QUALITY AND SAFETY OF READY-TO-EAT STREET-

VENDED FOODS SOLD IN SELECTED LOCATIONS

WITHIN THIKA TOWN, KIAMBU COUNTY, KENYA

JOHNSON KYALO MWOVE

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

(Food Science and Nutrition)

JOMO KENYATTA UNIVERSITY

OF

AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY

2023
 Quality and Safety of Ready-To-Eat Street-Vended Foods Sold in
Selected Locations within Thika Town, Kiambu County, Kenya

Johnson Kyalo Mwove

A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the

Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Food Science and Nutrition of the
Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology

2023
 DECLARATION

This thesis is my original work and has not been presented for a degree in any other
university.

Signature ……...………………..…………….……... Date ………………………………

Johnson Kyalo Mwove

This thesis has been submitted for examination with our approval as the university
supervisors

Signature ……...………………..…………….……... Date ………………………………

Dr. Samuel Imathiu, PhD

JKUAT, Kenya

Signature ……...………………..…………….……... Date ………………………………

Dr. Irene Orina, PhD

JKUAT, Kenya

Signature ……...………………..…………….……... Date ………………………………

Dr. Paul N. Karanja, PhD

JKUAT, Kenya

ii
 DEDICATION

I dedicate this work to my lovely wife Catherine Nzisa Mwangangi, my daughters Faith
Mawia Kyalo and Isabell Mumbe Kyalo and my parents Mr. Christopher Mwove and Mrs.
Mary Mwove. Thank you for being a source of strength and showing me that all dreams
are achievable.

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am eternally grateful to the German Academic Exchange Service (Deutscher

Akademischer Austauschdienst – DAAD) for funding my studies and research. Their
support allowed me to pursue and realize my dreams.

I also wish to dearly thank my supervisors, Dr. Samuel Imathiu, Dr. Irene Orina, and Dr.
Paul Karanja for always finding time for my research work, and for their continued
support, and guidance in all aspects of this research. Their participation led to the success
of my Ph.D. studies. I am greatly indebted to Chuka University for allowing me to carry
out some of my analyses in the Animal Science Laboratory and the Physical Science
Laboratory. In particular, I would like to thank Mr. Martin Mutembei and Mr. Dominic
Maiyo (Department of Animal Science, Chuka University), for their assistance during
microbiological analysis. Further, I would like to thank Larbcorpt Laboratory and the
Kenya Bureau of Standards (KEBs) for helping with aflatoxin and acrylamide analysis.
Equally appreciated are my lecturers at the Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and
Technology for their support and advice during my coursework.

I am eternally grateful for the love, support, encouragement, and inspiration from my
lovely wife, Catherine Nzisa Mwangangi, my two daughters Faith Mawia Kyalo and
Isabell Mumbe Kyalo and my parents Mr. Christopher Mwove and Mrs. Mary Mwove. I
have made it this far because of them. I am also grateful to my brothers Reuben Mwove
and Peter Mfor their constant support and encouragement during my studies. My sincere
gratitude to my friends, colleagues, and classmates for their tireless support, counsel, and
encouragement.

Last but not least, I am extremely grateful to the Almighty God for his unending grace
and favor, and for making my dreams come true.

iv
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION.............................................................................................................. ii

DEDICATION................................................................................................................. iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .............................................................................................. iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................ v

LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................... xii

LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................... xiv

LIST OF APPENDICES ............................................................................................. xvii

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ..................................................................... xix

ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................... xx

CHAPTER ONE .............................................................................................................. 1

INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................ 1

1.1 Background Information ........................................................................................ 1

1.2 Statement of the problem ....................................................................................... 3

1.3 Justification ............................................................................................................ 5

1.4 Objectives .............................................................................................................. 6

1.4.1 General objective ................................................................................................... 6

1.4.2 Specific objectives ................................................................................................. 6

1.5 Hypotheses ............................................................................................................. 7

CHAPTER TWO ............................................................................................................. 8

LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................... 8

2.1 Street-vended foods ............................................................................................... 8

2.2 Street food consumption ........................................................................................ 9

v
2.3 Factors influencing the microbiological quality and safety of street-vended foods
........................................................................................................................... 10

2.3.1 Food safety knowledge among street vendors ..................................................... 10

2.3.2 Street food vendor’s hygiene and sanitation ........................................................ 11

2.3.3 Packaging and storage practices for street-vended foods .................................... 12

2.3.4 Source of the raw materials or the food ............................................................... 12

2.3.5 Food preparation environment ............................................................................. 13

2.4 Microorganisms commonly associated with street-vended food ......................... 14

2.4.1 Key pathogenic microorganisms of interest in street-vended foods .................... 18

2.5 The presence of toxic chemical substances in foods............................................ 22

2.5.1 Environmental contaminants................................................................................ 24

2.5.2 Agricultural residues ............................................................................................ 26

2.5.3 Food processing contaminants in street-vended foods ........................................ 29

2.5.4 Microbial toxins in street-vended foods............................................................... 30

CHAPTER THREE ....................................................................................................... 33

DETERMINATION OF FOOD SAFETY KNOWLEDGE AND PRACTICES OF

STREET FOOD VENDORS IN SELECTED LOCATIONS WITHIN THIKA
TOWN, KIAMBU COUNTY, KENYA ....................................................................... 33

3.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 33

3.2 Materials and methods ......................................................................................... 35

3.2.1 Study design and study site .................................................................................. 35

3.2.2 Sampling procedure for street food vendors ........................................................ 36

3.2.3 Questionnaire design and SFV interviews ........................................................... 37

3.2.4 Assessment tool for observation of street food vendor practices ........................ 37

3.2.5 Consent to collect information from street food vendors .................................... 38

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3.2.6 Statistical analysis ................................................................................................ 38

3.3 Results and discussion ......................................................................................... 38

3.3.1 Socio-demographic characteristics of street food vendors .................................. 38

3.3.2 Length of time in street food vending business ................................................... 40

3.3.3 Washing practices for hands, equipment, and utensils ........................................ 42

3.3.4 Handling of ready-to-eat food, utensils, and packaging materials by street food
vendors ................................................................................................................. 45

3.3.5 Storage and preservation practices of ready-to-eat food by street food vendors .....
.................................................................................................................... 46

3.3.6 Personal hygiene of street food vendors .............................................................. 47

3.3.7 Condition of the vending environment and the vending structures ..................... 50

3.3.8 Training in food hygiene and safety of street food vendors ................................ 52

3.3.9 Enforcement of food safety regulations among street food vendors ................... 53

3.4 Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 54

CHAPTER FOUR .......................................................................................................... 56

DETERMINATION OF THE CATEGORIES OF FOOD HYGIENE AND SAFETY

KNOWLEDGE AND PRACTICES AND THE FACTORS INFLUENCING FOOD
SAFETY, HYGIENE AWARENESS, AND PRACTICES AMONG STREET FOOD
VENDORS IN THIKA TOWN, KIAMBU COUNTY, KENYA. .............................. 56

4.1 Identification of the categories of food hygiene and safety knowledge and practices
among street food vendors through nonlinear principal component analysis ...... 56

4.1.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 56

4.1.2 Materials and methods ......................................................................................... 58

4.1.3 Results and discussion ......................................................................................... 61

4.1.4 Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 71

vii
4.2 Multinomial logistic regression analysis of factors influencing food safety,
hygiene awareness, and practices among street food vendors in Thika town,
Kiambu County, Kenya. ...................................................................................... 72

4.2.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 72

4.2.2 Materials and methods ......................................................................................... 73

4.2.3 Results and discussion ......................................................................................... 80

4.2.4 Conclusions .......................................................................................................... 91

CHAPTER FIVE ........................................................................................................... 92

DETERMINATION OF MICROBIAL QUALITY AND SAFETY OF READY-TO-

EAT STREET-VENDED FOODS................................................................................ 92

5.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 92

5.2 Materials and methods ......................................................................................... 94

5.2.1 Experimental design and study area..................................................................... 94

5.2.2 Sampling of street-vended foods.......................................................................... 94

5.2.3 Microbial analysis ................................................................................................ 96

5.2.4 Data analysis ........................................................................................................ 98

5.3 Results and discussion ......................................................................................... 98

5.3.1 Determination of total viable counts .................................................................... 98

5.3.2 Determination of total coliform counts .............................................................. 104

5.3.3 Determination of yeasts and mold counts .......................................................... 106

5.3.4 Determination of Escherichia coli ..................................................................... 107

5.3.5 Determination of Staphylococcus aureus .......................................................... 109

5.3.6 Detection of Salmonella spp. ............................................................................. 111

5.4 Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 114

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CHAPTER SIX ............................................................................................................ 116

DETERMINATION OF LEAD AND CADMIUM IN STREET-VENDED

FOODS .......................................................................................................................... 116

6.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 116

6.2 Materials and methods ....................................................................................... 118

6.2.1 Study site ............................................................................................................ 118

6.2.2 Sampling of street-vended foods........................................................................ 118

6.2.3 Preparation of reagents and standard curves ...................................................... 119

6.2.4 Sample preparation, digestion, and analysis ...................................................... 119

6.2.5 Data analysis ...................................................................................................... 119

6.3 Results and discussion ....................................................................................... 120

6.3.1 Level of cadmium in the street-vended foods .................................................... 120

6.3.2 Level of lead in the street-vended foods ............................................................ 127

6.4 Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 132

CHAPTER SEVEN ...................................................................................................... 134

DETERMINATION OF ACRYLAMIDE IN STREET-VENDED FRENCH

FRIES ............................................................................................................................ 134

7.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 134

7.2 Materials and methods ....................................................................................... 135

7.2.1 Study site ............................................................................................................ 135

7.2.2 Sampling ............................................................................................................ 135

7.2.3 Preparation of chemicals and standard curves ................................................... 135

7.2.4 Sample preparation, extraction, and analysis procedure .................................... 135

7.2.5 Daily consumption level for french fries ........................................................... 136

7.2.6 Data analysis ...................................................................................................... 137

