Long-Term Athlete Development R E S O U R C E PA P E R V 2

Canadian Sport
forLife
Published by the Canadian Sport Centres
2
 Long-Term Athlete Development

Canadian Sport
forLife Through Long-Term
Athlete Development

Table of Contents
Planning for the
4 Glossary of Terms 36 Stages of LTAD
sport excellence
7 Overview 37 Active Start
and well-being 38 FUNdamentals
8 An Outline of LTAD
of Canadians 13 Introduction
40 Learning to Train
41 Training to Train
14 Sport System Alignment and
Integration 42 Training to Compete

17 Shortcomings and Consequences 43 Training to Win

44 Active for Life
19 The 10 Key Factors
Influencing LTAD 46 Impact of LTAD
19 The 10-Year Rule 46 On Parents

20 The FUNdamentals 46 On Coaching

46 On Clubs and Community
22 Specialization
Sport and Recreation
23 Developmental Age 47 On the Sport System
25 Trainability 47 On Sport Science
28 Physical, Mental, Cognitive, 48 On the Education System
and Emotional Development
49 Implementation
28 Periodization Canadian Sport Working Together
31 Calendar Planning for 50 Summary
Competition
52 Selected Bibliography
32 System Alignment and
Integration 54 Appendix 1
34 Continuous Improvement Physical, Mental, Cognitive,
and Emotional Development
62 Appendix 2
Sport Specific Charts
65 Acknowledgements

3
 Glossary of Terms
Adaptation refers to a response to a Childhood ordinarily spans the end of
stimulus or a series of stimuli that induces infancy — the first birthday — to the start of
functional and/or morphological changes adolescence and is characterized by relatively
in the organism. Naturally, the level steady progress in growth and maturation
or degree of adaptation is dependent and rapid progress in neuromuscular or
upon the genetical endowment of an motor development. It is often divided
individual. However, the general trends or into early childhood, which includes pre-
patterns of adaptation are identified by school children aged 1 to 5 years, and
physiological research, and guidelines are late childhood, which includes elementary
clearly delineated of the various adaptation school-age children, aged 6 through to the
processes, such as adaptation to muscular onset of adolescence.
endurance or maximum strength.
Chronological age refers to “the number
Adolescence is a difficult period to define of years and days elapsed since birth.”
in terms of the time of its onset and Growth, development, and maturation
termination. During this period, most bodily operate in a time framework; that is, the
systems become adult both structurally child’s chronological age. Children of the
and functionally. Structurally, adolescence same chronological age can differ by several
begins with an acceleration in the rate of years in their level of biological maturation.
growth in stature, which marks the onset The integrated nature of growth and
of the adolescent growth spurt. The rate maturation is achieved by the interaction of
of statural growth reaches a peak, begins genes, hormones, nutrients, and the physical
a slower or decelerative phase, and finally and psychosocial environments in which
terminates with the attainment of adult the individual lives. This complex interaction
stature. Functionally, adolescence is usually regulates the child’s growth, neuromuscular
viewed in terms of sexual maturation, which maturation, sexual maturation, and general
begins with changes in the neuroendocrine physical metamorphosis during the first 2
system prior to overt physical changes and decades of life.
terminates with the attainment of mature
reproductive function. Critical periods of development refers
to a point in the development of a specific
Ancillary Capacities refer to the behaviour when experience or training has
knowledge and experience base of an an optimal effect on development. The same
athlete and includes warm-up and cool-down experience, introduced at an earlier or later
procedures, stretching, nutrition, hydration, time, has no effect on or retards later skill
rest, recovery, restoration, regeneration, metal acquisition.
preparation, and taper and peak.
Development refers to “the
The more knowledgeable athletes are about interrelationship between growth and
these training and performance factors, the maturation in relation to the passage of
more they can enhance their training and time. The concept of development also
performance levels. When athletes reach their includes the social, emotional, intellectual,
genetic potential and physiologically can- and motor realms of the child.”
not improve anymore, performance can be
improved by using the ancillary capacities to
full advantage.

4
 Long-Term Athlete Development

The terms “growth” and “maturation” Puberty refers to the point at which an
are often used together and sometimes individual is sexually mature and able to
synonymously. However, each refers to reproduce.
specific biological activities. Growth refers
to “observable, step-by-step, measurable Readiness refers to the child’s level of
changes in body size such as height, weight, growth, maturity, and development that
and percentage of body fat.” Maturation enables him/her to perform tasks and meet
refers to “qualitative system changes, both demands through training and competition.
structural and functional in nature, in the Readiness and critical periods of trainability
organism’s progress toward maturity; for during growth and development of young
example, the change of cartilage to bone in athletes are also referred to as the correct
the skeleton.” time for the programming of certain stimuli
to achieve optimum adaptation with regard
Peak height velocity (PHV) is the to motor skills, muscular and/or aerobic
maximum rate of growth in stature during power.
growth spurt. The age of maximum velocity
of growth is called the age at PHV. Skeletal age refers to the maturity of
the skeleton determined by the degree of
Peak strength velocity (PSV) is the ossification of the bone structure. It is a
maximum rate of increase in strength during measure of age that takes into consideration
growth spurt. The age of maximum increase how far given bones have progressed toward
in strength is called the age at PSV. maturity, not in size, but with respect to
shape and position to one another.
Peak weight velocity (PWV) is the
maximum rate of increase in weight during Trainability refers to the genetic
growth spurt. The age of maximum increase endowment of athletes as they respond
in weight is called the age at PWV. individually to specific stimuli and adapt to
it accordingly. Malina and Bouchard (1991)
Physical literacy refers to the mastering of defined trainability as “the responsiveness
fundamental motor skills and fundamental of developing individuals at different stages
sport skills. of growth and maturation to the training
stimulus.”
Post-natal growth is commonly, although
sometimes arbitrarily, divided into 3 or 4
age periods, including infancy, childhood,
adolescence, and puberty.

5
6
 Long-Term Athlete Development

Overview
This consultation paper describes a 7-stage Canadian model of Long-Term Athlete
Development (LTAD), a training, competition, and recovery program based
on developmental age — the maturation level of an individual — rather than
chronological age. It is athlete centred, coach driven, and administration, sport
science, and sponsor supported. Athletes who progress through LTAD experience
training and competition in programs that consider their biological and training
ages in creating periodized plans specific to their development needs.

Long-Term Athlete Development

1. is based on the physical, mental, emotional, 5. has an impact on the entire sport continuum,
and cognitive development of children and including participants, parents, coaches,
adolescents. Each stage reflects a different schools, clubs, community recreation
point in athlete development. programs, provincial sport organizations
(PSOs), national sport organizations (NSOs),
2. ensures physical literacy1 upon which
sport science specialists, municipalities,
excellence can be built and
and several government ministries and
• builds physical literacy in all children, departments (particularly but not exclusively in
from early childhood to late adolescence the portfolios of health and education) at the
by promoting quality daily physical provincial/territorial and federal levels.
activity in the schools and a common
approach to developing physical abilities
6. integrates elite sport, community sport and
through community recreation and elite recreation, scholastic sport, and physical
sport programs. education in schools.

• recognizes the need to involve all 7. is ‘Made in Canada’, recognizing international

Canadians in LTAD, including athletes best practices, research, and normative data.
with a disability.
8. supports the four goals of the Canadian Sport
3. ensures that optimal training, competition, Policy — Enhanced Participation, Enhanced
and recovery programs are provided Excellence, Enhanced Capacity, and Enhanced
throughout an athlete’s career. Interaction — and reflects a commitment to
4. provides an optimal competition structure contribute to the achievement of these goals.
for the various stages of an athlete’s 9. promotes a healthy, physically literate nation
development. whose citizens participate in lifelong physical
activity.

1
Physical literacy refers to competency in fundamental motor skills and fundamental sport skills.

7
Active Start
Males and
Females 0-6
An Outline
of LTAD
The first 4 stages, with their
FUNdamentals
respectiveapproximateageranges,
Males 6-9
Females 6-8 are generally appropriate for all
late-specialization sports. In the
Training to Compete and Training
Learning to Train to Win stages, age ranges vary
Males 9-12 from sport to sport.
Females 8-11

The 10 key factors

Training to Train influencing LTAD
Males 12-16
Females 11-15 1. The 10-Year Rule
2. The FUNdamentals
3. Specialization
Training to Compete
4. Developmental Age
Males 16-23 +/-
Females 15-21 +/- 5. Trainability
6. Physical, Mental, Cognitive, and
Emotional Development
Training to Win 7. Periodization
Males 19 +/- 8. Calendar Planning for Competition
Females 18 +/-
9. System Alignment and Integration
10. Continuous Improvement
Active for Life
Enter At
Any Age
8
Figure 1 illustrates the stages of LTAD.
 Long-Term Athlete Development

Active Start Stage

Chronological Age
Males and Females 0-6

FUN and part of daily life

Some organized physical activity
Fitness and movement skills
development Exploration of risk and limits in safe
environments
Focus on learning proper movement
Active movement environment
skills such as running, jumping, combined with well-structured
wheeling, twisting, kicking, throwing, gymnastics and swimming programs
and catching
Daily physical activity
Not sedentary for more than 60
minutes except when sleeping

FUNdamentals Stage Learning to Train Stage

Chronological Age Chronological / Development Age
Males 6-9 and Females 6-8 Males 9-12 and Females 8-11

