells undergo when they are developing, each sex cell ends up with only 23
chromosomes—46 in all.
Fertilization Union of sperm and ovum to produce a zygote; also called conception. Mitosis, a process by which the non-sex cells divide in half over and over again, the DNA replicates itself,
Gametes, or sex cells—combine to create a single cell called a zygote. so that each newly formed cell has the same DNA structure as all the others
Zygote One-celled organism resulting from fertilization.
Follicle, or small sac on woman ovum. What Determines Sex?
Autosomes In humans, the 22 pairs of chromosomes not related to sexual expression.
Ovulation— rupture of a mature follicle in either ovary and expulsion of its ovum—occurs about once
every 28 days until menopause. Sex chromosomes Pair of chromosomes that determines sex: XX in the normal human female, XY in the
normal human male.
Cilia, tiny hair cells, toward the uterus, or womb.
*Dominant and Recessive Inheritance
Multiple Births Can you curl your tongue? If so, you inherited this ability through dominant inheritance. If your parents
can curl their tongues but you cannot, recessive inheritance occurred. How do these two types of
Dizygotic twins- Twin conceived by the union of two different ova (or a single ovum that has split) with inheritance work?
two different sperm cells; also called Fraternal twins; they are no more alike genetically than any other Alleles Two or more alternative forms of a gene that occupy the same position on paired chromosomes
siblings. and affect the same trait.

Monozygotic twins Twin resulting from the division of a single zygote after fertilization; also called Homozygous Possessing two identical alleles for a trait.
identical twin; they are genetically similar.
Heterozygous Possessing differing alleles for a trait.
Semi-identical — the result of two sperm cells fusing with a single ovum. Semi-identical twins are more
genetically similar than dizygotic twins but less similar than monozygotic twins Heterozygous Possessing differing alleles for a trait.

The science of genetics is the study of Heredity —the inborn factors, inherited from one’s biological Dominant inheritance Pattern of inheritance in which, when a child receives
parents, that affect development. When ovum and sperm unite, they endow the baby-to-be with a different alleles, only the dominant one is expressed.
genetic makeup that influences a wide range of characteristics from color of eyes and hair to health,
intellect, and personality.
Recessive inheritance Pattern of inheritance in which a child receives identical recessive
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)- Chemical that carries inherited instructions for the development of all alleles, resulting in expression of a nondominant trait.
cellular forms of life.
Genetic code Sequence of bases within the DNA molecule; governs the formation of proteins that Polygenic inheritance Pattern of inheritance in which multiple genes at different sites on
determine the structure and functions of living cells. chromosomes affect a complex trait.

Genetic code Sequence of bases within the DNA molecule; governs the formation of proteins that Mutations Permanent alterations in genes or chromosomes that may produce harmful
determine the structure and functions of living cells. characteristics.
Genes Small segments of DNA located in definite positions on particular chromosomes; functional units
of heredity.
* Genotypes and Phenotypes: Multifactorial Transmission
If you can curl your tongue, that ability is part of your phenotype, the observable
Human genome Complete sequence of genes in the human body. characteristics through which your genotype , or underlying genetic makeup, is expressed

1
 Egael, Edralyn BS Psych 2-A

Phenotype Observable characteristics of a person.

Genotype Genetic makeup of a person, containing both expressed and unexpressed characteristics.

Multifactorial transmission Combination of genetic and environmental factors to produce certain

complex traits.

Epigenesis: Environmental Influence on Gene Expression Until recently, most scientists believed that the
genes a child inherits were firmly established during fetal development, though their effects on behavior
could be modified by experience.

Epigenesis -Mechanism that turns genes on or off and determines functions of body cells.
Epigenesis (meaning “on the genes”), or the epigenetic framework, refers to chemical molecules
attached to a gene, which alter the way a cell reads the gene’s DNA

Genome, or genetic, imprinting. Imprinting is the differential expression of certain genetic traits,
depending on whether the trait has been inherited from the mother or the father. In imprinted gene
pairs, genetic information inherited from the parent of one sex is activated, but genetic information from
the other parent is not. Imprinted genes play an important role in regulating fetal growth and
development.