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7.3 Results and discussion ....................................................................................... 137

7.3.1 Level of acrylamide in street-vended french fries ............................................. 137

7.3.2 Estimation of the dietary exposure to acrylamide in Thika Town ..................... 140

7.3.3 The margin of exposure to acrylamide in street-vended french fries ................ 143

7.4 Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 144

CHAPTER EIGHT ...................................................................................................... 145

DETERMINATION OF AFLATOXIN IN GROUNDNUTS AND CEREAL-BASED

STREET-VENDED FOODS ....................................................................................... 145

8.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 145

8.2 Materials and methods ....................................................................................... 146

8.2.1 Study location .................................................................................................... 146

8.2.2 Sampling ............................................................................................................ 147

8.2.3 Determination of moisture content of street-vended food samples ................... 147

8.2.4 Screening for aflatoxins in cereals and groundnuts using NEOGEN®'s Reveal®
Q+ for Aflatoxin test kit ..................................................................................... 147

8.2.5 Determination of aflatoxin B1 and total aflatoxin in cereals, nuts, and derived
products by competitive direct enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay .............. 148

8.2.6 Data analysis ...................................................................................................... 149

8.3 Results and discussion ....................................................................................... 149

8.3.1 Moisture level in street-vended groundnuts ....................................................... 149

8.3.2 Screening for aflatoxins in cereal-based foods and groundnuts ........................ 150

8.3.3 Total aflatoxin and aflatoxin B1 in groundnuts ................................................. 151

8.4 Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 155

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CHAPTER NINE ......................................................................................................... 156

GENERAL CONCLUSION AND

RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................................................. 156

9.1 Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 156

9.2 Recommendations .............................................................................................. 159

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................. 161

APPENDICES .............................................................................................................. 195

xi
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1: Common pathogenic microorganisms reported in street-vended foods ........ 15

Table 2.2: Toxic chemical substances in street-vended foods ........................................ 23
Table 3.1: Description of study locations within Thika town ......................................... 35
Table 3.2: Demographic characteristics of SFVs in selected locations in Thika town,
Kiambu County, Kenya. ............................................................................... 39
Table 4.1: Description of the variables selected for categorical principal component
analysis.......................................................................................................... 59
Table 4.2: Proportion of the variance accounted for in a seven-dimensional CATPCA
solution on 39 SFV food hygiene and safety characteristics ........................ 61
Table 4.3: Rotated component loadings from a seven-dimensional CATPCA on 39 SFV
food hygiene and safety characteristics. ....................................................... 63
Table 4.4: Description of the predictors used in logistic regression analysis. ................ 75
Table 4.5: Food safety, hygiene awareness, and practices characteristics with their
respective categories and scores ................................................................... 77
Table 4.6: Logistic regression analysis results for the four models ................................ 85
Table 5.1: Description of food samples selected from six locations in Thika town for
microbiological analysis ............................................................................... 95
Table 5.2: Microbial quality of street-vended food samples sold in selected locations in
Thika town, Kenya.. .................................................................................... 100
Table 5.3: Ready-to-eat foods specification by Kenya Bureau of Standards ............... 101
Table 5.4: Comparison of microbial quality of street-vended foods from the six study
locations in Thika town............................................................................... 105
Table 5.5: Prevalence of E. coli, S. aureus, Salmonella spp., and L. monocytogenes in
street-vended food samples ......................................................................... 108
Table 5.6: Prevalence of E. coli, S. aureus, Salmonella spp., and L. monocytogenes in the
six study locations. ...................................................................................... 112
Table 6.1: Level of cadmium in specific street-vended foods sold in selected locations in
Thika town, Kenya.. .................................................................................... 121

xii
Table 6.2: Level of lead in specific street-vended foods sold in selected locations in Thika
town, Kenya. ............................................................................................... 122
Table 6.3: Cadmium contamination levels (mg/Kg) in different street-vended food
samples within different study locations in Thika town, Kenya................. 125
Table 6.4: The level of lead and cadmium in street-vended foods within selected locations
in Thika town, Kenya.................................................................................. 126
Table 6.5: Lead contamination levels (mg/Kg) in different street-vended food samples
within different study locations in Thika town, Kenya. ............................. 129
Table 7.1: Margin of exposure to acrylamide in street-vended french fries sold in Thika
Town, Kenya. .............................................................................................. 142
Table 8.1: The moisture level in street-vended cereal-based foods and groundnuts. ... 150
Table 8.2: Proportion of samples contaminated with aflatoxin in street-vended cereal-
based foods and groundnuts........................................................................ 150

xiii
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 3.1: Map of the study area showing the study locations in Thika town. ............. 36
Figure 3.2: Street food vendors’ length of time in street food vending business. .......... 41
Figure 3.3: Relationship between age category and the duration of time in business. ... 42
Figure 3.4: Washing practices for hands, equipment, and fruits and vegetables. ........... 44
Figure 3.5: Type of materials used for working surfaces, closures, serving utensils, and/or
packaging materials. ..................................................................................... 45
Figure 3.6: Street food vendors’ ways of handling leftovers from the previous day...... 47
Figure 3.7: Observations on personal hygiene and practices of SFVs. .......................... 48
Figure 3.8: The proportion of SFVs whose serving utensils or packaging material were
exposed to the environment .......................................................................... 51
Figure 3.9: Questions on food safety knowledge and practices among street food vendors
...................................................................................................................... 53
Figure 4.1a and b: Biplot for PC-1 against PC-2 (a) and PC-1 against PC-3 (b) for the
seven-component CATPCA solution on the 39 SFV food hygiene and safety
characteristics in (Table 4.1). ........................................................................ 65
Figure 4.2: Triplot showing object scores plotted on the same axis as the variable scores
for PC-1 against PC-2 for the seven-component CATPCA solution on the 39
SFV food hygiene and safety characteristics (Table 4.1). ............................ 68
Figure 4.3: Triplot showing object scores split by education levels and plotted on the
same axis as the variable scores for PC-1 against PC-3 for the seven-
component CATPCA solution on the 39 SFV food hygiene and safety
characteristics (Table 4.1). ............................................................................ 69
Figure 4.4: Triplot showing object scores split by the length of time in street food vending
and plotted on the same axis as the variable scores for PC-1 against PC-3 for
the seven-component CATPCA solution on the 39 SFV food hygiene and
safety characteristics (Table 4.1). ................................................................. 70
Figure 4.5: Triplot showing object scores split by the nature of food sold by SFVs and
plotted on the same axis as the variable scores for PC-1 against PC-2 for the

xiv
 seven-component CATPCA solution on the 39 SFV food hygiene and safety
characteristics (Table 4.1). ............................................................................ 71
Figure 4.6: The proportion of correct predictions for the four logistic regression models
at a cut-point set at 0.5. ................................................................................. 82
Figure 4.7: Odds ratios with 95% Wald confidence limits for food safety and hygiene
awareness (AS) score. ................................................................................... 83
Figure 4.8: Odds ratios with 95% Wald confidence limits for working conditions (WC)
score. ............................................................................................................. 84
Figure 4.9: Odds ratios with 95% Wald confidence limits for personal hygiene practices
(PH) score. .................................................................................................... 88
Figure 4.10: Odds ratios with 95% Wald confidence limits for food handling practices
(FH) score. .................................................................................................... 90
Figure 5.1: Comparison of microbiological quality between plant-based and animal-
based street-vended foods. .......................................................................... 102
Figure 5.2: Comparison of microbiological quality between street-vended foods prepared
through heating and those prepared without heating. ................................. 103
Figure 5.3: Comparison of prevalence of E. coli, S. aureus, and Salmonella spp. in street-
vended foods prepared through heating and those prepared without heating.
.................................................................................................................... 113
Figure 5.4: Comparison of prevalence of E. coli, S. aureus, and Salmonella spp. in animal
and plant-based street-vended foods. .......................................................... 114
Figure 6.1: Proportion of samples contaminated with lead or cadmium within all samples
in each food type ......................................................................................... 123
Figure 6.2: Mean lead contamination levels in animal and plant-based street-vended food
products. The number of samples is indicated in brackets. ........................ 131
Figure 6.3: Lead contamination levels in street-vended foods compared to the limits
suggested by the Joint FAO/WHO food standards programme (2021) for RTE
foods for infants and young children. ......................................................... 132
Figure 7.1: Level of acrylamide in street-vended french fries sold in Thika Town, Kenya.
.................................................................................................................... 139

xv
Figure 7.2: Dietary exposure to acrylamide among children (5 Years) in Thika Town
Kenya. ......................................................................................................... 140
Figure 7.3: Estimated dietary exposure to acrylamide among adults (weighing 60kg) in
Thika Town, Kenya. ................................................................................... 141
Figure 8.1: The mean total aflatoxin level in groundnuts from selected locations in Thika
Town. .......................................................................................................... 151
Figure 8.2: The mean aflatoxin B1 level in groundnuts from selected locations in Thika
Town. .......................................................................................................... 153

xvi
 LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix 1: Research License ..................................................................................... 195