Overall movement skills Overall sport skills development

FUN and participation Major skill learning stage: all basic
sport skills should be learned before
General, overall development entering Training to Train
Integrated mental, cognitive, and Integrated mental, cognitive, and
emotional development emotional development
ABC’s of Athleticism: agility, balance, Introduction to mental preparation
coordination, and speed
Medicine ball, Swiss ball, own body
ABC’s of Athletics: running, jumping, strength exercise
wheeling, and throwing
Introduce ancillary capacities
Medicine ball, Swiss ball, own body
strength exercises Talent Identification
Introduce simple rules of ethics of sport Single or double periodization
Screening for talent Sport specific training 3 times week;
participation in other sports 3 times
No periodization, but well-structured a week
programs
Daily physical activity

9
 Training to Train Stage
Chronological / Developmental Age
Males 12-16 and Females 11-15

Training to
Sport specific skill development
Compete Stage
Chronological / Developmental Age
Major fitness development stage:
aerobic and strength. The onset of Males 16-23 +/- and Females 15-21 +/-
Peak Height Velocity (PHV) and PHV
are the reference points Sport, event, position-specific
physical conditioning
Integrated mental, cognitive, and
emotional development Sport, event, position-specific
Develop mental preparation technical tactical preparation

Introduce free weights Sport, event, position-specific

technical and playing skills under
Develop ancillary capacities competitive conditions
Frequent musculoskeletal Integrated mental, cognitive, and
evaluations during PHV emotional development
Selection Advanced mental preparation
Single or double periodization Optimize ancillary capacities
Sport specific training 6-9 times per Specialization
week including complementary
sports Single, double, or triple periodization
Sport specific technical, tactical and
fitness training 9-12 times per week

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 Long-Term Athlete Development

Training to Win Stage Active For Life Stage

Chronological Age Enter At Any Age
Males 19 +/- and Females 18 +/-

Ages are sport specific based on Minimum of 60 minutes moderate

international normative data daily activity or 30 minutes of
intense activity for adults
Maintenance or improvement of
physical capacities Transfer from one sport to another
Further development of technical, Move from highly competitive
tactical, and playing skills sport to lifelong competitive sport
through age group competition
Modelling all possible aspects of
training and performance Move from competitive sport to
recreational activities
Frequent prophylactic breaks
Move to sport careers or volunteering
Maximize ancillary capacities
There is a better opportunity to be
High Performance Active for Life if physical literacy is
Single, double, triple, or multiple achieved before the Training to Train
periodization stage

Sport specific technical, tactical, and

fitness training 9-15 times per week

11
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 Long-Term Athlete Development

Introduction
LTAD focuses on the general framework of athlete development with special
reference to growth, maturation and development, trainability, and sport
system alignment and integration. It incorporates information from a number
of sources. It draws on the experiences of various athlete development
projects that have been implemented by different sport organizations in British
Columbia2 since the mid-1990s. It also draws from LTAD work with NSOs
including Basketball Canada, the Canadian Curling Association, Speed Skating
Canada, the Canadian Alpine Ski Team3, and the Report of the Minister of
State’s (Sport) Work Group on Sport for Persons with a Disability (2004).
The approach was also influenced by an analysis of the
empirically tested athlete development models from the
former East Bloc countries, with all the positive and negative
The health and
aspects of those models. In addition, sport science has
provided insight and information regarding the role of growth,
well-being of the
development, and maturation in athletic development. These
sciences include pediatric exercise science, exercise physiology,
nation and the
sport psychology, psychomotor learning, sport sociology,
and nutrition. An analysis of the literature on organizational
medals won at
development has also
contributed significantly. major Games
This document is fully based on and supported by the coaching are simple
and exercise science literature, but it is written particularly
for coaches and technical and administrative sport leaders. by-products of
Although some of the generalizations may seem to be too
vague from a scientific point of view, our extrapolations are
drawn because decisions must be made, despite the paucity of
an effective
scientific studies and data in the area. Thus, the art of coaching
plays a significant role in our model.
sport system.
We recognize that the cognitive, emotional, and psycho-social development of children is an
important component of maturation, but because of space constraints, the significance of these
components at various stages of maturation are summarized in tables in Appendix 1 on page 54.
Additional technical information on LTAD for athletes with a disability is addressed in a separate
booklet (to be available in the near future).

2
These BC sport organizations include tennis, water-ski, and curling.
3
Athlete development models were produced for sport organizations in Ireland and Britain, including British Swimming, English
Rugby Football Union, England Cricket Board, England Netball, British Canoe Union, and British Judo, are directly quoted from
and utilized in the text.
13
 Sport The need for LTAD arises in part
from the declining international
performances of Canadian athletes
System in some sports and the difficulty
other sports are having in identifying

Alignment and developing the next generation

of internationally successful

and athletes. In addition, participation

in recreational sport and physical

Integration activity has been declining and

physical education programs in the
schools are being marginalized.

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 Long-Term Athlete Development

LTAD is a vehicle for change. It differs from other athlete development models because it acknowledges
that physical education, school sports, competitive sports, and recreational activities are mutually
interdependent.

LTAD also positively affects the quality of training and competition by taking into consideration factors
such as developmental age and critical periods of optimal trainability. It builds athletic ability beginning
with a foundation of fundamental movement skills and introduces fitness and sport skills at the
appropriate developmental age. Figure 2 illustrates the recommended support system interrelationship
between physical education, recreation, and podium performance.

LTAD stands in sharp contrast to the current Canadian sport system. Traditionally, physical education
in the schools, recreational sports, and elite sport have been developed separately. This approach is
ineffective and expensive. It fails to ensure that all children, including those who may choose to become
elite athletes, are given a solid foundation and knowledge base — physical, technical, tactical, and
mental — upon which to build their athletic abilities.

LTAD is an inclusive model that encourages individuals to get involved in lifelong physical activity. It
does this by connecting and integrating physical education programs in the school system with elite
sport programs and with recreational sport programs in the community. LTAD ensures that all children
correctly learn the fundamental movement skills — since all children attend school — and that these
skills are introduced during the optimum point in their physical development, which is prior to age 11
for girls and age 12 for boys. Children who are physically educated in the LTAD way will

• feel confident and be encouraged to

continue to build on these skills through
competitive and recreational sport activity.
Figure 2 Circle of a Physically Active Life
• enjoy overall health benefits by developing
greater physical literacy, which encourages
them to be more physically active
throughout their lives. Increased activity
reverses the current trends in childhood
and adult obesity and cardiovascular
disease.

• discover a pathway to competition and

excellence at the international level.

15
 There is another important reason why after the 2000 Olympic and Paralympic
Canada needs LTAD. In past decades, we Games, many suggested that Canada should
have at times attempted to patch the gaps try to emulate the Australian sport model.
in our sport system by borrowing concepts However, for Canadian athletes to achieve
and systems from countries that have been international sporting success, Canada must
achieving international athletic success. As develop a made-in-Canada system that is
an example, during the 1970’s and 1980’s, based on our own culture, traditions, and
Canada tried to adapt elements from the geography and reflects our social, political,
Soviet Union and later from the German and economic realities. The Canadian LTAD
Democratic Republic. Prior to and immediately approach attempts to do just that.

LTAD consists of 7 stages.

The first 3 encourage The next 3 focus on The final stage
physical literacy and excellence: encourages life-long
sport for all: 4. Training to Train physical activity:
5. Training to Compete 7. Active for Life
1. Active Start
6. Training to Win
2. FUNdamentals
3. Learning to Train

Figure 3 illustrates an individual’s participation in lifelong physical activity, emphasizing the transition
from the first 3 LTAD stages to either excellence, life-long participation in the same sport, or remaining
active for life in another activity.

Figure 3 Participation In Lifelong Physical Activity (Way et al, 2005)

16
 Long-Term Athlete Development

Shortcomings
and Consequences
Before LTAD can be implemented successfully, the many shortcomings and resultant
consequences that are impeding the Canadian sport system must be addressed.

Shortcomings Consequences
What are the shortcomings? What are the results of these
shortcomings?
• developmental athletes over-compete and • failure to reach optimal performance levels
under-train. in international competitions.
• adult training and competition programs are • poor movement abilities.
imposed on developing athletes. • lack of proper fitness.
• training methods and competition programs • poor skill development.
designed for male athletes are imposed on • bad habits developed from over-competition
female athletes. focused on winning.
• preparation is geared to the short-term out- • undeveloped and unrefined skills due to
come — winning — and not to the process. under-training.
• chronological rather than developmental age • female athlete potential not reached due to
is used in training and competition planning. inappropriate programs.
• coaches largely neglect the critical periods of • children not having fun as they play
accelerated adaptation to training. adult-based programs.
• fundamental movement skills and sport skills • no systematic development of the next
are not taught properly. generation of successful international
• the most knowledgeable coaches work at athletes.
the elite level; volunteers coach at the • athletes pulled in different directions by
developmental level where quality, trained school, club, and provincial teams because
coaches are essential. of the structure of competition programs.
• parents are not educated about LTAD. • remedial programs, implemented by
• developmental training needs of athletes provincial and national team coaches, to
with a disability are not well understood. counteract the shortcomings of athlete
• in most sports, the competition system preparation.
inter feres with athlete development. • fluctuating national performance due to lack
• there is no talent identification (TID) system. of TID and a developmental pathway.
• there is no integration between physical • athletes failing to reach their genetic
education programs in the schools, potential and optimal performance level.
recreational community programs, and elite
competitive programs.
• sports specialize too early in an attempt to
attract and retain participants.

To date, implementation of LTAD in Canada, Ireland, and the United Kingdom indicates that the
framework provided by LTAD aids in addressing these shortcomings and enhancing sport system
alignment and integration.

17
18
 10 Key Factors

The 10 Key Factors

Influencing LTAD
The following factors are the research, principles, and
tools upon which LTAD is built.