*Dominant or Recessive Inheritance of Defects

Incomplete dominance
-Pattern of inheritance in which a child receives two different alleles, resulting in partial
expression of a trait.
-e. In incomplete dominance a trait is not fully expressed. For example, people with only one
sickle-cell allele and one normal allele do not have sickle-cell anemia but do show some
manifestations of the condition, such as shortness of breath at high altitudes

*Sex-Linked Inheritance of Defects In sex-linked inheritance ( Figure 3-5 ) certain recessive

disorders linked to genes on the sex chromosomes affect male and female children
differently. Red-green color blindness is one of these sex-linked conditions. Another is
hemophilia, a disorder in which blood does not clot when it should.

*Sex-linked inheritance
Pattern of inheritance in which certain characteristics carried on the X chromosome inherited
from the mother are transmitted differently to her male and female offspring.

*Chromosomal Abnormalities

2
 Egael, Edralyn BS Psych 2-A

Chromosomal abnormalities typically occur because of errors in cell division, resulting in an trisomy-21, be - cause it is usually caused by an extra 21st chromosome or the translocation
extra or missing chromosome. Some of these errors happen in the sex cells during meiosis. of part of the 21st chromosome onto another chromosome.
For example, Klinefelter syndrome is caused by an extra female sex chromosome (shown by
the pattern XXY). Genetic Counseling and Testing

Down syndrome Chromosomal disorder characterized by moderate-to-severe mental

retardation and by such physical signs as a downward-sloping skin fold at the inner corners of
the eyes.

Genetic counseling Clinical service that advises prospective parents of their probable risk of
having children with hereditary defects.

Karyotype is a photograph that shows the chromosomes when they are separated and
aligned for cell division.

*Nature and Nurture: Influences of Heredity and Environment

*Studying Heredity and Environment

Behavioral genetics Quantitative study of relative hereditary and environmental influences

on behavior.

*Measuring Heritability
Heritability is a statistical estimate of the contribution heredity makes toward individual
differences in complex traits within a given population. Heritability does not refer to the
relative influence of heredity and environment between populations or in a particular
individual; those influences may be virtually impossible to separate.

Heritability Statistical estimate of contribution of heredity to individual differences in a

specific trait within a given population.

*Three types of correlational research:

1.family,
-Family studies, researchers measure the degree to which biological relatives share certain
traits and whether the closeness of the familial relationship is associated with the degree of
similarity. If the correlation is strong, the researchers infer a genetic influence. However,
family studies cannot rule out environmental influences. A family study alone cannot tell us
whether obese children of obese parents inherited the tendency or whether they are fat
because their diet is like that of their parents
Down syndrome, the most common, accounts for about 40 percent of all cases of moderate-
to severe mental retardation. 2.Adoption, and
-Adoption studies look at similarities between adopted children and their adoptive families
and also between adopted children and their biological families. When adopted children are

3
 Egael, Edralyn BS Psych 2-A

more like their biological parents and siblings in a particular trait (say, obesity), we see the *Genotype-environment correlation Tendency of certain genetic and environmental
influence of heredity influences to reinforce each other; may be passive, reactive (evocative), or active. Also called
genotype-environment covariance.
3.Twin studies
-Studies of twins compare pairs of monozygotic twins with same-sex dizygotic twins. (Same- . • Passive correlations: Parents, who provide the genes that predispose a child toward a
sex twins are used to avoid any confounding effects of gender.) Monozygotic twins are twice trait, also tend to provide an environment that encourages the development of that trait. For
as genetically similar, on average, as dizygotic twins, who are no more genetically similar example, a musical parent is likely to create a home environment in which music is heard
than other same-sex siblings regularly, to give a child music lessons, and to take the child to musical events. If the child
inherited the parent’s musical talent, the child’s musicality will reflect a combination of
Concordant Term describing tendency of twins to share the same trait or disorder. genetic and environmental influences. This type of correlation is called passive because the
child has no control over it. It is most applicable to young children, whose parents, the source
How Heredity and Environment Work Together of their genetic legacy, also have a great deal of control over their early experiences.
• Reactive, or evocative, correlations: Children with differing genetic makeups evoke
*Reaction Range Many characteristics vary, within limits, under varying hereditary or different reactions from adults. Thus, parents who are not musically inclined may make a
environmental conditions. The concept of reaction range can help us visualize how this special effort to provide musical experiences for a child who shows interest and ability in
happens. music. This response, in turn, strengthens the child’s genetic inclination toward music. This
* Reaction range refers to a range of potential expressions of a hereditary trait. Body size, for type of correlation is called reactive because the parents react to the child’s genetic makeup.
example, depends largely on biological processes, which are genetically regulated. • Active correlations: As children get older and have more freedom to choose their own
*Reaction range Potential variability, depending on environmental conditions, in the activities and environments, they actively select or create experiences consistent with their
expression of a hereditary trait. genetic tendencies. A shy child is more likely than an outgoing child to spend time in solitary
pursuits. An adolescent with a talent for music will probably seek out musical friends, take
*Canalization Certain behaviors develop along genetically dug channels; it takes an extreme music classes, and go to concerts if such opportunities are available. This tendency to seek
change in environment to alter their course. This phenomenon is called canalization, out environments compatible with one’s genotype is called nichepicking; it helps explain why
Behaviors that depend largely on maturation appear only when a child is ready. One example identical twins reared apart tend to have similar characteristics and lifestyles.
is motor development. Normal babies follow a typical sequence of motor development:
crawling, walking, and running, in that order, at certain approximate ages. However, even *Niche-picking Tendency of a person, especially after early childhood, to seek out
motor development can be influenced by environmental experience, such as cultural child- environments compatible with his or her genotype.
rearing practices that affect its pace and timing