Appendix 2: Questionnaire for assessing handling practices and safety knowledge of
street food vendors in Thika sub-county, Kiambu County, Kenya ............ 196
Appendix 3: Checklist for assessing the handling practices of street food vendors in Thika
Town, Kiambu County, Kenya ................................................................... 202
Appendix 4: A pictorial description of samples used for analysis in this study ........... 209
Appendix 5: The standard curve used during spectrophotometric analysis of cadmium in
street-vended food samples ......................................................................... 215
Appendix 6: The standard curve used during spectrophotometric analysis of lead in street-
vended food samples ................................................................................... 216
Appendix 7: The standard curve used during HPLC analysis of acrylamide in street-
vended food samples ................................................................................... 217
Appendix 8: Publication 1: Mwove, J., Imathiu, S., Orina, I., & Karanja, P. (2020). Food
safety knowledge and practices of street food vendors in selected locations
within Kiambu County, Kenya. African Journal of Food Science, 14(6), 174-
185. ............................................................................................................. 218
Appendix 9: Publication 2: Mwove, J., Imathiu, S., Orina, I., & Karanja, P. (2020).
Multinomial logistic regression analysis of factors influencing food safety,
hygiene awareness, and practices among street food vendors in Kiambu
County, Kenya. Current Research in Nutrition and Food Science Journal, 8(3),
988-1000. .................................................................................................... 219
Appendix 10: Publication 3: Mwove J, Imathiu, S., Orina I, & Karanja, P. (2021).
Microbial quality and safety of ready-to-eat street-vended foods sold in
selected locations in Kenya. Journal of Food and Dietetics Research, 1, 34-
40. ............................................................................................................... 220
Appendix 11: Publication 4: Mwove, J., Imathiu, S., Orina, I., & Karanja, P. (2022).
Determination of total aflatoxin and aflatoxin B1 in groundnuts and cereal-
based street-vended foods sold in selected locations in Thika Town, Kenya.
Journal of Food and Dietetics Research, 2(3), 1-7. .................................... 221

xvii
Appendix 12: Publication 5: Mwove, J., Imathiu, S., Orina, I., & Karanja, P. (2023).
Environmental exposure assessment of lead and cadmium in street-vended
foods sold in selected locations in Kenya. Food Science & Nutrition. 11(6),
2610-2619 ................................................................................................... 222

xviii
 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

FAO Food and Agriculture

FSHAP food safety, hygiene awareness, and practices

IARC International Agency for Research on Cancer

MRL Maximum Recommended Limit

NACOSTI National Commission for Science and Technology

NLPCA Nonlinear principal component analysis

CATPCA Categorical principal component analysis

OR Odds ratios

SFVs street food vendors

SVFs Street-vended foods

TCC total coliform count

WHO World Health Organization

YMC yeast and molds count

BMDL10 Benchmark dose for a 10% response

TDI Tolerable Daily Intake level

ELISA enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay

xix
 ABSTRACT
The safety of street foods remains a public health concern, especially in developing
countries like Kenya where foodborne illnesses associated with these foods have often
been reported. Their consumption has the potential to cause foodborne diseases due to
contamination with pathogenic microorganisms as well as the presence of toxic chemical
contaminants. The objective of this study was to determine the level of food safety
knowledge and practice of street food vendors and to determine the microbial and
chemical quality of ready-to-eat street-vended foods sold in selected locations within
Thika Town of Kiambu County in Kenya. The study targeted 385 street food vendors in
six locations including Thika town center, Ngoigwa, Juakali area, Makongeni, Kiandutu
slums, and the area surrounding Thika Level 5 hospital. Data collection was accomplished
through face-to-face interviews using structured questionnaires and observation using an
assessment tool for observation of personal hygiene and food handling practices of SFVs
and the condition of the vending environment. A total of 199 food samples consisting of
cereals, sliced fruits, salads, groundnuts, tubers, fruit juices, boiled deshelled eggs,
smokies, and sausages were randomly collected for microbial and chemical analysis.
Determination of total viable counts, total coliform counts, yeast and molds counts,
Escherichia coli counts, Staphylococcus aureus counts as well as the presence of
Salmonella spp., and Listeria monocytogenes were determined following standard
microbiological methods. The concentrations of lead and cadmium were determined by
atomic absorption spectrophotometry while acrylamide in french fries was determined
using high-performance liquid chromatography. Total aflatoxins and aflatoxin B1 in
cereal-based foods and groundnuts were determined using a competitive direct enzyme-
linked immunosorbent assay. The results indicated that the majority of the street food
vendors were male (63.2%) with 38.1% of them having attained secondary school
education. About 93% of the SFVs had not received any formal training on food hygiene
and safety. The majority of street food vendors handled food with bare hands (96.8%) or
handled money while serving food without washing hands (86.1%). Few vendors
appropriately preserved their food with 78.3% storing foodstuff that required refrigeration
at ambient temperatures. Whereas public health officers’ visits were found to significantly
(p<0.0001) motivate street food vendors to obtain a food handler's medical certificate,
only about 27% had obtained it. Good food safety and hygiene awareness scores were
significantly (p<0.05) influenced by education level, food hygiene, and safety training,
mobility of street food vendors, public health inspection, and the category of street food
vendors. The levels of total viable counts, total coliform counts, yeast and mold counts,
Escherichia coli, and Staphylococcus aureus ranged from 6.59 to 3.38, 5.57 to 1.59, 5.05
to 1.60, 2.03 to 0.00, and 5.97 to 1.89 Log10 CFU/g respectively. At least nine food
samples were contaminated with Escherichia coli although the chance for contamination
was significantly (p = 0.0002) higher (15 times) in plant-based foods compared to animal-
based foods. At least one sample in each food type was contaminated with Staphylococcus
aureus with contamination levels above 1.89±1.66 Log10 CFU/g. Listeria monocytogenes
was not detected in any food sample. The level of lead contamination in street-vended
foods ranged between 0.271±0.070 and 1.891±0.130 mg/Kg with groundnuts recording
significantly higher (p<0.0001) mean levels (1.891 mg/Kg) than other food types. These

xx
concentrations exceeded the maximum allowable limits set by the Joint Food and
Agriculture/ World Health Organization food standards program. The mean acrylamide
level for the street-vended french fries in Thika town was 0.558±0.128 μg/g, higher than
the European Union benchmark value of 0.5 μg/g. Total aflatoxin and aflatoxin B1 in
street-vended groundnuts averaged between 4.4 - 14.2 µg/kg and 3.4-11.3 µg/kg,
respectively. On average 16.7% and 44.4% of groundnut samples exceeded the total
aflatoxin and aflatoxin B1 limits established by the Kenya Bureau of Standards,
respectively. In addition, 72.2% and 100% of the groundnut samples exceeded the limits
for total aflatoxin and aflatoxin B1 set by the European Union, respectively. These
findings suggest that street-vended foods sold in this study area are of public health
concern as they potentially can cause illnesses to consumers. Consequently, there is a need
to regulate the informal food processing and marketing channels to enhance their quality
and safety standards. The public health sector should enhance awareness among street
food vendors and consumers on food hygiene and safety through training. In addition, the
provision of basic infrastructure for enhancing hygiene among street food vendors,
continuous monitoring of street-vended foods by the public health department to identify
potential contaminants and the establishment and enforcement of policies to govern the
street-vended food businesses may contribute to improved quality and safety of these
foods.

xxi
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background Information

Street foods are ready-to-eat foods (RTFs) and beverages that are mostly sold and
sometimes prepared by vendors on the streets and in other public places. They are usually
bought by consumers for immediate consumption or consumption at a later time without
any further preparation or processing (Imathiu, 2017). The vast growing urban population
in developing countries has stimulated a rise in the number of street food vendors in many
cities to satisfy the demand for affordable and accessible ready-to-eat meals. Many of
these people rely on street-vended foods for one or more of their daily meals (Moussavi,
Liguori, & Mehta, 2016). Street foods are not only cheap and convenient to consumers
but also a key contributor to income and nutrition for many people in the developing world
(Choudhury et al., 2011; IFRA, 2016; Micah et al., 2012; Namugumya & Muyanja, 2011;
Oyunga-Ogubi et al., 2009; Steyn et al., 2014). They are also potential channels for food
fortification (Imathiu, 2017).

The safety of street-vended foods remains a public health concern, especially in

developing countries like Kenya. Street vendors operate informally with minimal control
since they are often unlicensed to handle food and are untrained in food hygiene and
sanitation (IFRA, 2016; Imathiu, 2017; Muinde & Kuria, 2005). It has also been reported
that food safety knowledge is low among street vendors (Bereda et al., 2016). Due to the
informal nature of these businesses, compliance with food laws as well as the enforcement
of the same is not always possible. Without compliance, the possibility of food-borne
diseases occurring in the population is very high. Furthermore, the chance of adulteration
of food with unlicensed harmful substances or the sale of uncertified food substances is
high. Since consumers do not always think of food safety when they purchase street-
vended foods (Asiegbu, Lebelo, & Tabit, 2016; Sanlier et al., 2018), the potential for these
foods to cause harm is high. Billions of consumers are at high risk and millions contract

1
foodborne diseases of both microbiological and chemical nature every year and as a result,
many die from consuming these unsafe foods (WHO, 2015).

This has been majorly attributed to poor hygiene practices and inadequate safety
knowledge by street food vendors resulting in contamination with pathogenic
microorganisms. In Bharatpur, Nepal, a study on street-vended foods revealed
contamination with 13 different bacterial pathogens of which Escherichia coli,
Staphylococcus aureus, and Citrobacter spp. were most prevalent (Khadka et al., 2018).
In Africa, Isara et al. (2017) reported that poor handling practices amongst street vendors
resulted in contamination with coliforms as well as Staphylococcus aureus in Benin City,
Nigeria. In Ethiopia, Bereda et al. (2016), reported the presence of Escherichia coli,
Staphylococcus aureus, and Salmonella species in street-vended foods. In Kenya, Muinde
and Kuria (2005) reported that operators lacked hygiene training as well as safe food
handling practices that are important in assuring the safety of foods in Nairobi, Kenya.
Similar results were reported in Embu municipality, Kenya, in the case of food handlers
in commercial eating places (Kariuki & Orago, 2017). In addition, Kariuki, Waithera
Ng’ang’a, and Wanzala (2017) reported Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae in a
sample of boiled egg with a raw vegetable salad sold on the streets of Githurai and
Gikomba markets in Kenya while Awino (2015) found street-vended foods to contain
Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and Salmonella in Kisumu, Western Kenya.
Therefore, there is a need for research on street-vended foods to identify possible
contaminants present to develop interventions to curb the spread of pathogenic
microorganisms. For instance, a sanitation standard for street food vendors has potential
to enhance the safety and quality of these foods (WHO, 2015). Efforts have been put in
this direction in several countries around the world but very little has been done in Kenya
(Rane, 2011).