1
The 10-Year Rule
Scientific research has concluded that it takes a minimum of 10 years and 10,000 hours of training for
a talented athlete to reach elite levels. For athlete and coach, this translates into slightly more than 3
hours of training or competition daily for 10 years.
This factor is supported by The Path to Excellence, which provides a comprehensive view of the
development of U.S. Olympians who competed between 1984 and 1998. The results reveal that
• U.S. Olympians begin their sport participation at the average age of 12.0 for males and 11.5 for
females.
• most Olympians reported a 12- to 13-year period of talent development from their sport
introduction to making an Olympic team.
• olympic medallists were younger — 1.3 to 3.6 years — during the first 5 stages of development
than non-medallists, suggesting that medallists were receiving motor skill development and
training at an earlier age. However, caution must be taken not to fall into the trap of early
specialization in late specialization sports.

19
10 Key Factors

2 2
The FUNdamentals
FUNdamental movements and skills should be introduced through fun and games.
FUNdamental sports skills should follow and include basic overall sports skills.

• FUNdamental movements skills and FUNdamental sports skills = physical literacy.

• Physical literacy refers to competency in movement and sports skills.
• Physical literacy should be developed before the onset of the adolescent growth spurt.

Agility Balance Co-ordination Speed Jumping Climbing

Walking Skating Hopping Swimming Skipping Balance

Throwing Dribbling Kicking Throwing Hitting Catching

20
 10 Key Factors

Table 1 lists the wide variety of fundamental movements and skills that underpin physical
literacy. They include 4 different environments: earth, water, air, and ice.

Travelling Skills Object Control Skills Balance Movements

• Boosting Sending: • Balancing/Centering
• Climbing • Kicking • Body Rolling
• Eggbeater • Punting • Dodging
• Galloping • Rolling (ball) • Eggbeater
• Gliding • Strike (ball, puck, ring) • Floating
• Hopping • Throwing • Landing
• Ice Picking • Ready position
• Jumping Receiving:
• Sinking/Falling
• Catching
• Leaping • Spinning
• Stopping
• Poling • Stopping
• Trapping
• Running • Stretching/Curling
• Sculling Travelling with: • Swinging
• Skating • Dribbling (feet) • Twisting/Turning
• Skipping • Dribbling (hands)
• Sliding • Dribbling (stick)
• Swimming
• Swinging Receiving and Sending: Jess 1999, adapted
• Wheeling • Striking (bat) Balyi and Way 2004

• Striking (stick)
• Volleying

The basic movement skills of 3 activities provide the base for all other sports
• Athletics: run, wheel, jump or throw.
• Gymnastics: ABC’s of athleticism — agility, balance, coordination, and speed.
• Swimming: for water safety reasons, for balance in a buoyant environment, and as the
foundation for all water-based sports.

Without the basic movement skills, a child will have difficulty participating in any sport. For
example, to enjoy baseball, basketball, cricket, football, netball, handball, rugby, and softball,
the simple skill of catching must be mastered.

It is critically important that children with a disability have the opportunity to develop
their fundamental movement and sport skills. Failure to do so severely limits their lifelong
opportunities for recreational and athletic success. Despite this great need, children with a
disability face difficulty gaining the fundamentals because

• overly protective parents, teachers, and coaches shield them from the bumps and
bruises of childhood play.
• adapted physical education is not well developed in all school systems.
• some coaches do not welcome children with a disability to their activities because of a
lack of knowledge about how to integrate them.
• it takes creativity to integrate a child with a disability into group activities where
fundamental skills are practiced and physical literacy developed.

21
10 Key Factors

3
Specialization
Sports can be classified as either early or late specialization. Early specialization sports include artistic
and acrobatic sports such as gymnastics, diving, and figure skating. These differ from late specialization
sports in that very complex skills are learned before maturation since they cannot be fully mastered if
taught after maturation.
Most other sports are late specialization sports. However, all sports should be individually analyzed
using international and national normative data to decide whether they are early or late specialization.
If physical literacy is acquired before maturation, athletes can select a late specialization sport when
they are between the ages of 12 and 15 and have the potential to rise to international stardom in that
sport.

Specializing before the age of 10 in late specialization sports contributes to

• one-sided, sport-specific preparation.
• lack of ABC’s, the basic movement and sports skills.
• overuse injuries.
• early burnout.
• early retirement from training and competition.

Disability sports are late specialization and it is critically important that children with a congenital
disability or early acquired disability be exposed to the full range of fundamentals before specializing in
the sport of their choice.

Early involvement in the FUNdamentals stage is essential in late specialization sports. Many sports resort
to remedial programs to try to correct shortcomings.

22
 10 Key Factors

4
Developmental Age
The terms “growth” and “maturation” are often used together and sometimes synonymously.
However, each refers to specific biological activities. Growth refers to observable step-by-step
changes in quantity and measurable changes in body size such as height, weight, and fat
percentage. Maturation refers to qualitative system changes, both structural and functional, in
the body’s progress toward maturity such as the change of cartilage to bone in the skeleton.

Development refers to “the interrelationship between growth and maturation in relation to the
passage of time. The concept of development also includes the social, emotional, intellectual, and
motor realms of the child.”
Chronological age refers to the number of years and days elapsed since birth. Children of the same
chronological age can differ by several years in their level of biological maturation.
Developmental age refers to the degree of physical, mental, cognitive, and emotional maturity.
Physical developmental age can be determined by skeletal maturity or bone age after which mental,
cognitive, and emotional maturity is incorporated.
Figure 4 Maturation in Girls and Boys (Adapted from “Growing Up” by J.M. Tanner Scientific American 1973)

LTAD requires the identification of early, average, and late maturers in order to help to design
appropriate training and competition programs in relation to optimal trainability and readiness.
The beginning of the growth spurt and the peak of the growth spurt are very significant in LTAD
applications to training and competition design.

Specific disabilities may dramatically change the timing and sequence of childhood and adolescent
development.

23
10 Key Factors

Figure 5 Maturity Events in Girls (Modified after Ross et al.1977)

PHV in girls occurs at about 12 years of age.

Usually the first physical sign of adolescence is
breast budding, which occurs slightly after the
onset of the growth spurt. Shortly thereafter, pubic
hair begins to grow. Menarche, or the onset of
menstruation, comes rather late in the growth spurt,
occurring after PHV is achieved. The sequence of
developmental events may normally occur 2 or even
more years earlier or later than average.

Figure 6 Maturity Events in Boys (Modified after Ross et al.1977)

PHV in boys is more intense than in girls and on

average occurs about 2 years later. Growth of
the testes, pubic hair, and penis are related to
the maturation process. Peak Strength Velocity
(PSV) comes a year or so after PHV. Thus, there is
pronounced late gain in strength characteristics of
the male athlete. As with girls, the developmental
sequence for male athletes may occur 2 or more
years earlier or later than average. Early maturing
boys may have as much as a 4-year physiological
advantage over their late-maturing peers. Eventually,
the late maturers will catch up when they experience
their growth spurt.

Currently, most athletic training and competition programs are based on chronological age. However,
athletes of the same age between ages 10 and 16 can be 4 to 5 years apart developmentally. Thus,
chronological age is a poor guide to segregate adolescents for competitions.

Training age refers to the age where athletes begin planned, regular, serious involvement in training.
The tempo of a child’s growth has significant implications for athletic training because children who
mature at an early age have a major advantage during the Training to Train stage compared to average
or late maturers. However, after all athletes have gone through their growth spurt, it is often later
maturers who have greater potential to become top athletes provided they experience quality coaching
throughout that period.

24
 10 Key Factors

5
Trainability
The terms “adaptation” and “trainability” are often used interchangeably in coaching. However, the difference
between them is significant.

Adaptation refers to changes in the body as a result of a stimulus that induces functional and/or
morphological changes in the organism. The degree of adaptation is dependent on the genetic endowment
of an individual. However, the general trends or patterns of adaptation are identified by physiological
research, and guidelines are clearly delineated of the various adaptation processes, such as
adaptation to muscular endurance or maximum strength.

Trainability refers to the faster adaptation to stimuli and the genetic endowment of athletes as they respond
individually to specific stimuli and adapt to it accordingly. Trainability has been defined as the responsiveness of
developing individuals to the training stimulus at different stages of growth and maturation.

A critical period of development refers to the point in the development of a specific capacity when
training has an optimal effect. Other factors are readiness and critical periods of trainability during growth and
development of young athletes, where the stimulus must be timed to achieve optimum adaptation with regard
to motor skills, muscular, and/or aerobic power.

Figure 7 Variation in Trainabilty (Adapted from work by Bouchard et.al., 1997)

Figure 7 illustrates the evidence to date

that supports the fact that there is a high
degree of variation in the trainability
of humans (athletes), both from the
standpoint of the magnitude of change
and the time course of response to a
givenstimulus.Thisprobablyreflectsthe
‘elasticity’of response to various stimuli
and human diversity (as largely dictated
by the underlying genetic matrix and
supportedbytheenvironmentinwhichan
individual is immersed) (Norris & Smith,
2002).

25
10 Key Factors

The 5 Basic S’s of Training and Performance are Stamina (Endurance), Strength, Speed, Skill, and
Suppleness (Flexibility). (Dick, 1985)

Stamina (Endurance)
The optimal window of trainability occurs at the onset of PHV. Aerobic
capacity training is recommended before athletes reach PHV. Aerobic
power should be introduced progressively after growth rate decelerates.

Strength
The optimal window of trainability for girls is immediately after PHV
or at the onset of the menarche, while for boys it is 12 to 18 months
after PHV.

Speed
For boys, the first speed training window occurs between the ages
of 7 and 9 years and the second window occurs between the ages
of 13 and 16. For girls, the first speed training window occurs
between the ages of 6 and 8 years and the second window occurs
between the ages of 11 and 13 years.