Canalization Limitation on variance of expression of certain inherited characteristics.

*Genotype-Environment Interaction Another way that genes and environment work What Makes Siblings So Different? The Nonshared Environment
together is through genotype-environment interaction —the effects of similar environmental
conditions on genetically different individuals. These nonshared environmental effects result from the unique environment in which each
child in a family grows up. Children in a family have a shared environment—the home they
Genotype-environment interaction The portion of phenotypic variation that results from the live in, the people in it, and the activities a family jointly engage in—but they also, even if
reactions of genetically different individuals to similar environmental conditions. they are twins, have experiences that are not shared by their brothers and sisters.

*Genotype-Environment Correlation Because genes influence a person’s exposure to Nonshared environmental effects. The unique environment in which each child grows up,
particular environments, the environment often reinforces genetic differences (Rutter, 2007). consisting of distinctive influences or influences that affect one child differently than another.
That is, certain genetic and environmental influences tend to act in the same direction.
*This is called genotype-environment correlation, or genotype-environment covariance, and
it works in three ways to strengthen the phenotypic expression of a genotypic tendency.
*Some Characteristics Influenced by Heredity and Environment

4
 Egael, Edralyn BS Psych 2-A

Keeping in mind the complexity of unraveling the influences of heredity and environment, Embryonic disk, a thickened cell mass from which the embryo begins to develop. This mass
let’s look at what is known about their roles in producing certain characteristics. will differentiate into three layers.
1. Ectoderm, the upper layer, will become the outer layer of skin, the nails, hair,
*Physical and Physiological Traits teeth, sensory organs, and the nervous system, including the brain and spinal cord.
Not only do monozygotic twins generally look alike, but they also are more 2. Endoderm, the lower layer, will become the digestive system, liver, pancreas,
concordant than dizygotic twins in their risk for such medical disorders as high blood salivary glands, and respiratory system.
pressure, heart disease, stroke, rheumatoid arthritis, peptic ulcers, and epilepsy (Brass, 3. Mesoderm, the middle layer, will develop and differentiate into the inner layer of
Isaacsohn, Merikangas, & Robinette, 1992; Plomin et al., 1994). Life span, too, seems to be skin, muscles, skeleton, and excretory and circulatory systems.
influenced by genes
2.Embryonic
*Obesity Extreme overweight in relation to age, sex, height, and body type. embryonic stage Second stage of gestation (2 to 8 weeks), characterized by rapid growth and
development of major body systems and organs.
Intelligence- Heredity exerts a strong influence on general intelligence (as measured by
intelligence tests) and, to a lesser extent, on specific abilities such as memory, verbal ability, Spontaneous abortion Natural expulsion from the uterus of an embryo that cannot survive
and spatial ability outside the womb; also called miscarriage.