Besides microbiological contaminants, street-vended foods are also key contributors to

unsafe chemical contaminants in the diet. Various toxic chemical contaminants including
acrylamide (Altissimi et al., 2017; Ogolla et al., 2015) and aflatoxins (Asemoloye et al.,
2017), as well as heavy metals (Chavez et al., 2014; Ihsan & Edwin, 2018), have been

2
reported in street-vended foods around the world. However, research in this area is very
scanty. In Kenya, minimal research has been carried out on the chemical toxic constituents
present in ready-to-eat street-vended foods. According to WHO (2015), the number and
amount of these chemicals and toxins that make it into the food supply and eventually into
ready-to-eat foods are unknown. Further worsening the situation is that the health effects
of chemicals may not be observed for several years following exposure (WHO, 2015).
Thus, cases of liver cancer and cardiovascular disease may be linked to toxic contaminants
consumed through food over long periods (Koriech, 1994). For instance, acrylamide and
nitrosamines have been reported as potent human carcinogens (Tricker & Preussmann,
1991; Zyzak et al., 2003). Consequently, there is a need to identify and quantify the types
and amounts of toxic substances in ready-to eat-foods, the information of which can be
used to guide the development of possible mitigation strategies to minimize risks
associated with these contaminants.

Therefore, this study aimed to determine the quality and safety characteristics of ready-
to-eat street-vended foods sold in selected locations within the Thika sub-County, Kiambu
County, Kenya. A structured survey targeting street food vendors was administered to
determine their safety knowledge and practices. In addition, street-vended foods were
analyzed for possible microbial and chemical toxic contaminants.

1.2 Statement of the problem

Street food safety remains a public health concern, especially in developing countries like
Kenya. According to the WHO (2015), consumers are potentially exposed to diseases
from either microbiological or chemical contamination every time they consume such
food. Many consumers are at high risk and millions contract foodborne diseases every
year, as a result, many people die from consuming contaminated food. According to the
WHO (2022), approximately 600 million individuals worldwide, become sick due to
consumption of contaminated food. Tragically, this leads to approximately 420,000 deaths
annually, resulting in a total loss of 33 million years of healthy life with children under 5
years of age carrying about 40% of the foodborne disease burden, with about 125,000
deaths occurring every year. Street foods have been thought to contribute a substantial

3
proportion of these foodborne illnesses usually due to poor hygienic and sanitary
conditions in which they are prepared and often sold. Street food vendors in Kenya operate
informally with minimal regulation which poses a food safety concern considering the
large number of consumers of these food products, most of whom are young adults and
children (Imathiu, 2017). Furthermore, ensuring compliance with food handling practices
and health measures is thus impossible since there are no established sanitation standards
for street-vended foods. Due to the lack of regulation, the chances of adulteration of food
with unlicensed harmful substances or the sale of uncertified food substances are high.

Previous research in Kenya has shown that street vendors lack training in food preparation,
hygiene, and sanitation, and work under unsanitary conditions (Kimani, Kariuki, &
Irungu, 2018; Muinde & Kuria, 2005). Furthermore, the storage conditions for street-
vended foods are poor due to the lack of storage facilities to maintain the cold chain for
highly perishable foods (Muinde & Kuria, 2005). This has resulted in the contamination
of food with pathogenic microorganisms (Awino, 2015; Kariuki et al., 2017) showing that
food-borne diseases and poor hygiene practices are still a public health concern in Kenya.
Nevertheless, reports on the microbial safety of street-vended foods are limited in Kenya.
In particular, data for some common pathogenic microorganisms such as Salmonella,
Staphylococcus aureus, and Listeria monocytogenes in street-vended food is very scanty
or unavailable in Kenya. Chemical contaminants have also been reported contaminating
street-vended foods. For instance, antibiotic and pesticide residues, heavy metals,
acrylamide, and aflatoxins have been reported in street foods (Ahlberg et al., 2016;
Altissimi et al., 2017; Ezekiel et al., 2012; Kamika & Takoy, 2011; Ogolla et al., 2015;
Orwa et al., 2017).

These contaminants have been linked to human diseases. For instance, acrylamide and
nitrosamines have been reported as potent human carcinogens (Tricker & Preussmann,
1991; Zyzak et al., 2003). Whereas process contaminants and chemical residues are of
public health concern, limited research has been carried out to determine their presence
and concentrations in street-vended foods sold in Kenya. Thus, there is a need for the
analysis of street-vended foods to determine their quality and safety and therefore,

4
compliance to food standards and to come up with policies that cover the entire chain of
street food vending.

1.3 Justification

There has been a constant increase in the demand for convenient foods that are cheap and
easily available to consumers. Street foods are consumed by most urban dwellers mostly
because they are affordable and convenient. Every day, almost 2.5 billion individuals
consume street food worldwide (Shehasen & Mohammed, 2020). In Kenya, many people
consume street-vended foods. In their studies on street-vended foods, Moussavi et al.
(2016) reported that there were over 95% of street food consumers in Central Kenya.

Besides their convenience and affordability, street-vended foods contribute to food

nutrition security for many people in the developing world (Micah et al., 2012;
Namugumya & Muyanja, 2011; Oyunga-Ogubi et al., 2009). Furthermore, owing to their
huge consumption, they may be suitable channels for food fortification (Imathiu, 2017).
However, street food vending is mostly done by the urban poor who are often uneducated
or lack basic training on food hygiene and sanitation.

Unlike those well-established businesses that are licensed, street vendors are mobile and
unregistered, with poor compliance with food handling practices and health measures in
place (IFRA, 2016; Imathiu, 2017; Muinde & Kuria, 2005). This poses a safety health
concern as contamination can easily occur in these foods affecting many people.
Moreover, due to the lack of regulation, the chances of adulteration of food with
unlicensed harmful substances or the sale of uncertified food substances that may be
harmful to the unsuspecting public are high (Omemu & Aderoju, 2008). Considering that
a substantial portion of street food consumers are children and young adults, who often
indulge in such foods daily, the potential impact of contaminants is a pressing issue (Hill
et al., 2016).

Thika Town, a rapidly growing urban center in Kenya, is home to a population of

approximately 251,407 (Kenya National Bureau of Statistics, 2019). Its proximity to
Nairobi and its concentration of educational institutions contribute to its vibrant street

5
food culture. As the population relying on street-vended foods continues to grow, the
associated public health challenges are likely to escalate. Notably, reports of poor food
hygiene and safety practices among street food vendors in Kiambu County, particularly
in the Juja sub-County (Kimani et al., 2018) adjacent to Thika town, further emphasize
the need for a comprehensive study on the quality and safety of street-vended foods.

This study, focused on Thika town, aims to provide vital insights into the safety of street-
vended foods and their implications for public health. The findings are expected to
establish a valuable baseline for the development of effective food safety policies for
street-vended foods in Kenya. By addressing existing gaps in understanding and
highlighting critical issues, this research contributes to enhancing the overall quality of
street food offerings, thus safeguarding the health and well-being of consumers.
Furthermore, it opens avenues for future studies and interventions to address the
challenges faced by this crucial sector.

1.4 Objectives

1.4.1 General objective

To determine the food safety knowledge and practice of street food vendors and the quality
and safety of ready-to-eat street-vended foods sold in selected locations within Thika
Town, Kiambu County, Kenya.

1.4.2 Specific objectives

1. To determine food safety knowledge and practice of street food vendors of ready-
to-eat foods sold in selected locations within Thika Town.
2. To determine the categories of food hygiene and safety knowledge and practices
and the factors influencing food safety, hygiene awareness, and practices among
street food vendors in Thika Town.
3. To determine the microbial quality and safety of ready-to-eat street-vended foods
sold in selected locations within Thika Town.

6
 4. To determine the toxic chemical substances in ready-to-eat street-vended foods
sold in selected locations within Thika Town.

1.5 Hypotheses

1. Ho: The practices and the level of safety knowledge of street food vendors in
selected locations within Thika Town are adequate for ensuring food quality and
safety.
2. Ho: There is no significant categorization of food hygiene and safety knowledge
and practices among street food vendors, and there are no significant factors
influencing food safety, hygiene awareness, and practices among street food
vendors in Thika Town.
3. Ho: The microbial quality and safety characteristics of ready-to-eat street-vended
foods sold in selected locations within Thika Town conform to the food quality
and safety standards of Kenya.
4. Ho: There are no toxic chemical substances in ready-to-eat street-vended foods
sold in selected locations within Thika Town.

7
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Street-vended foods
Street foods are ready-to-eat beverages and foods that may be prepared and sold by street
food vendors in the streets and other public places (Imathiu, 2017). They are usually
bought by consumers for immediate consumption or consumption at a later time without
any further preparation or processing (Imathiu, 2017; Winarno & Allain, 1991).
Consumers are attracted to the seemingly nutritious low-cost foodstuffs that are ready-to-
eat and available whenever they are needed (Winarno & Allain, 1991). Street-vended
foods can be of animal or plant origin. Some of these foods may be already processed by
established manufacturers, only requiring re-heating or prepared by the street vendors
themselves either at their residential places or at the site of sale (Maroko, 2016).
According to Imathiu (2017), street foods can be grouped into three categories; processed
food sold by mobile vendors, food prepared at vendors’ homes and sold to the public, and
food prepared and sold on the street.

Since street food vending does not require huge capital investment to start (Verma et al.,
2023) and it lacks government regulation, it is attractive to many people, especially the
urban poor and the unemployed (Khairuzzaman et al., 2014). As a result, street food
vendors have been reported to lack training in safe food preparation (Muinde & Kuria,
2005) which may result in public health issues concerning these foods. Poor preparation
may also result in the formation of toxic process contaminants or the addition of harmful
additives that may be injurious to the consumer. Moreover, other street-vended foods are
minimally processed foods. For instance, fruits and vegetables that are sold as salads may
only undergo preparation processes such as cutting or peeling which creates avenues for
contamination (Carrasco, Morales-Rueda, & García-Gimeno, 2012). Consumers most
often overlook hygiene and sanitation as well as the safety of street foods which may prove
to be costly in the event contamination with pathogens or toxic chemical contaminants
occurs.