Skill
The window for optimal skill training for boys takes place between
the ages of 9 and 12 and between the ages of 8 and 11 for girls.

Suppleness (Flexibility)
The optimal window of trainability for suppleness for both
genders occurs between the ages of 6 and10. Special attention
should be paid to flexibility during PHV.

26
 10 Key Factors

Figure 8 illustrates the Windows of Optimal Trainability for Females and Males. Two windows —
stamina and strength — are based on the moving scales of the onset of the growth spurt and PHV.
The other 3 windows — speed, skill, and suppleness — are based on chronological age.

The trainability of the different systems for children and youth with a disability is not well understood.
Applying this information to specific athletes with a disability is a good example of coaching being an
art as well as a science.

Figure 8 Pacific Sport - Optimal Windows of Trainability (Balyi and Way, 2005)

Females PHV

Skills
Speed 2
Speed
Stamina

Suppleness Strength
1&2

Rate of Growth

Developmental Age
Chronological
under
Age 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20+

PHV
Males
Suppleness
Stamina

Skills
Strength
Speed 1 Speed 2

Rate of Growth

Physical, Mental - Cognitive, Emotional Development

All Systems Are Always Trainable!

27
10 Key Factors

6
Physical, Mental, Cognitive, and Emotional
Development
Training and competitive and recovery programs should consider the mental, cognitive, and emotional
development of each athlete.
Beyond the physical, technical, and tactical development — including decision-making skills — the
mental, cognitive, and emotional development should be enhanced.
For a complete overview of mental, cognitive, and emotional development characteristics and their
implications for the coach, refer to Appendix 1 on page 54.
A major objective of LTAD is a holistic approach to athlete development. This includes emphasis
on ethics, fair play, and character building throughout the various stages, an objective that reflects
Canadian values. Programming should be designed considering athletes’ cognitive ability to address
these concepts.

7
Periodization
Simply put, periodization is time management. As a planning technique, it provides the framework
for arranging the complex array of training processes into a logical and scientifically-based schedule to
bring about optimal improvements in performance.

Periodization sequences the training components into weeks, days, and sessions. Periodization is
situation specific depending upon priorities and the time available to bring about the required training
and competition improvement. In the LTAD context, periodization connects the stage the athlete is in
to the requirements of that stage.

28
 10 Key Factors

Periodization organizes and manipulates the aspects of modality, volume, intensity, and frequency of
training through long-term (multi-year) and short-term (annual) training, competition, and recovery
programs to achieve peak performances when required.

Periodization, far from being a single fixed process or methodology, is in fact a highly flexible tool.
When used appropriately in conjunction with sound methodology and ongoing monitoring and
evaluation, it is an essential component in optimal sports programming and athlete development at
all levels.

LTAD addresses this requirement by developing periodization models for all stages, taking into
consideration the growth, maturation, and trainability principles that are unique to the primary
development stages — the first 2 decades of life — yet seamlessly integrate with the subsequent
stages of athletic performance and life.

LTAD is typically a 10- to 12-year procedure that optimizes physical, technical, tactical — including
decision making — and mental preparation, as well as the supporting ancillary capacities. Within LTAD
is quadrennial planning, which refers to the 4-year Olympic and Paralympic cycle for elite athletes, and
the annual plan, which is based upon identified periods of athletic preparation, competition, and the
transition into the next calendar plan.

Current examples of periodization models identified in the sport performance literature are designed
for the sub-elite and elite senior/mature performers. There is very little information on periodization for
children or adolescents or for athletes with disability.

Single, double, triple, and multiple periodization formats follow the same principles with frequently
introduced prophylactic breaks; that is, programmed and priorized recovery and regeneration elements.

The terminology that describes the smaller subsets of time — organized blocks of training or
competition — is macro, meso, and micro cycles. Macro cycles are the largest blocks within a phase of
training and are usually 8 to 16 weeks in length. Meso cycles are smaller blocks of time, usually about
a month. The smallest training block is often organized as a micro cycle and by convention is usually 7
days. The introduction of a recovery micro cycle determines the length of a meso cycle after 1 (1:1), 2
(2:1), 3 (3:1) or 4 (4:1) loading micro cycles.

Table 2 illustrates the phases of an annual plan for a single or double periodization.

Five Phases of A Single Eight Phases of A Double

Periodized Annual Plan Periodized Annual Plan

General Preparation Phase (GPP) General Preparation Phase (GPP)

Specific Preparation Phase (SPP) Specific Preparation Phase (SPP) 1
Pre-Competition Phase (PCP) Pre-Competition Phase (PCP) 1
Competition Phase Peak (CP) Competition Phase (CP) 1 Peak One
Transition Phase (TP) Specific Preparation Phase (SPP) 2
Pre-Competition Phase (PCP) 2
Competition Phase (CP) 2 Peak Two
Transition Phase (TP)

29
10 Key Factors

Figure 9 illustrates the ‘art and science’ required by the coach when planning the horizontal and
vertical integration of the 9 Expanded S’s of training and performance. The horizontal arrows
represent the progress of an athlete that is quantifiable and based on scientific guidelines; the vertical
integration is based on the interrelationship of each aspect of training and performance, which is
often based on the ‘art’ of coaching.
Figure 9 Horizontal and Vertical Intergration9 Expanded S’s - The Art and Science of Coaching
(Balyi, 2004 and Norris, 2000)

30
 10 Key Factors

8
Calendar Planning for Competition
Optimal competition calendar planning at all stages is critical to athlete development. At certain
stages, developing the physical capacities take precedence over competition. At later stages, the
ability to compete well becomes the focus.
Table 3 outlines general recommendations for the ratio of training to competition and competition
specific training. Consider how the quantity and quality of the training and competition program
changes as long-term plans progress.
Table 3: Training to Competition Ratios

Stages Recommended Ratio

Active Start No specific ratios

FUNdamentals All activity FUN based
Learning to Train 70% training to 30% competition
Training to Train 60% training to 40% competition
TrainingtoCompete 40% training to 60% actual competition and competition specific training
Training to Win 25% training to 75% actual competition and competition specific training
Active for Life Based on individual’s desire

• Optimal sport specific competition ratios are required for all stages of LTAD.
• Level and length of the competitive season should be aligned with the changing needs of the
developmental athlete progressing through LTAD.
• Over-competition and under-training at the Learn to Train and Train to Train stages result in a lack
of basic skills and fitness.
• The appropriate level of competition is critical to the technical, tactical, and mental development at
all stages.
• Schedules are often ‘set’ for team sports by leagues and organizations and not by the coach
and athlete, making optimal training based on periodization difficult. For individual sports,
individual competition schedules can be selected by the coach and athlete based on the athlete’s
developmental needs.
• The current system of competition is based on tradition. It should be planned to enhance optimal
training and performance of the athlete depending upon their LTAD stage.
• Competitions in Canada must be created and scheduled considering strategic planning and
with due regard for the optimal performance of an athlete and the tapering and peaking
requirements.

31
10 Key Factors

• Optimal training to competition ratios for individual sports vary greatly and must be determined
on a sport specific basis.
• While international and national calendars are usually well integrated, a systematic competition
review needs to be undertaken. This is one of the biggest challenges for team sports and a
significant challenge for individual sports in LTAD design and implementation.

The system of competition makes or breaks athletes!

9
System Alignment and Integration
Figure 10 illustrates the various perfomance priorities that LTAD addresses and the system
development it effects.

Figure 10 System Alignment and Integration (Way et. al 2005)

• LTAD is the core business of national, provincial/territorial, and local sport organizations.
• LTAD is a tool for change towards full system alignment and integration.
• A seamless, sport-specific LTAD should be based on national and international normative data,
both sport specific and sport science.

32
 10 Key Factors

• LTAD plans for athletes with a disability need to be developed on a sport-by-sport basis taking
into account the specific needs of individuals with a congenital or acquired disability.
• After the LTAD design is completed, a sport-specific system of competition should be
established that matches the competitive needs of developmental athletes during Active Start,
FUNdamentals, Learning to Train, and Training to Train stages.
• The content of training, competition, and recovery during the FUNdamentals, Learning to Train,
and Training to Train stages are defined, taking into consideration the developmental levels
of the athletes as these relate to the physical, technical, tactical — including decision making
— and mental requirements of the sport, rather than being based on chronological age.
• LTAD is an athlete-centered approach designed around the needs of athletes and
institutionalized by rationalization of the system by sport governing bodies.
• The process of designing and implementing LTAD programs is athlete centered, coach driven,
and administration, sport science, and sponsor supported.
• LTAD has a strong impact on the coaching education curriculum. Developmental readiness will
replace ad hoc decision-making about programming preparation.
• Activities of schools, communities, clubs, PSOs, and NSOs should be fully integrated through
LTAD.
Figure 11 illustrates the relationship between national and local agencies and programs. To build
on the four goals of the Canadian Sport Policy, LTAD must be supported and promoted by all levels
of government including Canadian Heritage (Sport Canada) and the provincial/territorial ministries
responsible for sport and recreation; provincial/territorial health ministries and Health Canada;
provincial/territorial education ministries; other relevant federal and provincial/territorial departments
and ministries; and municipal governments.

Figure 11 Strategic Leadership for Sport (Sport England, 2004 - Modified by Higgs & Way 2005)

33
10 Key Factors

10
Continuous Improvement
The concept of continuous improvement, which permeates LTAD, is drawn from the respected
Japanese industrial philosophy known as Kaizen.
Continuous improvement ensures that
• LTAD responds and reacts to new scientific and sport-specific innovations and observations
and is subject to continuous research in all its aspects.
• LTAD, as a continuously evolving vehicle for change, reflects all emerging facets of physical
education, sport, and recreation to ensure systematic and logical delivery of programs to all
ages.
• LTAD promotes ongoing education and sensitization of federal, provincial/territorial, and
municipal governments, the mass media, sport and recreation administrators, coaches,
sport scientists, parents, and educators about the interlocking relationship between
physical education, school sport, community recreation, life-long physical activity, and high
performance sport.