Personality and Psychopathology Scientists have identified genes directly linked with 3.Fetal
specific aspects of personality such as a trait called Neuroticism, which may contribute to Fetal stage Final stage of gestation (from 8 weeks to birth), characterized by increased
depression and anxiety. differentiation of body parts and greatly enlarged body size.
-, the final stage of gestation. During this period, the fetus grows rapidly to about 20 times its
*Temperament, an aspect of personality, is a person’s characteristic way of approaching and previous length, and organs and body systems become more complex. Right up to birth, final
reacting to situations. It appears to be largely inborn and is often consistent over the years, details such as fingernails, toenails, and eyelids continue to develop.
though it may respond to special experiences or parental handling
Ultrasound
Temperament Characteristic disposition, or style of approaching and reacting to situations. Prenatal medical procedure using high-frequency sound waves to detect the outline of a
fetus and its movements, so as to determine whether a pregnancy is progressing normally
*Schizophrenia Mental disorder marked by loss of contact with reality; symptoms include
hallucinations and delusions. *Environmental Influences: Maternal Factors
1.Malnutrition
*Prenatal Development 2.drug intake
3. Medical drugs
Gestation Period of development between conception and birth. 4.Alcohol
5. Nicotine
Gestational age Age of an unborn baby, usually dated from the first day of an expectant 6. Caffeine
mother’s last menstrual cycle. 7. Marijuana, Cocaine, and Methamphetamine
-usually dated from the first day of an expectant mother’s last menstrual cycle. 8. Maternal Illnesses
9. Outside Environmental Hazards Air pollution, chemicals, radiation, extremes of heat and
*Stages of Prenatal Development :three stages: humidity, and other environmental hazards can affect prenatal development.
1.Germinal, Teratogenic (birth defect–producing) in some cases have little or no effect in others.
First 2 weeks of prenatal development, characterized by rapid cell division, blastocyst Teratogenic Capable of causing birth defects.
formation, and implantation in the wall of the uterus.
(Fertilization to 2 Weeks) fetuses with a particular variant of a growth gene, called transforming growth factor alpha,
Blastocyst, a fluid-filled sphere, which floats freely in the uterus until the sixth day after have six times more risk than other fetuses of developing a cleft palate if the mother smokes
fertilization while pregnant.

5
 Egael, Edralyn BS Psych 2-A

• Fertilization, the union of an ovum and a sperm, results in the formation of a one-celled
Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) Combination of mental, motor, and developmental zygote, which then duplicates itself by cell division.
abnormalities affecting the offspring of some women who drink heavily during pregnancy • Multiple births can occur either by the fertilization of two ova (or one ovum that has split)
or by the splitting of one fertilized ovum. Higher multiple births result from either one of
- is characterized by a combination of retarded growth, face and body malformations, and these processes or a combination of the two.
disorders of the central nervous system. FAS and other, less severe, alcohol-related • Dizygotic (fraternal) twins have different genetic makeups and may be of different sexes.
conditions are estimated to occur in nearly 1 in every 100 births Although monozygotic (identical) twins typically have much the same genetic makeup, they
may differ in temperament or other respects
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)
- Viral disease that undermines effective functioning of the immune system. Mechanisms of Heredity
- is a disease caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which undermines
functioning of the immune system. If an expectant mother has the virus in her blood, Guidepost 2: How does heredity operate in determining sex and transmitting normal and
perinatal transmission may occur: The virus may cross over to the fetus’s bloodstream abnormal traits?
through the placenta during pregnancy, labor, or delivery or, after birth, through breast milk. • The basic functional units of heredity are the genes, which are made of deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA). DNA carries the biochemical instructions, or genetic code, that governs the
Toxoplasmosis, caused by a parasite harbored in the bodies of cattle, sheep, and pigs and in development of cell functions. Each gene is located by function in a definite position on a
the intestinal tracts of cats, typically produces either no symptoms or symptoms like those of particular chromosome. The complete sequence of genes in the human body is called the
the common cold. In an expectant woman, however, especially in the second and third human genome . deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) (56) genetic code (56) chromosomes (56)
trimesters of pregnancy, it can cause fetal brain damage, severely impaired eyesight or genes (56) human genome (56)
blindness, seizures, miscarriage, stillbirth, or death of the baby. • At conception, each normal human being receives 23 chromosomes from the mother and
23 from the father. These form 23 pairs of chromosomes—22 pairs of autosomes and 1 pair
Maternal Anxiety and Stress Some tension and worry during pregnancy are normal and do of sex chromosomes. A child who receives an X chromosome from each parent is genetically
not necessarily increase risks of birth complications, such as low birth weight (Littleton, female. A child who receives a Y chromosome from the father is genetically male.
Breitkopf, & Berenson, 2006). Moderate maternal anxiety may even spur organization of the • The simplest patterns of genetic transmission are dominant and recessive inheritance.
developing brain When a pair of alleles are the same, a person is homozygous for the trait; when they are
different, the person is heterozygous.
*Stress Physical or psychological demands on a person or organism. • Most normal human characteristics are the result of polygenic or multifactorial
Environmental Influences: Paternal Factors transmission. Except for most monozygotic twins, each child inherits a unique genotype.
Dominant inheritance and multifactorial transmission explain why a person’s phenotype does
not always express the underlying genotype.
• The epigenetic framework controls the functions of particular genes; it can be affected by
environmental factors.
• Birth defects and diseases may result from simple dominant, recessive, or sex-linked
inheritance, from mutations, or from genome imprinting. Chromosomal abnormalities also
can cause birth defects.
• Through genetic counseling, prospective parents can receive information about the
mathematical odds of bearing children with certain defects.
• Genetic testing involves risks as well as benefits.