8
2.2 Street food consumption

Almost 2.5 billion individuals consume street food daily around the world (Shehasen &
Mohammed, 2020). In a study conducted by van’t Riet et al. (2001) who surveyed 1011
households in the low-income areas of Korogocho and Dandora in Nairobi, Kenya, they
reported that 78% and 53% of the respondents were street food consumers in Korogocho
and Dandora, respectively. In a more recent study by Moussavi et al. (2016), which
involved 50 respondents, it was found that in Nyeri town, over 95% of the population
were consumers of street-vended foods.

This large number of street food consumers has stimulated an increase in the number of
street food vendors in major towns in Kenya. This can also be attributed to the increase in
poverty and the need to earn a living as well as the cheap nature of the business and the
ease of access by consumers. As a result, street foods make up a significant proportion of
the daily diet for many people (Muinde & Kuria, 2005; Steyn et al., 2014). These foods
are sold in populous areas including the markets, construction sites as well as bus stations
where a large number of people frequent or work and are unable to prepare their food.
Even though data on consumption patterns for street-vended foods is minimal, Hill et al.
(2016) reported that consumption of street foods was high in South Africa as 43% of
people were found to consume these foods 2 – 3 times a week, while 38.3% bought them
almost every day showing the importance of these foods to the consumers. In this study,
fruits had the highest consumption at 87.2% while cooked and/ or baked products followed
closely at 72.1% (Hill et al., 2016). Thus, regulation of this sector is important to ensure
the safety of street food consumers. Since children are among the consumers of street-
vended foods (Imathiu, 2017), care must be taken to enhance the safety of these foods
since children are in the high-risk population bracket.

Besides their contribution to employment and income for many, street foods contribute to
daily nutrient intake (Micah et al., 2012; Namugumya & Muyanja, 2011). Oyunga-Ogubi
et al. (2009) reported that street foods were good contributors to iron, zinc, and vitamin A
in the diet. Thus, street-vended food may be crucial in the fight against food nutrition
insecurity. Nevertheless, food safety awareness is low among both consumers as well as

9
street food vendors. For consumers, accessibility, better taste, and affordability are some
of the reasons for the purchase of street foods (Asiegbu et al., 2016). Sanlier et al. (2018)
reported that most consumers were aware that street foods could be contaminated with
microorganisms and that sellers did not pay good attention to hygiene, and that those foods
were raw or insufficiently cooked. Nonetheless, they still preferred them because they
were cheap and delicious and there was variety and fast service. The chance of infection
originating from contaminated street food is, therefore, very high. There is a need to
enhance the safety of street-vended foods which will ultimately reduce the chance of
infections originating from them.

2.3 Factors influencing the microbiological quality and safety of street-vended

foods

2.3.1 Food safety knowledge among street vendors

Food safety is the practice of handling, preparing, and storing food in a way that minimizes
the possibility that customers would contract a foodborne illness (WHO, 2022). To avoid
food becoming contaminated and resulting in food poisoning, several rules must be
followed. This is accomplished in several ways, some of which include maintaining a high
standard of personal hygiene, properly storing food, heating food sufficiently, and
thoroughly cleaning and sanitizing all surfaces, tools, and utensils (Uçar, Yilmaz, &
Çakiroglu, 2016). Food safety knowledge encompasses understanding the potential
hazards—whether chemical, microbial, or physical—that could contaminate food, along
with the practices and measures necessary to ensure that food is safe for human
consumption (Kamboj et al., 2020; Uçar et al., 2016).

Food safety knowledge is generally poor among street food vendors as not all of them are
usually educated or trained in food handling (Omemu & Aderoju, 2008). On the other
hand, having food safety knowledge may not assure safe food on the streets. For instance,
in Benin City, food vendors had a high level of knowledge of food hygiene even though
their food safety practices did not match their level of knowledge (Isara et al., 2017).
Similar observations were reported by (Bormann, Adzinyo, & Letsa, 2016) in street-

10
vended foods in Ghana. Perhaps, enforcement of food laws may motivate street food
vendors to adhere to good hygiene practices. According to Muinde and Kuria (2005),
many street food vendors in Kenya had no food preparation skills as most gained
knowledge through experience. Poor knowledge of food preparation as well as food safety
has the potential to cause food contamination. This explains the need for policy
formulation covering street food vending so as to regulate the sector to ensure public
health safety.

2.3.2 Street food vendor’s hygiene and sanitation

Sanitation includes all of the tools, practices, and services needed to stop diseases and
disease-causing agents from spreading due to contact with human waste (WHO, 2018a).
The term hygiene describes practices that enhance cleanliness and promote good health
among people (Bartram & Cairncross, 2010). The safety and hygiene status of street-
vended foods has been reported to be poor in Africa (Bormann, Adzinyo, & Letsa, 2016;
Eliku, 2016; Muinde & Kuria, 2005; Omemu & Aderoju, 2008). Examples of poor
hygiene and sanitation practices among vendors include not washing their hands or
washing hands with dirty water. It has been reported as common vendor practice to
directly touch ready-to-eat foods with unwashed hands, for instance during the slicing of
meat products. In addition, most vendors may not wear protective attire such as sterile
nylon gloves before handling ready-to-eat foods (Makinde et al., 2020; Uçar et al., 2016).
According to Omemu and Aderoju (2008), street food vending sites in Abeokuta Nigeria
lacked basic facilities such as water and toilets. In Ghana (Bormann et al., 2016),
inadequate sanitary facilities and poor personal hygiene practices were identified as
responsible for the low safety and quality of street foods. In Ethiopia, Eliku (2016)
reported that basic hygiene practices were overlooked. For instance, 88.6% of vendors did
not have an apron on while 95% had uncovered hair. In addition, all street vendors handled
money with bare hands while serving food. Similar results were reported by Muinde and
Kuria (2005) in Kenya. Street vendors rarely have licenses to operate their businesses
(Eliku, 2016). As a result, following the food hygiene and safety measures and follow-up

11
by the public health inspectors are not possible. This leaves the safety of the consumers at
the mercy of the street food vendors whose intention is to make a living.

2.3.3 Packaging and storage practices for street-vended foods

The packaging material comes into contact with food. Thus, any contamination on the
packaging may end up in the food product. Poor packaging practices have been reported
among street food vendors. For instance, in Ethiopia, Eliku (2016) reported that over 90%
of street food vendors used recycled paper for packing food. In Kenya, due to the recent
ban on plastic packaging materials that were cheap and available for packaging street-
vended foods, vendors now use recycled paper or sell food that is not packed (Personal
communication, February 8, 2019). The poor packaging materials used for food by street
food vendors can release undesirable substances to food that are of safety concern to
consumers (Proietti, Frazzoli, & Mantovani, 2014b). For instance, using paper packaging
materials that were used to wrap other substances or using newspapers to wrap bakery
products (Personal communication, February 8, 2019) may transfer contaminants to the
food.

Besides the poor packaging practices, storage practices for street food vendors have also
been reported to be inferior. This is due to a lack of storage facilities to maintain low
temperatures for highly perishable foods that require refrigeration (Cortese et al., 2016).
In Ghana (Bormann et al., 2016), temperature abuses and poor packaging were identified
as responsible for the low safety and quality of street foods. In Kenya, Muinde and Kuria
(2005) found out that cooked foods were stored at ambient temperatures and exposed to
the environment during the sale which posed significant safety concerns. Exposing food
to ambient temperatures encourages a wide range of microorganisms to proliferate. Some
of those microorganisms may be pathogenic and able to cause infections and intoxications
when consumed in the food.

2.3.4 Source of the raw materials or the food

The quality of raw materials always determines the quality of the end products. The quality
of the raw materials depends on their source. For instance, due to the diverse treatment

12
that animals undergo from different farms, some of which may use illegal drugs, the
quality of meat and meat products from different sources may not be the same in terms of
antibiotic residues (Proietti et al., 2014b). According to Omemu and Aderoju (2008), the
volume of raw materials and the price are considered more than the freshness and
cleanliness when purchasing. Thus, vendors may choose to buy low-priced raw materials
or use cheap additives that are illegal and unsuitable for human consumption to make a
substantial profit from their ventures. This further worsens the already worse situation.
Therefore, contaminants originally existing in raw materials end up in ready-to-eat
products. Most processed foods are usually safe at dispatch from the manufacturers unlike
those that are prepared by the street food vendors at their homes or the retail site. When
processed foods require a short preparation before the sale, avenues of contamination are
many. In addition, storage practices before preparation and after preparation will also
determine the quality and safety of the foods (Proietti et al., 2014b). Since street food
vendors do not have sufficient storage facilities (Cortese et al., 2016), mixing of raw and
ready-to-eat products may occur which may result in contamination.

2.3.5 Food preparation environment

The hygiene and sanitation of vending sites have the potential to influence the quality and
safety of street food. In Owerri, Nigeria, Chukuezi (2010) reported that street food vendors
sold foodstuffs in unhygienic places. In Ghana, poor construction and the haphazard
location of vending sites were identified as some of the factors contributing to the low
safety and quality of street foods. In Kenya, Muinde and Kuria (2005) reported that street
food vendors prepared the food either at home or at the stalls located by the roadsides.
Exposure of food to such environments has the potential to influence its quality with a
high chance that contamination with pathogenic microorganisms will occur. Therefore,
there is a need to have street food selling zones that are designed to allow for the sale of
safe food to consumers. Having a clear set, marked-out selling place fitted with adequate
amenities to ensure the sale of safe food is one way in ensuring public safety (Muinde &
Kuria, 2005).