34
Stages
of LTAD
35
Stages of LTAD

Stages of LTAD
Sports can be classified as early or late
specialization. The stages of LTAD are
based on this concept.
4

Early Specialization Model Late Specialization Model

1. Active Start 1. Active Start
2. FUNdamentals / Learning to Train / Training 2. FUNdamentals
to Train 3. Learning to Train
3. Training to Compete 4. Training to Train
4. Training to Win 5. Training to Compete
5. Active for Life 6. Training to Win
7. Active for Life

These models are general in nature and require adjustment on a sport specific basis.
The wording used to denote these stages can be changed to make it more applicable to specific
sports. For example, for the sport of speed skating, Learning to Train could become Skateskills.
Skiing could change the FUNdamentals Stage to Bumps and Jumps.

Speed Skating Canada has introduced 2 Training to Compete and 2 Training to Win stages to deal
with the sport-specific requirements of athlete development (See Appendix 2, page 63). Most sports
use the terminology in the chart to describe the stages of LTAD because it clearly describes what is
to be done during each.

Since few sports can be categorized as early specialization sports, LTAD focuses on late specialization
sports (see Specialization, page 22). Briefly, each early specialization sport should develop a sport-
specific model; a general model would lead to serious oversimplifications. The challenge is to
combine the FUNdamentals and Learning to Train stages or amalgamate them into a single stage,
such as the Training to Train stage. For late specialization sports, specialization prior to age 10 is not
recommended since it contributes to early burn-out, drop-out, and retirement from training and
competition.

4
Currently, over 30 NSOs in England, Scotland, Northern Ireland, Wales, and the Republic of Ireland, have endorsed a
six-stage model without Active Start.

36
 Stages of LTAD

Active Start
Age: 0-6

Objectives
Learn fundamental movements and link them together into
play.
Physical activity is essential for healthy child development. Among its other benefits, physical activity
• enhances development of brain function, coordination, social skills, gross motor skills,
emotions, leadership, and imagination.
• helps children to build confidence and positive self-esteem.
• helps to build strong bones and muscles, improves flexibility, develops good posture and
balance, improves fitness, reduces stress, and improves sleep.
• promotes healthy weight.
• helps children learn to move skillfully and enjoy being active.
Physical activity should be fun and a part of the child’s daily life, not something required. Active play
is the way young children are physically active.
Organized physical activity and active play are particularly important for the healthy development of
children with a disability if they are to acquire habits of lifelong activity.
Because this is a period when children rapidly outgrow their mobility aids, communities need to find
effective ways — equipment swaps or rentals, for example — to ensure that all children have access
to the equipment they need to be active.

Active Start To-Do List

Provide organized physical activity for at least 30 minutes a day for toddlers and at least 60
minutes a day for preschoolers.
Provide unstructured physical activity — active play — for at least 60 minutes a day, and up to
several hours per day for toddlers and preschoolers. Toddlers and preschoolers should not be
sedentary for more than 60 minutes at a time except while sleeping.
Provide physical activity every day regardless of the weather.
Starting in infancy, provide infants, toddlers, and preschoolers with opportunities to participate
in daily physical activity that promotes fitness and movement skills. Provide parents and care
givers with age-appropriate information.

37
Stages of LTAD

Ensure that children acquire movement skills that build towards more complex movements. These
skills help lay the foundation for lifelong physical activity.
Encourage basic movement skills — they do not just happen as a child grows older, but develop
depending on each child’s heredity, activity experiences, and environment. For children with
a disability, access to age and disability appropriate adapted equipment is an important
contributor to success.
Focus on improving basic movement skills such as running, jumping, twisting, wheeling, kicking,
throwing, and catching. These motor skills are the building blocks for more complex movement.
Design activities that help children to feel competent and comfortable participating in a variety
of fun and challenging sports and activities.
Ensure that games for young children are non-competitive and focus on participation.
Because girls tend to be less active than boys and children with a disability less active than their
peers, ensure that activities are gender-neutral and inclusive so that active living is equally valued
and promoted for all children.

FUNdamentals
Age: males 6-9; females 6-8

Objectives
Learn all fundamental movement skills and build overall
motor skills.
Skill development in the FUNdamentals stage should be well-structured, positive, and FUN!
The first window of accelerated adaptation to speed occurs at ages 6 to 8 for girls and 7 to 9 for
boys. Bypassing the specialized skill development in the FUNdamentals stage is detrimental to the
child’s future engagement in physical activity and sport.
No periodization takes place; however, all programs are structured and monitored.
If children later decide to leave the competitive stream, the skills they acquire during the
FUNdamentals stage will benefit them when they engage in recreational activities, enhancing their
quality of life and health.

38
 Stages of LTAD

FUNdamentals To-Do List

Practice and master fundamental movement skills before sport-specific skills are introduced.
Emphasize the overall development of the athlete’s physical capacities, fundamental movement
skills, and the ABC’s of athleticism: agility, balance, coordination, and speed.
Teach appropriate and correct running, wheeling, jumping, and throwing techniques using the
ABC’s of athletics.
Emphasize motor development to produce athletes who have a better trainability for long-term
sport specific development.
Introduce basic flexibility exercises.
Develop speed, power, and endurance using games.
Encourage participation in a wide range of sports.
Develop linear, lateral, and multi-directional speed with the duration of repetitions less than 5
seconds.
Include strength training exercises using the child’s own body weight as well as medicine ball
and Swiss ball exercises.
Ensure that sporting and disability equipment are size, weight, and design appropriate and that
communities explore ways to share and provide access to appropriate equipment.
Introduce children to the simple rules and ethics of sports.
Ensure that activities revolve around the school year and are enhanced by multi-sport camps
during summer and winter holidays.
Participate once or twice a week if children have a preferred sport, so long as there is
participation in many other sports 3 or 4 times per week to ensure future excellence.

39
Stages of LTAD

Learning to Train
Age: males 9-12; females 8-11

Objective
Learn overall sports skills.
One of the most important periods of motor development for children is between the ages of 9 and
12. This is a window of accelerated adaptation to motor co-ordination.
Early specialization in late specialization sports can be detrimental to later stages of skill development
and to refinement of the fundamental sport skills.
At this stage, children are developmentally ready to acquire the general sports skills that are the
cornerstones of all athletic development.

Learning to Train To-Do List

Further develop all fundamental movement skills and teach general, overall sports skills.
Otherwise, a significant window of opportunity is lost, compromising the ability of the young
player/athlete to reach full potential.
Develop strength using exercises that incorporate the child’s own body weight as well as
Medicine balls and Swiss balls.
Introduce hopping and bounding exercises or routines, or wheeling up gradients, to aid in
strength development.
Further develop endurance through games and relays.
Further develop flexibility through exercises.
Further develop speed by using specific activities that focus on agility, quickness, and change of
direction during the warm-up.
Structure competition to address differences in training age and abilities.
Identify sports the child enjoys and is predisposed towards success. Narrow the focus to 3 sports.
Introduce single periodization noting that some sports such as swimming and tennis need to use
double periodization to adequately address the sport’s unique needs.
Apply a ratio of 70 per cent training to 30 per cent competition. The 30 per cent ratio includes
competition and competition-specific training. These percentages vary according to sport and
individual specific needs. Athletes undertaking this type of preparation are better prepared
for competition in both the short- and long-term than those who focus solely on winning.
Encourage unstructured play.

40
 Stages of LTAD

Training to Train
Age: males 12-16; females 11-15
(age ranges are PHV dependent)

Objectives
Build an aerobic base, develop speed and strength towards
the end of the stage, and further develop and consolidate
sport specific skills.
During Training to Train, young athletes consolidate their basic sport-specific skills and tactics. This is
a window of accelerated adaptation to aerobic, speed, and strength training.
Optimal aerobic trainability begins with the onset of PHV, the major growth spurt during maturation.
During competitions, athletes play to win and to do their best, but the major focus of training is on
learning the basics as opposed to competing.

Training to Train To-Do List

Make aerobic training a priority after the onset of PHV while maintaining or further developing
levels of skill, speed, strength, and flexibility.
Emphasize flexibility training given the rapid growth of bones, tendons, ligaments, and muscles.
Consider the 2 windows of accelerated adaptation to strength training for females: the first occurs
immediately after PHV and the second begins with the onset of menarche. For males, there is 1
window and it begins 12 to 18 months after PHV.
Note that both aerobic and strength trainability are dependent on the maturation levels of the athlete.
For this reason, the timing of training emphasis differs depending on whether athletes are early,
average, or late maturers.
Learn to cope with the physical and mental challenges of competition.
Introduce athletes with a disability to sport-specific equipment such as wheelchairs and athletic
prostheses. For all athletes, the use of body-size and skill-level appropriate equipment remains
important.
Optimize training and competition ratios and follow a 60:40 per cent training to competition
ratio. Too much competition wastes valuable training time and conversely, not enough inhibits
the practice of technical/tactical and decision-making skills.

41
Stages of LTAD

Use talent identification to help athletes focus on 2 sports.

Utilize single and double periodization as the optimal framework of preparation.
Train athletes in daily competitive situations in the form of practice matches or competitive games
and drills.

The Learn to Train and Training to Train stages are the most
important stages of athletic preparation. During these stages,
we make or break an athlete!