Nature and Nurture: Influences of Heredity and Environment

Summary and Key Terms Guidepost 3: How do scientists study the relative influences of heredity and environment,
Conceiving New Life and how do heredity and environment work together?
Guidepost 1: How does conception normally occur, and what causes multiple births?

6
 Egael, Edralyn BS Psych 2-A

• Research in behavioral genetics is based on the assumption that the relative influences of • Early, high-quality prenatal care is essential for healthy development. It can lead to
heredity and environment within a population can be measured statistically. If heredity is an detection of defects and disorders and, especially if begun early and targeted to the needs of
important influence on a trait, genetically closer persons will be more similar in that trait. at-risk women, may help reduce maternal and infant death, low birth weight, and other birth
Family studies, adoption studies, and studies of twins enable researchers to measure the complications.
heritability of specific traits. • Racial/ethnic disparities in prenatal care may be a factor in disparities in low birth weight
• The concepts of reaction range, canalization, genotype-environment interaction, genotype and perinatal death.
environment correlation (or covariance), and niche-picking describe ways in which heredity • Preconception care for every woman of childbearing age would reduce unintended
and environment work together. pregnancies and increase the chances of good pregnancy outcomes.
• Siblings tend to be more different than alike in intelligence and personality. According to
some behavioral geneticists, heredity accounts for most of the similarity, and nonshared
environmental effects account for most of the difference.

Guidepost 4: What roles do heredity and environment play in physical health, intelligence,
and personality?
• Obesity, longevity, intelligence, temperament, and other aspects of personality are
influenced by both heredity and environment.
• Schizophrenia is a highly heritable neurological disorder that also is environmentally
influenced.

Guidepost 5: What are the three stages of prenatal development, and what happens during
each stage?
• Prenatal development occurs in three stages of gestation: the germinal, embryonic, and
fetal stages.
• Severely defective embryos often are spontaneously aborted during the first trimester of
pregnancy.
• As fetuses grow, they move less, but more vigorously. Swallowing amniotic fluid, which
contains substances from the mother’s body, stimulates taste and smell. Fetuses seem able
to hear, exercise sensory discrimination, learn, and remember.

Guidepost 6: What environmental influences can affect prenatal development?

• The developing organism can be greatly affected by its prenatal environment. The
likelihood of a birth defect may depend on the timing and intensity of an environmental
event and its interaction with genetic factors. • Important environmental influences involving
the mother include nutrition, smoking, intake of alcohol or other drugs, transmission of
maternal illnesses or infections, maternal stress, maternal age, and external environmental
hazards, such as chemicals and radiation. External influences also may affect the father’s
sperm.

Guidepost 7: What techniques can assess a fetus’s health, and why is prenatal care
important?
• Ultrasound, sonoembryology amniocentesis, chorionic villus sampling, fetoscopy,
preimplantation genetic diagnosis, umbilical cord sampling, and maternal blood tests can be
used to determine whether an unborn baby is developing normally.