13
2.4 Microorganisms commonly associated with street-vended food

Microbial foodborne diseases occur when pathogenic microorganisms are consumed

through contaminated food. Even though the pathogen may be destroyed during food
preparation, the toxins produced by some pathogens may remain to cause diseases when
the food is consumed. Street-vended foods have been linked to causes of infections due to
contamination with pathogenic microorganisms. Table 2.1 shows foodborne pathogens
reported in street-vended food around the world. The commonly reported pathogens in
street-vended foods include Salmonella, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and
Listeria monocytogenes.

14
Table 2.1: Common pathogenic microorganisms reported in street-vended foods

Bacteria Food studied Country Reference

Clostridium Boiled eggs, beans and maize, Kenya, South Africa Kariuki et al. (2017); Mosupye and von Holy (1999)
perfringens sausages, smokies, Meats (Fried
steaks, beef stews, and chicken
stews), gravies, salads, rice, etc
Escherichia coli Ice cream, sandwiches, beverages, Nepal, Kenya, S. Africa*, Adzhani, Purwanta, and Rahmatullah (2018); Awino (2015);
panipuri (masala, pani, and puri), Ghana, Bangladesh, Bereda et al. (2016); Djibrine et al. (2018); Elfaki and
pasta, boiled eggs with raw Ethiopia, India, Kenya, Elhakim (2011); Guraza et al. (2018); Hossain et al. (2017);
vegetable salad, deep-fried and Chad, Indonesia, Sudan, Islam et al. (2015); Jahan et al. (2018); Kariuki et al. (2017);
fried snacks, buttermilk, salads, Dhaka City, Brazil, Khadka et al. (2018); Mensah et al. (2002); Mohamed (2015);
panipuri, juices, tamarind water, Mosupye and von Holy (1999); Rajan and Aruna (2017);
plain drinking water, bread, sugar Sachdev and Mathur (2017); Ferrari, Oliveira, and São josé
cane juice, etc. (2021); Asiegbu, Lebelo, and Tabit (2020); Ghosh, Mitra, and
Ali (2022)
Listeria Dairy products, Romania, S. Africa, Ciolacu et al. (2016); Asiegbu et al. (2020); Khaliq et al.
monocytogenes Fish and fish products, meat Pakistan, Chile (2021); Nosheena et al. (2022); Bustamante et al. (2020)
and meat products, spices, dried
fruits, jellies, gingerbread, candies,
etc
Salmonella Meat and meat products, egg and India, Pakistan Anukampa et al. (2017); Raza et al. (2021)
Enteritidis egg products, milk and milk
products, burgers, shawarma,
pizza, and sandwiches
Salmonella Paratyphi Panipuri (Masala, Pani and Puri) Nepal, India Khadka et al. (2018); Anukampa et al. (2017)
Salmonella Typhi + Panipuri (Masala, Pani and Puri) Nepal, India Anukampa et al. (2017); Kariuki and Orago (2017); Khadka
et al. (2018)
Salmonella spp. Vegetable Salad, mandazi (a form Kenya, Bangladesh, Awino (2015); Bereda et al. (2016); Elfaki and Elhakim
of fried bread), ice cream, deep Ethiopia, Minas Gerais, (2011); Guraza et al. (2018); Imathiu (2018); Islam et al.
fried and fried snacks, pickles, fruit India, Sudan, Brazil, S. (2015); Jahan et al. (2018); Kariuki et al. (2017); Kharel,
chutney, baked items, Juices, Africa Palni, and Tamang (2016); Magalhães Monteiro et al. (2017);
tamarind water and plain drinking Mohamed (2015); Nemo, Bacha, and Ketema (2017); Noor
water, Pasta, sandwich, etc (2016); Rajan and Aruna (2017); Ferrari et al. (2021);
Asiegbu et al. (2020)

15
 Bacteria Food studied Country Reference
Salmonella Buttermilk, salads, panipuri, India, Pakistan Anukampa et al. (2017); Guraza et al. (2018); Raza et al.
typhimurium burgers, shawarma, pizza, and (2021)
sandwiches, etc
Staphylococcus Ice cream, egg burger, vegetable Kenya, Romania, Akusu, Kiin-Kabari, and Wemedo (2016); Bereda et al.
aureus salad, packaged fried rice, pasta, Ethiopia, South Africa, (2016); Ciolacu et al. (2016); Djibrine et al. (2018); Elfaki and
meat and meat products, Ghana, India, Chad**, Elhakim (2011); Guraza et al. (2018); Isara et al. (2017);
Sandwiches, buttermilk, meat, Minas Gerais, Botswana, Kariuki et al. (2017); Loeto et al. (2017); Mafune, Takalani,
salads and vegetables portions, Brazil and Anyasi (2016); Magalhães Monteiro et al. (2017);
savory snacks, hot dogs, coconut Mensah et al. (2002); Nemo et al. (2017); Rajan and Aruna
water, meat barbecued on the (2017); Sachdev and Mathur (2017); Tshipamba et al. (2018);
skewer and boiled corn, bread, Ferrari et al. (2021); Asiegbu et al. (2020); Ghosh et al. (2022)
sugar cane juice, etc

Staphylococcus spp. Egg burger, vegetable salad, Sudan, Ethiopia Mohamed (2015) Kharel et al. (2016); Nemo et al. (2017)
packaged fried rice, meat pie, etc
* Escherichia coli (non O157:H+), ** Coagulase-positive staphylococci, + isolated from food handler

16
According to Rane (2011), microbial food safety issues involving street-vended foods are
caused by microorganisms belonging to the genus Clostridium, Bacillus, Listeria,
Staphylococcus, Campylobacter, Salmonella, and Vibrio. Food contamination is thought
to cause the majority of diarrheal diseases globally (WHO, 2017). This is mainly due to
poor hygiene and sanitary conditions, especially during the handling of ready-to-eat foods.
Thus, street-vended food may be a significant contributor to diarrheal diseases due to poor
sanitation and hygiene practices among food handlers (WHO, 2015).

In Kenya, diarrheal diseases rank high among the causes of death (MOH, 2014). Since the
hygiene and sanitation of the surrounding environment influence the occurrence of
pathogenic microorganisms and thus, diarrheal diseases in humans (Elmi & Dioso, 2017),
considering the poor hygiene practices reported among street food vendors and the
unhygienic vending environments where these foods are often sold, street-vended foods
could therefore be potential sources of pathogenic microorganisms.

Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae were detected in a sample of boiled egg with
a raw vegetable salad in a study on the food-handling practices and environmental factors
associated with food contamination among street food vendors in Nairobi County, Kenya
(Kariuki et al., 2017). In another study, Awino (2015) found street-vended foods to
contain Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and Salmonella in a study investigating
the prevalence of pathogenic microorganisms in Kisumu County, Western Kenya while
Muendo, Kikuvi, and Mambo (2022) found Escherichia coli (51.7%), Staphylococcus
aureus (34.4%) and Salmonella (15.2%) in street-vended cooked foods in Chuka town,
Tharaka Nithi County. Therefore, the safety of street-vended foods in Kenya is still a
public health concern. The presence of Escherichia coli which is an indicator of fecal
contamination of food is a key indicator of the poor sanitation and hygiene practices of
street food vendors. The global burden of foodborne illnesses is considerably high and
affects people of all ages, particularly children under 5 years of age due to their weaker
immunity (WHO, 2015). Considering that most consumers of these foods are children,
there is a need to enhance the safety of street-vended foods.

17
Street foods are subjected to temperature abuse due to poor storage practices at the site of
sale (Bormann et al., 2016). For instance, animal-based products such as meat that require
refrigeration during storage may be left at ambient temperatures during sales.
Furthermore, leftovers of the same temperature-abused product may be stored and sold
the following day. This presents an avenue for the proliferation of microorganisms
including pathogenic bacteria which may produce toxins or increase in numbers to levels
that are capable of causing diseases when the food is consumed. In street-vended foods,
contamination of food with toxins has been reported. Pathogenic Escherichia coli toxin
was detected in ethnic street foods including samosa, kachori, puchkka, alu chop, and
vegetable momo, among others, from Gangtok in India (Kharel et al., 2016). Escherichia
coli toxins such as the Shiga toxin produced by Escherichia coli O157:H7 are associated
with a hemolytic uremic syndrome that has been reported to be fatal to humans (Tarr,
Gordon, & Chandler, 2005).

2.4.1 Key pathogenic microorganisms of interest in street-vended foods

2.4.1.1 Salmonella

Salmonella is a genus name that incorporates gram-negative rod-shaped bacilli that are
part of the Enterobacteriaceae family. They are facultative anaerobic bacteria with two
reported species that are further classified into many subspecies. These include Salmonella
enterica and Salmonella bongori (Brenner et al., 2000). Salmonella causes salmonellosis
which is a major cause of enteric bacterial illnesses in both animals and humans (Antunes
et al., 2016; Brenner et al., 2000; Gomez et al., 1997). It usually results in gastroenteritis
and bacteremia, affecting mostly immunocompromised individuals (Acheson &
Hohmann, 2001; Chen et al., 2013). Many serotypes have been found to cause
salmonellosis. However, a few are associated with most human infections. For instance,
Salmonella enterica Enteritidis is the most frequently associated serovar with human
disease (Antunes et al., 2016). In healthy humans, the infective dose is 106 to 108 CFU,
(Chen et al., 2013), although counts as low as 103 CFU have been reported in outbreaks
(Blaser & Newman, 1982). Most affected food products are those of animal origin
including meat products and eggs (Antunes et al., 2016; Hugas & Beloeil, 2014). In

18
particular, poultry products have been more implicated in Salmonella outbreaks (Antunes
et al., 2016). These foods are some of the most commonly street-vended foods.