Training to Compete
Age: males 16-23 +/-; females 15-21 +/-

Objectives
Optimize the engine and learn to compete.
Optimize fitness preparation and sport-, individual-, and position-specific skills as well as
performance.
All the objectives of Training to Train must be achieved before the objectives of Training to Compete
can begin.

Training to Compete To-Do List

Provide year-round, high intensity, individual event, and position-specific training.
Teach athletes, who are now proficient at performing basic and sport specific skills, to perform
those skills under a variety of competitive conditions during training.
Place special emphasis on optimum preparation by ‘modelling’ high competitions in training.
Individually tailor to a greater degree fitness programs, recovery programs, psychological
preparation, and technical development.

42
 Stages of LTAD

Emphasize individual preparation that addresses each athlete’s individual strengths and
weaknesses.
Select 1 sport.
Utilize single, double, and triple periodization as the optimal framework of preparation.
Change the training-to-competition and competition-specific training ratio to 40:60. Devote
40 per cent of available time to the development of technical and tactical skills and improving
fitness and 60 per cent of training to competition and competition-specific training.

Training to Win
Age: males 19 +/-; females 18 +/-

Objective
Podium performances.
Maximize fitness preparation and sport-, individual-, and position-specific skills as well as performance.
Training to Win is the final stage of athletic preparation.
All of the athlete’s physical, technical, tactical (including decision-making skills), mental, and personal
and lifestyle capacities are fully established and the focus of training has shifted to the maximization
of performance.
World class able-bodied and disability sport performances require world-class equipment that is
fine-tuned to the demands of the event and the requirements of the athlete.

Training to Win To-Do List

Train athletes to peak for major competitions.
Ensure that training is characterized by high intensity and relatively high volume.
Allow frequent preventative breaks to prevent physical and mental burnouts.
Utilize single, double, triple, and multiple periodization as the optimal framework of preparation.
Change the training to competition ration 25:75, with the competition percentage including
competition-specific training activities.

43
Stages of LTAD

Active for Life

Age: This may occur at any age
The age of transition from competitive sport to lifelong physical activity

Objective
A smooth transition from an athlete’s competitive
career to lifelong physical activity and participation
in sport.
Canada’s sport system should encourage athletes to

• move from one sport to another. For example, the gymnast becomes an aerial
skier, the sprinter takes up bobsledding, or the 12-year-old basketball player
discovers canoeing.
• move from one aspect of sport to another. For example, the middle distance
runner becomes a guide runner for blind athletes or the cyclist rides tandem
at the Paralympic Games.
• move from competitive sport to recreational activities such as hiking and
cycling.
• move from highly competitive sport to lifelong competitive sport through age
group competition such as Master’s Games.
• upon retiring from competitive sport, move to sport-related careers such as
coaching, officiating, sport administration, small business enterprises, or media.
• move from competitive sport to volunteering as coaches, officials, or administrators.

A positive experience in sport is the key to retaining

athletes after they leave the competition stream.

Sport must make a paradigm shift from cutting athletes to

re-directing them to sports where they are pre-disposed to
train and perform well.

44
Stages of LTAD

45
 Impact of LTAD
On Parents On Coaching
Few adults who were physically inactive as To be successful, an athlete development
children become active as adults. Inactive model such as LTAD requires highly skilled,
adults tend to produce inactive children and certified coaches who understand the stages
the reverse is also true. Encouraging children of athlete development and the various
to enjoy moving and promoting confidence in interventions that should be made.
movement skills at an early age helps to ensure
later participation in physical activity.
LTAD will
LTAD will • have a significant impact on the coaching
education curriculum.
• provide a framework for parents
• have a significant impact on sport specific
to understand physical literacy and
coaching education by NSOs.
its implications on a healthy lifestyle
through lifelong physical activity and on • identify a need for part-time and full-time
competitive sport involvement for all coaches who will specialize in coaching
Canadians, including those with a developmental athletes.
disability.
• facilitate the understanding of physical,
mental, cognitive, and emotional On Clubs and
development. Community Sport
• facilitate the understanding of special
requirements such as proper hydration,
and Recreation
nutrition, and recovery for the growing Canada’s sport clubs and community
child. centres provide broad opportunities for
participation and are essential to the successful
• enable parents to help children to choose
implementation of LTAD from playground to
a pathway in physical activity and sport.
podium.

LTAD will
• identify the need for programs to deliver
LTAD.
• inform and educate staff and parents about
the benefits of LTAD.
• align programs with schools, clubs, and
community sports.
• rationalize the competition system at
the national and provincial levels and
in clubs, community sport, and recreational
activities.

46
 Long-Term Athlete Development

On the Sport System On Sport Science

The Canadian Sport Policy contains four Canada’s sport scientists play a vital role in
goals: that a significantly higher proportion helping athletes and coaches to keep pace
of Canadians from all segments of society are with international competition by contributing
involved in quality sport activities at all levels to their understanding of the science behind
and in all forms of participation; that the their sport’s techniques. Sport scientists
pool of talented athletes has expanded and have an important role in developing new
athletes and teams are systematically achieving methodologies and monitoring sport science
world-class results at the highest levels of innovations around the world for continuous
international competition through fair and improvement of Canada’s sporting techniques.
ethical means; that the essential components
of an ethically based, athlete/participant-
centred development system are in place and
LTAD will
are continually modernized and strengthened
• encourage research into all aspects of
as required; and the components of the sport
LTAD, including
system are more connected and coordinated
• physical development.
as a result of the committed collaboration and
• mental/cognitive development.
communication amongst the stakeholders.
• emotional development and trainability
and readiness factors
These goals can be achieved through • appropriate level of competition for all
the system-wide implementation of stages.
• length of the competitive phase for all
LTAD. stages.
• establish normative data for all the stages
LTAD will of LTAD.

• signal radical changes to the structure

and delivery of programs.
• cause realignment or rescheduling of
competition calendars.
• provide clear pathways for progression.
• help athletes attain higher and more
sustained levels of success.
• provide athlete-centred planning and
decision making.
• provide a basis on which to monitor and
evaluate the effectiveness of programs.
• provide a framework so that all
stakeholders understand their role in
programming interventions at each stage.

47
 On the Education
System
There is growing recognition of the urgent need
for Canada’s school children to become much
more physically active. It is imperative that the
education system assumes a prominent role in
addressing the significant health problems that
arise from an inactive lifestyle.

LTAD will
• highlight the need for daily quality physical
education.
• highlight the need to improve training
for teachers in the elementary schools to
understand the concept of physical literacy
and LTAD and correctly model and teach
fundamental movement skills and sports skills.
• encourage new courses at colleges and
universities to ensure that educators and
coaches are familiar with physical literacy and
LTAD and can apply these when teaching
and coaching.
• encourage the establishment of sport
academies and Sport-Étude programs enriching
the training environment during the Train to
Train phase.

48
 Long-Term Athlete Development

Implementation
Canadian Sport Working Together
Giant steps forward have been taken by the federal, provincial, and territorial
governments in endorsing the concept of LTAD. The same level of support must
also come from municipalities, recreation centres, schools, and clubs.

Acceptance of LTAD provides the basis on which future development of

athletes is planned and implemented.

To implement LTAD, the following actions need

to be completed:
Develop a general Canadian LTAD to enhance the understanding and acceptance of LTAD to help
change the culture of Canadian sport.
Implement sport-specific LTAD models in each sport. Where appropriate, include LTAD for
athletes with a disability.
Review coach education in each sport and overall, based on LTAD factors and objectives.
Review competition structures and schedules in each sport and overall, based on LTAD factors
and goals.
Promote the development by all sports of the full range of motor and sport skills at the
FUNdamentals and Learning to Train stages.
Develop information on the Active Start and FUNdamentals stages for use across all sports in all
communities.
Incorporate FUNdamental activities into sport-specific sessions for younger children, especially
during warm-up and fun activities.
Promote greater co-operation between sport organizations, coaches, and teachers in the
scheduling of sessions and competitions.
Formulate a cross-sport declaration on the implementation of LTAD that is supported by multi-
sport and sport-specific organizations.

49
 Summary
LTAD
• is a philosophy and a vehicle for change.
• is athlete-centred from a child’s first involvement in sport to the transition to lifelong physical
activity or other sport related activities.
• integrates the needs of athletes with a disability into the design and delivery of sport programs.
• provides a framework for reviewing current practices, developing new initiatives, and
standardizing programs.
• establishes a clear development pathway from playground to podium and on to being active for
life.
• identifies the shortcomings in Canada’s sport system and provides guidelines for problem solving.
• provides guidelines for planning for optimal performance for all stages of athlete development.
• provides key partners with a coordinated structure and plan for change.
• identifies and engages key stakeholders in delivering change.
• provides an aligned and integrated model for delivering systems including
• long-term athlete development — technical, physical, tactical, and behavioural.
• long-term coaching development.
• sport and physical activity programs and services in NSO’s, PSO’s, recreational organizations,
clubs, and schools.

50
51
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53
 Appendix 1
Physical, Mental and Cognitive, and Emotional Development Characteristics
The following Moving Scales provide a guideline on how to utilize the Physical, Mental, Cognitive and
Emotional Development Characteristics tables, pointing out the overlaps at the various stages of LTAD.

FUNdamentals Learning to Training to Training to Training to

Train Train Compete Win

Late Childhood Late Puberty

Early Puberty Early Adulthood

Late Childhood - Physical Development

Basic characteristics General impact on Implications for the coach

performance
Heart size is increasing in relation to Endurance capacity is more than Understand that the child has the
rest of body. adequate to meet the demands capacity to keep going.
of most activities.

Anaerobic system is not developed. There is a limited ability to work Plan short duration anaerobic
anaerobically. activities. The ability to hold
breath must be practiced and
built up gradually.