In street-vended ready-to-eat foodstuffs, Salmonella species have been reported. For

instance, Salmonella typhimurium was reported in street-vended buttermilk, salads,
sandwich, and panipuri, in India (Anukampa et al., 2017; Guraza et al., 2018). In Brazil,
Ferrari et al. (2021) reported the presence of Salmonella spp. in savory snacks as well as
hot-dog while in the Johannesburg Metropolis, South Africa, Salmonella spp. were
reported in 21.8% of ready-to-eat starch-based, beef-based, poultry-based, fish-based,
vegetable-based and sandwich-based (burgers, samosa, filled hotdogs, and bunny chow)
street-vended foods (Asiegbu et al., 2020). Salmonella spp. (Salmonella enteritidis and
Salmonella typhimurium) were identified in 15.3% of ready-to-eat street-vended burgers,
shawarma, pizza, and sandwiches in Pakistan (Raza et al., 2021).

In Kenya, while studying the prevalence of pathogenic microorganisms in Kisumu,

Western Kenya, Awino (2015) found street-vended foods to contain Salmonella while
Muendo et al. (2022) reported Salmonella spp. in 15.2% of street-vended cooked foods
sold in Chuka town, Tharaka Nithi County. Thus, street-vended foods can be a key
contributor to Salmonella infections in Kenya. Such infections can be far-reaching and
devastating because the consumers of street-vended foods are diverse. Considering that
salmonellosis is severe in immunocompromised individuals including children who form
a good proportion of street food consumers (Imathiu, 2017), infections may be
exceedingly more severe. Since Salmonella is a virulent pathogen, there is a need to
determine the prevalence of this pathogen in street-vended ready-to-eat foodstuffs to
inform any reforms that may improve street food safety.

2.4.1.2 Staphylococcus aureus

Staphylococcus aureus remains a dangerous human pathogen. It is a gram-positive coccus

belonging to the Micrococcaceae family. They have a distinguished gold pigmentation on
colonies giving positive results in mannitol fermentation, and coagulase tests (Lowy,
1998). Staphylococcus aureus is commonly implicated in most infections in hospitalized

19
patients. Due to its wide range of virulent factors, the pathogen can cause a wide range of
infections. Staphylococci produce numerous toxins that may result in human illness
(Archer, 1998; Lowy, 1998). It is a prominent factor in the occurrence of bacteremia and
infective endocarditis, as well as infections related to the bones, joints, skin, soft tissues,
and lungs (Tong et al., 2015).In street-vended foods, Staphylococcus aureus has been
reported. The pathogen has been reported in sandwiches and samosa in Sudan and
Ethiopia (Kharel et al., 2016; Mohamed, 2015; Nemo et al., 2017). In Accra Ghana,
Mensah et al. (2002) reported Staphylococcus aureus in 31.9% of 163 food samples.
Staphylococcus aureus has also been reported in street-vended fresh salads from Quetta
City, Pakistani (Saifullah et al., 2018). In Brazil, Ferrari et al. (2021) reported the presence
of Staphylococcus aureus in savory snacks, hot dogs, coconut water, meat barbecued on
a skewer, and boiled corn while in the Johannesburg Metropolis, South Africa, it was
reported in 31.8% of ready-to-eat starch-based, beef-based, poultry-based, fish-based,
vegetable-based and sandwich-based street-vended foods (Asiegbu et al., 2020).

While studying the prevalence of pathogenic microorganisms in Kisumu, Western Kenya,

Awino (2015) found street-vended foods to contain Staphylococcus species. Similar
results were reported by Kariuki et al. (2017) in a study on food-handling practices and
environmental factors associated with food contamination among street food vendors in
Nairobi County, Kenya, and Muendo et al. (2022) while studying microbial contamination
levels in cooked street-vended foods sold in Chuka town, Tharaka Nithi County, Kenya.
Thus, Staphylococcus aureus being a virulent pathogen, there is a need to determine the
prevalence of this pathogen in street-vended ready-to-eat foodstuffs that are more prone
to contamination and recontamination before consumption.

2.4.1.3 Listeria monocytogenes

Listeria monocytogenes is one of the 17 species of the genus Listeria (Molla, Yilma, &
Alemayehu, 2004; Orsi & Wiedmann, 2016). Among the 17 species, only Listeria
monocytogenes and Listeria ivanovii are considered pathogenic to humans (Orsi &
Wiedmann, 2016). Listeria monocytogenes are gram-positive bacteria that are
facultatively anaerobic, non-spore-forming rods. They exhibit flagella motility showing a

20
positive Voges-Proskauer reaction. They give a positive catalase reaction, a negative
oxidase test as well as a negative nitrate test (Orsi & Wiedmann, 2016). Listeria
monocytogenes can grow at temperatures as low as 4 °C, making them a problem not only
in foodstuffs stored at room temperature but also in those that are refrigerated.

Listeria monocytogenes cause listeriosis. Signs of listeriosis can manifest within 24 hours,
and in individuals without underlying health issues, they may include joint pain,
headaches, abdominal pain, diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite, fatigue, and
drowsiness (Chlebicz & Śliżewska, 2018). Listeriosis outbreaks have been reported
severally around the world involving ready-to-eat food products. Of particular mention is
the outbreak that occurred in South Africa (WHO, 2018b) with a case fatality rate of 27%.
This outbreak in South Africa was linked to a ready-to-eat processed meat product called
“Polony”. Researchers have reported fatalities ranging from 20-30% when listeria
outbreaks occurred (Julian et al., 2001; Swaminathan & Gerner-Smidt, 2007). The
fatalities are even higher when the high-risk population is considered (Jackson, Iwamoto,
& Swerdlow, 2010). This is because, even though uncommon in ready-to-eat foods, the
infectious dose for Listeria monocytogenes is low. Farber, Ross, and Harwig (1996)
estimated the infective dose of Listeria monocytogenes to be 10 - 100 million colony-
forming units (CFU) in healthy hosts, and only 0.1 - 10 million CFU in individuals at high
risk of infection. Thus, Listeria monocytogenes are dangerous even at very low levels in
ready-to-eat foodstuffs.

The presence of Listeria monocytogenes in street-vended foods has been reported. In

Egypt, it was isolated in 57% of street-vended sandwiches and dishes of traditional food
(El-Shenawy et al., 2011). In Malaysia, it was isolated in squids, prawns, chicken,
cucumber (slices), and peanut sauce (Arumugaswamy, Ali, & Hamid, 1994). In Pakistan,
Khaliq et al. (2021) reported a prevalence ranging from 37.5 – 62.5% in ready-to-eat
street-vended salads from different zones within Faisalabad City while Nosheena et al.
(2022) reported a prevalence of 2% in street-vended fresh salads in Quetta. Listeria
monocytogenes was also detected in 7.5% of ready-to-eat artisanal foods in Chile
(Bustamante et al., 2020) and in 46.4% of ready-to-eat starch-based, beef-based, poultry-

21
based, fish-based, vegetable-based and sandwich-based street-vended foods sold in the
Johannesburg Metropolis, South Africa (Asiegbu et al., 2020).

In Kenya, there is limited information on the prevalence of Listeria monocytogenes in

ready-to-eat foodstuffs. Therefore, it is important to determine the prevalence of Listeria
monocytogenes in especially ready-to-eat street-vended foods where contamination may
easily occur.

2.5 The presence of toxic chemical substances in foods

Limited research has been reported on the level of contamination of street foods with
chemical toxic contaminants. Table 2.2 shows toxic compounds reported in street-vended
foods. Commonly reported toxins in street-vended foods include acrylamide, polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons, aflatoxins, and heavy metals such as lead, mercury, antimony,
manganese, and cadmium (Table 2.2). As shown in Table 2.2, these contaminants have
been reported in many street-vended foodstuffs. These toxins may be categorized into
four: environmental contaminants, processing contaminants, agricultural residues, and
microbial toxins.

22
Table 2.2: Toxic chemical substances in street-vended foods

Chemical Residue Foods Implicated Food Country Reference

Category
Acrylamide Potato crisps Plant origin Kenya Ogolla et al. (2015)
PAHs Roasted yam, fried fish * Animal and Nigeria Ekhator, Udowelle, and
plant origin Igbiri (2018)
Lead (Pb ) Fried street food, rice, spaghetti, beans, roasted plantain, Animal and Indonesia, Chavez et al. (2014);
fried chicken, fried turkey, edible maggot, meat pie, fried plant origin Nigeria, Ekhator et al. (2017);
plantain, white rice, stewed meat, salad, roasted yam, Philippines Ihsan and Edwin (2018);
buns, fried meat, fried fish, doughnut, cake, sausage, etc. Solidum (2010)
Mercury (Hg) Rice, spaghetti, beans, roasted yam, buns, fried plantain, Animal and Nigeria Ekhator et al. (2017)
white rice, roasted plantain, fried fish, doughnut, meat plant origin
pie, edible maggot, stewed meat, salad, cake, sausage,
fried chicken, fried turkey, fried meat, etc.
Antimony (Sb) Rice, spaghetti, beans, roasted plantain, fried chicken, Animal and Nigeria Ekhator et al. (2017)
fried turkey, meat pie, roasted yam, buns, fried plantain, plant origin
fried meat, fried fish, doughnut, white rice, stewed meat,
salad, cake, sausage, etc.
Manganese (Mn) Rice, spaghetti, beans, roasted plantain, fried chicken, Animal and Nigeria Ekhator et al. (2017)
fried turkey, fried meat, salad, cake, sausage, meat pie, plant origin
edible maggot, roasted yam, buns, fried plantain, white
rice, stewed meat, fried fish, doughnut, *
Aluminum (Al) Rice, spaghetti, white rice, stewed meat, salad, fried Animal and Nigeria Ekhator et al. (2017)
chicken, fried turkey, fried meat, beans, roasted plantain, plant origin
fried fish, doughnut, meat pie, edible maggot, roasted
yam, buns, fried plantain, cake, sausage, *
Cadmium (Cd) Deep-fried breaded quail, buns, fried plantain, white rice, Animal and Philippines, Chavez et al. (2014);
steamed dumpling, grilled chicken’s small intestine, rice, plant origin Nigeria Ekhator et al. (2017)
spaghetti, beans, fried chicken, fried turkey, meat pie,
edible maggot, roasted yam, stewed meat, fried meat,
fried *
Aflatoxins Corn, groundnut, nuts (coconut, tiger nut, and walnut), Plant origin Nigeria, Ezekiel et al. (2012);
and wheat snacks, * Congo Kamika and Takoy
(2011)
PAHs - polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, *and others

23
2.5.1 Environmental contaminants

Contamination of street-vended foods from the environment may occur at any step from
the production of raw materials to street food preparation and eventual vending (Proietti
et al., 2014b). Raw materials such as the vegetables used for salads may already be
contaminated with toxic substances especially if the vegetables were grown on
contaminated soils (Osaili et al., 2016). Street food is exposed to environmental pollutants
since it is often cooked, served, and consumed in open areas without adequate shelter. The
exposed food can be contaminated by airborne pollutants, car smoke, burning industrial
gasses, insects, rats, and foul odors from garbage (Rakha et al., 2022). Amongst the
environmental contaminants of concern reported in street-vended foods are heavy metals
including lead and mercury (Chavez et al., 2014; Ekhator et al., 2017; Ihsan & Edwin,
2018; Mohammed, 2010; Solidum, 2010).