A child’s metabolism is less Children use more oxygen whether Do not expect younger children
economical than an adult’s. it’s expressed in absolute values or to keep up with older children.
prorated for body weight.

Large muscle groups are more The child is skilful in movement Emphasize the development of
developed than smaller ones. requiring the use of the large general motor skills involving
muscle groups. the large muscle groups. Then
gradually introduce more precise,
co-ordinated movements
requiring the interaction of
smaller muscle groups.

54
Basic characteristics General impact on Implications for the coach
performance
Children have a shorter tolerance Children may show symptoms of To acclimatize children will
time for exercise in extreme overheating or hypothermia more take longer so longer warm-ups
temperatures. quickly. may be required. Watch closely
for signs of distress caused by
extremes of temperature.

Children subjectively feel able Postpone or restrict exercise in

to be active in the heat before heat or humidity and ensure that
physiological adaptation has plenty of fluids are ingested. Thirst
occurred. is not a good indicator of fluid
need.
Motor patterns become more Great improvement in agility, Emphasize co-ordination and
refined and the balance balance, co-ordination, and kinaesthetic sense when doing
mechanism in the flexibility occurs towards the activities. Balance in the water
inner ear gradually matures. end of the stage. using buoyancy aids is one way to
develop these abilities.

There is apparent improvement in Plan coordination activities.

Strength develops by the strength not brought about by the
improvement in the neural neuro-mascular adaptations of
pathways. muscle fibres.

Late Childhood - Mental and Cognitive Development

Basic characteristics General impact on Implications for the coach

performance
The attention span gradually Children cannot listen or stay still for Provide short and precise
increases. long periods. instructions. Devise strategies
to ensure children are listening.
Children learn well by imitating
and practicing correctly-modelled
movements.

Children are enthusiastic and Children want to move and not Do not bombard children with
often impatient. listen. technical information. Give only
sufficient detail for the activity to
be undertaken. Keep the fun.

Children have very limited Children love to be led. Direct the training and give it a
reasoning ability. tight focus with activities that are
fun and well planned. Introduce
imaginative ways of achieving
performance goals.

55
 Basic characteristics General impact on Implications for the coach
performance
Children enjoy the repetition of Skill learning must be directed; Provide correct demonstrations
activities and improve through children do not learn correctly just of the basic sport skills. Personal
experience. by trial and error. demonstrations must be accurate.

Children establish their preferred Learning is through verbal, visual, Use a variety of learning styles to
learning style. or manual means. Most children suit individual needs.
are doers!

Imagination is blossoming. Creativity should be encouraged. Allow the children to play and
experiment. Use their ideas to
create exciting sessions. Structure
to encourage individuality and
creativity. Sport provides an
excellent vehicle for expression.

Language skills may be limited Children can’t make corrections Use terminology that can be easily
but are improving. to their performance unless they understood. Gradually introduce
understand what is being asked technical terminology. Children love
of them. long words.

Late Childhood - Emotional Development

Basic characteristics General impact on Implications for the coach
performance
Children like to be the centre of Develop this characteristic. Plan
attention. activities that guarantee success.
Always move from simple to more
complex when teaching a skill
movement. Allow children to show
their skills.

Children are developing their self Children tend to evaluate their Provide positive reinforcement to
concept. performance as a whole and build self- esteem. Children are
in terms that may be black and likely to perform the actions again
white. (I was brilliant, or, I was if they are successful and feel
useless.) good about it. Build on success.

Children feel secure with a Introduce change sensitively and Build a structure that is progressive
routine and structure to training. gradually. but maintains continuity.

Childrenfeelsecurewhencoachingis Children like things to be fair. Set and maintain high levels of
constant. expectancy, but be consistent with
each child. Do not let mood swings
or personal situations change
coaching behaviours.

56
Early Adolescence - Physical Development

Basic characteristics General impact on Implications for the coach

performance
Significant proportional changes Athletes may temporarily lose Because athletes will need to
occur in bone, muscle, and fat some of their kinaesthetic constantly change their positions,
tissue. awareness, their ability to ‘know monitor carefully to ensure
where they are’. appropriate adaptations are being
made.

Different parts of the body grow Athletes may appear gangly and Make athletes aware of the effect
at different rates. Arm and leg lose control of their extremities. of their changing body shape. Skills
length increases before the trunk. already refined may need to be
re-learned.

Decreases in flexibility result Movement may become restricted. Emphasizes low stretching
directly from growth. exercises.

Increases in growth and decreases Injury can result from exercise of Vary land-based activities and
in flexibility make adolescents an acute nature such as forced activities to avoid overuse.
prone to injury from acute impact. elongation of muscles during
kicking and jumping or from
overuse.

Girls begin their growth spurt Athletes are very different sizes at Be aware that age-related
between 10 and 14 years and the same age. groupings may not be appropriate.
grow at very different rates.

There is a significant increase in The oxygen transportation system Introduce structured aerobic
the production of red blood cells. is improved. training to make the most
of these changes. Only short
duration anaerobic training is
recommended.

The central nervous system is Agility, balance, and co-ordination Use this period for maximum
almost fully developed. are fully trainable. improvement in skill development.

Abstract thinking becomes firmly Adolescents should be part of Base decision making for strategies
established. decision-making processes and on skill level.
be more responsible for their
decisions.

A new form of egocentric thought The result may be a strong fear of Plan for success. Introduce coping
develops. failure. strategies, including mental imagery.

Young people are eager to perfect Structure successful skill learning Build on success. Be aware that
their skills. based on individual needs. athletes develop at very different
rates and although early developers
make early progress, include
all athletes. Be aware that late
developers may have greater
potential.

57
 Early Adolescence - Emotional Development
Basic characteristics General impact on Implications for the coach
performance
Physical, mental, and emotional Athletes who look mature may not Develop communication skills and
maturity may not develop at the act it. Confusion or anxiety may understanding.
same time. arise.

Tensions may arise between adults Adolescents need help to cope Ensure two-way communication
and adolescents. with their physical and emotional channels are always open. Allow
changes. athletes input into the decision
making.

Hormonal activity increases. Athletes may experience mood Communicate and accept
swings and behaviour may changes, but don’t let hormonal
change. changes be an excuse for negative
behaviour.

Social interaction between males Athletes want to form friendships Try to organize social events that
and females becomes important. and it is important to allow time allow social interaction.
for them to develop positive
relationships.

Late Adolescence - Physical Development

Basic characteristics General impact on Implications for the coach

performance
Post-menarche height begins to Muscles have grown to mature Maximize strength training to
stabilize. Increase in height is size, but increases in muscular bring about overall improvement.
about 5%. Stabilization of strength continue into the 20s. Optimize neuromuscular training.
muscular system also occurs.

Skeletal maturation continues. Connective tissue is strengthening. Continue progressive overloading

in training.

By 17, girls have generally reached Girls proportionately gain more Optimize aerobic training. Be
adult proportions. weight during this period. aware of how to deal with weight
gains. Teach athletes how to
compete in varied circumstances.

Rate of improvement in motor Rate of improvement in skill Be aware that the rate of
ability declines. development declines. improvement in motor ability will
be slower, but improvement will
still be made.

58
Late Adolescence - Mental and Cognitive Development
Basic characteristics General consequences for Implications for the coach
performance capabilities
and limitations
Generally by 16, the brain has Athletes can understand the Make sure athletes understand why
reached adult size, but continues technical requirements of their they are doing certain things.
to develop neurologically. sport.

Critical thinking becomes more Athletes can make decisions Allow athletes input and
established. about their training pathway. reduce the amount of feedback
and make athletes think for
themselves. Develop awareness
of performance by increasing
kinaesthetic knowledge.

There should be complete Rules are seen in simplistic terms Always be seen to be fair because
understanding and acceptance and must be clear and well adolescents have a strong sense of
of the need for rules, regulations, defined. fairness in making decisions. Make
and structures. athletes part of the decision-
making process.

Late Adolescence - Emotional Development

Basic characteristics General impact on Implications for the coach

performance
Major decisions about There are ‘pulls’ on time and Build in prophylactic breaks. Be
examinations, universities, and energy. aware of external pressures. Seek
employment work have to be professional guidance to ensure
made. the correct career and educational
pathway.

Peer group pressure leads to An athlete may give up sport Be sensitive in goal setting to
conflicting loyalties. because of peer pressure and the ensure that common goals are
need to be seen as one of the established and met.
gang.

Self-actualization and self- Treat athletes as adults. Share

expression are important. goals and work co-operatively
towards them. Maintain a coach-
led structure.

Interactions with friends of both Allow time to establish

sexes continue to be a strong independent social interaction.
priority.

59
 Early Adulthood - Physical Development

Basic characteristics General impact on Implications for the coach

performance
Physiologically, the body reaches All physiological systems are fully Ensure that physical training
maturity during this stage. trainable. programs employ the most
advanced techniques and sport
science information to facilitate
maximum adaptation and
minimize injuries.

Ensure that all muscle groups

and body alignments are well-
balanced, complemented with
optimum flexibility ranges.

Use state-of-the-art testing and

monitoring programs.

Carefully monitor overtraining and

overstress.

Final skeletal maturation in females Organize regular medical

occurs at about 19-20 years and in monitoring Schedule additional
males about 3 years later. blood tests for females in case of
anemia.

Early Adulthood - Mental and Cognitive Development

Basic characteristics General impact on Implications for the coach

performance
Neurologically, the brain matures Athletes are capable of self- Establish winning as the major
about 19-20 years of age. analyzing and correcting and objective.
refining skills. Athletes can analyze
and conceptualize all facets of
their sport.

Well-developed information Implement principles of adult

processing skills improve the learning.
athlete’s ability to visualize verbal
instructions.

There is a complete The young adult must perceive the Involve athletes in decision
understanding and acceptance rules and structure as being clearly making and planning team or
of the need for rules, regulations, defined and fair. group activities.
and structure.

60
Early Adulthood - Emotional development
Basic characteristics General consequences for Implications for the coach
performance capabilities
and limitations
There is a need to be self-directed Athletes are ready to assume Emphasize goal setting to give
and independent. responsibility and accept the definite direction and purpose to
consequences of their actions. the athlete’s overall program.

Self-actualization and self- Treat athletes as adults and with

expression are important. respect. Remember that the
coach’s direction and structure
remain important.

Major decisions on career, Major changes in interests, hobbies, Make professional guidance
education, and lifestyle are and physical activities occur. available, considering off-season
priority at some point in this and educational pursuits.
stage.

Interactions with the opposite sex Provide athletes with ample

continue to be a strong priority with opportunities for independent
lasting relationships developing. social interaction.

61
62
English FA Women’s Soccer - Long-Term Athlete Development - Periodization
(Balyi, Hills, Simmons and Way 2005)

Chronological Age Developmental Age + / -

Under 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24+ Active for Life

Specfic Training Age + / -

Sport Specific Charts

Training Age 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16+

General Training Age + / - 1 2 3 4 5

Physical, Mental - Cognitive, Emotional Development

Individual Tempo Learning to Training to Training to Based on

FUNdamental Training to Win 1 & 2
development varies Train Train Compete 1 & 2 international
Appendix 2

with each athlete’s Age 6 - 9 Age 8 - 11 U15 U17 U19 U21 Age 22 + and national
capabilities and normative data
maturation Double Periodisation Double Periodisation Multiple Periodisation
Optimizing
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23+
training
Based on testing Schools / Clubs Schools / Clubs Clubs/ National Player Clubs Clubs Clubs Clubs
Development pool National Team competition
and monitoring National Teams and recovery
Centres of Excellence loads

National Player Development Centre

Regional Player Development Centres (TASS)

Basic Components of Training

(Stamina, Strength, Speed, Skill, Suppleness)
Planning, Quantification and Implementation
Ancillary Capacities Percentage distribution of the Five S’s of training and performance

Warm-up Environment
Cool-down Health
Stretching Equipment
Regeneration Mental Periods Phases 4 : 1, 6 : 1, Sessions IndivIdual
3 : 1, 2 : 1, 5 : 1, 4 : 1, Sessions
Taper & Peak Socio-cultural General 15
Preparation Warm-up
Nutrition - Hydration Meso Micro 12
Specific Main Component
Competition Cycles Cycles 9
Pre-Competitive (five Ss)
Integration of sport science 6
and sport medicine,
Transition 1 : 1, 1 : 2, 3:1-2:1 Complimentary
as well as sport specific activities
Competitive 1:3 4
Transition Cool down
 Long-Term Athlete Development Plan - Speed Skating
(Way, Holmik and Balyi 2005)

Chronological Age Developmental Age + / -

Under 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24+ Active for Life

Specfic Training Age + / -

Training Age 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16+

General Training Age + / - 1 2 3 4 5 Based on

international
Physical, Mental - Cognitive, Emotional Development
and national
normative data

Active Start FUNdamental Learning to Train Training to Train Learning to Training to Learning Training
Compete Compete to Win to Win
Age 0 - 6 Under 10 U11 U13 U15 U17 Junior Senior Elite
Single Periodization Single Periodization Double Periodization Multiple Periodization

Girls 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 23+ Short Track

7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 21 22 23 24 25 25+ Long track
Boys
Movement skills Speedskating skills Building the Engine Optimizing the engine and
skills speedskating specific Maximizing Podium

Optimizing Note in Learning and Training to Win

Based on testing male and female ages are the same.
and monitoring training competition
and recovery loads At that stage chart depicts short
Basic Components of Training
and long track.
(Stamina, Strength, Speed, Skill, Suppleness)
Planning, Quantification and Implementation
Percentage distribution of the Five S’s of training and performance

Ancillary Capacities
Annual Plan
Warm-up Environment Periodization
Cool-down Health
Single Double Multiple
Stretching Equipment
Regeneration Mental Periods Phases 4 : 1, 6 : 1, Sessions IndivIdual
3 : 1, 2 : 1, 5 : 1, 4 : 1, Sessions
Taper & Peak Socio-cultural General 15
Preparation Warm-up
Nutrition - Hydration Meso Micro 12
Specific Main Component
Competition Cycles Cycles 9
Pre-Competitive (five Ss)
Integration of sport science 6
and sport medicine,
Transition 1 : 1, 1 : 2, 3:1-2:1 Complimentary
as well as sport specific activities
Competitive 1:3 4
Transition Cool down

63
64
Canadian Curling Association - Long-Term Athlete Development - System
(Dagg-Jackson, Balyi, Soligo and Way 2005)

Chronological Age Developmental Age + / -

Under 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24+ Active for Life

Specfic Training Age + / -

Training Age 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14+

General Training Age + / - 1 2 3 4 5

Physical, Mental - Cognitive, Emotional Development

Learn to Learning to Training to Training to Training to Win 1 & 2

Play Train Train Compete 1 & 2 Individual
Female Age 8 - 11 Age 26 + Tempo
Age 6 - 8 11 - 15 15 - 17 18 - 20 21 - 25 development
Male Age 6 - 9 Age 9 - 12 12 - 16 16 - 18 18 - 20 21 - 25 Age 26 + varies with
Single Peak Double Peak Multiple Peaks each athlete’s
capabilities and
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 to 25 26 + maturation
Active in all Club Clubs Bantam Junior Open Open
Sports Programs Teams Competitions Competitions Competitions Competitions
Canada Sport Centre
Club Schools - School Games Regional Rep. Sport Centre Based on
ADM Sport Centre
awareness Programs Teams Teams international
programs School and national
Competitions Uni/College Uni / College Clubs Programs
Optimizing Getting Teams Teams normative data
National U 18 Prov. and Nat.
training Started in Development Reg. / Prov. Team Programs
competition Curling Development Prov. and Nat.
and recovery Reg. / Prov. Programs Development
Kids Curl Development Le Releve
loads Programs National Jr. Programs Advanced Based on
Development testing and
(FUNdamentals) Programs Le Releve entry monitoring

PDM Recreation Strand Clubs based Active for Life

Published by the Canadian Sport Centres Expert Group
Istvan Balyi, Ph.D., Pacific Sport Canadian Sport
Centre Vancouver

Charles Cardinal, M.Sc en Activité Physique,

Canadian Sport Centre, Montreal

Colin Higgs, Ph.D., Memorial University of

All rights reserved. No part of this work Newfoundland
may be reproduced or transmitted in any
form for commercial purposes, or by any Steve Norris, Ph.D., Canadian Sport Centre, Calgary
means, electronic or mechanical, including
photocopying and recording or from any
information stored in a retrieval system, Richard Way, MBA, Pacific Sport Canadian Sport
without permission from Canadian Sport Centre Victoria
Centre – Vancouver.
Editors
Long-Term Athlete Development - Canadian Sheila Robertson, Robertson Communications
Sport for Life Ann Hamilton, Advanced Training & Performance

ISBN 0-9738274-0-8 Design

Andrew McAllister, McAllister Media
We acknowledge the financial support of
the Government of Canada through Sport Canadian Sport Centres also thanks 2010
Canada, a branch of the Department of LegaciesNow, PacificSport, and the following
Canadian Heritage. individuals from Canadian Heritage (Sport Canada) for
contributing to the development of the publication:
Dan Smith, Carol Malcolm-O’Grady, and Phil Schlote.

Feature Page Photo Credits

Page 2: Adam van Koeverden / Canadian Sport Centres also thanks the following national
Canadian Canoe Association sport organizations and photographers for contributing
photographs: Mandy Poitras, Paul McGrath / North Shore
News, Patricia Sayer / Frontrow Photography, Skate Canada,
Page 6: Dana Ellis / Athletics Canada
Canadian Snowboard Federation, Canadian Canoe Association,
Gymnastics Canada, Rugby Canada, Athletics Canada,
Page 12: Guylaine Dumont / volleyballcafe.com / Volleyball Canada.
Volleyball Canada

Page 18: Jennifer Heil / Canadian Sport Centres also thanks the great athletes, current,
Canadian Freestyle Ski Association past and future whose photos are included in this publication:
Aidan Way, Nigel Alexander, Adam van Koeverden, Liam Farrar,
Lister Farrar, Joanna Fox, Una Farrar, Kelly Smith, Dana Ellis,
Page 36: Lori-Ann Muenzer / Robert Jones /
Veronika Bauer, Steve Omischl, Jeff Bean, Kyle Shewfelt, Simon
Canadian Cycling Association Whitfield, Anika Way, Cecilia Way, Rachel Inglis, Alan Thomson,
Annie Martin, Morgan Williams, Mark Lawson, Garth Cooke, Kevin
Page 45: Brian Johns / Kevin Bogetti-Smith / Tkachuk, Alexis DeArmond, Taylor Learning, Calem Brassard, Phil
PacificSport Murphy, Jaycee Jay Anderson, Richard Peter, Lori-Ann Muenzer, Bill
Thomson, Adrienne Thomson, Elisa Kurylowicz, Brian Johns, Marc-
André Moreau, Jeff Adams, Justin Lamoureux.
Page 51: Justin Lamoureux / FIS

Page 66: Simon Whitfield and kids /

Tiffany Brown Cooper
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Long-Term Athlete Development

Canadian Sport
forLife