In a study carried out in Jordan, Osaili et al. (2016) reported that the mean level of lead
(0.15-1.15 mg/kg) in onions, exceeded the European Union set limits (0.1 mg/kg fresh
weight). Ali and Al-Qahtani (2012) reported lead in both onions (3.52 – 4.28 mg/kg) and
tomatoes (2.78 – 3.32 mg/kg) sold in Saudi Arabian markets. The presence of lead in
onions and tomatoes that are used to prepare salads is an indication of the possibility of
lead contamination in salads and other foods that are prepared using these vegetables. In
Nigeria, Ogunkunle, Bello, and Ojofeitimi (2014) reported the presence of lead (0.07 –
1.93 mg/kg) and cadmium (0.00-0.09 mg/kg), in street-vended mangoes, pawpaw, and
watermelons while Ekhator et al. (2017) reported the presence of lead (0.12 - 1.37 mg/kg)
and cadmium (<0.001 – 0.0014 mg/kg)) in commonly consumed street-vended foods sold
in Benin City and Umunede, Nigeria. In Kenya, research on heavy metals especially
ready-to-eat food products is minimal. Kinyanjui (2009) reported lead levels ranging from
0.00 - 0.38 mg/100 g in fruits and vegetables sold in Kisumu County, Kenya. Tomno et
al. (2020) reported contamination of kale and spinach cultivated and sold in Machakos
Municipality, Kenya with cadmium levels ranging between 0.013 – 3.19 mg/kg and lead
levels ranging between 0.02 – 0.368 mg/kg. Continuous ingestion of heavy metals such
as lead and mercury has a damaging effect on humans (Jaishankar et al., 2014). For

24
instance, aluminum in large quantities interferes with physical and cellular processes in
the body (Jaishankar et al., 2014). Previous research has also linked heavy metals to the
increasing cases of cancer in sub-Saharan Africa (Fasinu & Orisakwe, 2013).

Heavy metals may enter the food chain in many ways. The contamination of soils with
toxic wastes laced with heavy metals as a result of poor waste disposal practices from
some industries may result in the accumulation of these heavy metals in plants that grow
in those soils. Thus, plant produce may contain some of these toxic heavy metals in
varying concentrations. In addition, when animals consume these plants, animal products
such as milk, eggs, and meat may in turn become contaminated with these toxic metals.
The growing of vegetables in cities and near industrial places has been reported to yield
foodstuffs contaminated with heavy metals (Ali & Al-Qahtani, 2012). For instance, Njagi
et al. (2017) reported that vegetables grown around dumpsites in Nairobi City County,
Kenya were heavily contaminated with mercury (0.38 to 2.68 mg/kg) and lead (0.39 to
1.59 mg/kg) above maximum allowable levels. Although the sources of raw materials for
street-vended foods are not well established, it may be possible that some of these raw
materials may be from small farms established in cities and near industrial places. Poor
waste disposal systems constantly experienced in developing countries such as Kenya
further enhance contamination of the environment and food with toxic substances (Fasinu
& Orisakwe, 2013). It is usual practice for trash piles, fly-infested areas, and rat nests to
gather close to street vending locations. Street food vendors often contribute to littering
by discarding leftover food and non-food items in public spaces (Rakha et al., 2022).
Problems caused by these toxic contaminants may not be immediate but accumulation in
the body may reach toxic levels causing health issues late in life.

25
2.5.2 Agricultural residues

2.5.2.1 Antibiotic residues

Antibiotics are used to treat or prevent animal diseases (Allen et al., 2014). The presence
of antibiotic residues in foods (Darwish et al., 2013) is an indication of excessive,
inappropriate, and unnecessary use and poor management of antibiotics (Beyene, 2016;
HSCC, 2018). Despite the large amounts of antibiotics in use around the world, there are
minimal reports on antibiotic residues in foods (WHO, 2015). There are also few reports
documenting research on antibiotic residues in ready-to-eat foods (WHO, 2015).

Tetracycline and beta-lactams are among the most commonly used antibiotics.
Tetracycline is a broad-spectrum antibiotic with bacteriostatic effects. They have been
used in both human and animal disease management. Tetracyclines are predominantly the
most prescribed antibiotics in Africa representing 41% of all antibiotic-associated residues
in food (Darwish et al., 2013).

The beta-lactams are characterized by a beta-lactam ring in their chemical structure that
gives them their antibacterial activity (Donowitz & Mandell, 1988). Their activity against
the microorganisms is based on their ability to inhibit cell wall synthesis in bacteria
(Donowitz & Mandell, 1988; Macheboeuf et al., 2006). Examples of beta-lactam
antibiotics include penicillin, monobactams, carbapenems, and cephalosporins. Beta-
lactams are also among the most common antibiotics that are used in the treatment of
humans as well as animals (King et al., 2017). Beta-lactam antibiotics follow tetracyclines
closely at 18% of all antibiotic-associated residues in foods (Darwish et al., 2013).
Indiscriminate and inappropriate use of antibiotics in the treatment of animals has been
reported in Kenya (Roderick et al., 2000). Thus, there is a high possibility for antibiotic
residues to be found in animal-derived food products.

Antibiotic residues are the leading cause of antimicrobial resistance that is being reported
around the world (Beyene, 2016; Omulo et al., 2015). Antimicrobial-resistant bacterial
infections currently claim at least 700,000 lives globally, and the numbers are expected to
rise in the next 30 years (HSCC, 2018). According to Beyene (2016), the major public

26
health concern of antibiotic residues is the development of drug resistance,
carcinogenicity, hypersensitivity reaction, teratogenicity, mutagenicity, and disruption of
intestinal normal microflora in the human gastrointestinal tract. According to Bacanlı and
Başaran (2019), they can cause various side effects including the transmission of
antibiotic-resistant bacteria to people, immunopathological effects, allergies,
mutagenicity, nephropathy (from gentamicin), hepatotoxicity, reproductive problems,
bone marrow toxicity (from chloramphenicol), and even carcinogenicity (oxytetracycline,
furazolidone, sulphamethazine). Antimicrobial resistance of pathogenic bacteria isolated
from street foods has been reported by other researchers (Anukampa et al., 2017; Hossain
et al., 2017; Lin et al., 2017; Nemo et al., 2017; Ngangom, Tamunjoh, & Boyom, 2019).

Even though there is limited research on antibiotic residues in street-vended ready-to-eat

foods, these residues have been reported in foodstuffs. For instance, Ahlberg et al. (2016)
reported the presence of beta-lactams, sulfonamides, and tetracyclines in 24% of the milk
samples tested in Kenya. Recently, Orwa et al. (2017) reported the presence of
sulfonamides and tetracyclines antibiotic residues in raw milk from both rural (31.4%)
and peri-urban (28.8%) dairy systems in Kenya. In another research, Kosgey, Shitandi,
and Marion (2018) reported the presence of antibiotic residues in 24% of milk obtained
from milk vending machines as well as 24% of street-vended, supposedly ready-to-drink
milk samples. Similarly, Wanjala et al. (2018) reported antibiotic residues in ready-to-
drink processed milk. Thus, there is the possibility of finding antibiotic residues,
especially β-lactams and tetracyclines commonly used in disease management in Kenya
in street-vended foods.

2.5.2.2 Pesticide residues

To manage weeds, insects, and diseases in a variety of fruits and vegetables, pesticides
are used both pre-and post-harvest. Some types of pesticides include insecticides,
herbicides, fungicides, nematicides, and avicides. The application of pesticides has
enhanced agricultural production, crop yield, crop protection, the availability of
inexpensive food, and farmers' income (Zikankuba et al., 2019). However, their improper
use and management result in residues in fruits and vegetables sold in many markets and

27
streets. Pesticide residues have been shown to cause acute and chronic adverse health
effects in humans. In particular, they have been implicated in endocrine disruption,
genotoxicity, mutagenicity, chronic neurotoxicity, and carcinogenesis (Macharia, MithÃ,
& Waibel, 2009). Many countries and health organizations such as the US, and WHO,
have established the maximum residue limits (MRL) for pesticide residues in farm
produce. Pesticide residues such as acephate, bifenthrin, chlorothalonil, chlorpyrifos,
cyfluthrin, cyhalothrin, cypermethrin, deltamethrin, dichlorvos, dimethoate, fenitrothion,
fenpropathrin, fenvalerate, isocarbophos, methamidophos, omethoate, phorate, parathion-
methyl, parathion, permethrin, triadimefon, and triazophos have been reported in fruits
and vegetables (C. Chen et al., 2011). Some of them have been found in cabbages,
cucumber, eggplant, apples, broccoli, legumes, lettuce, oranges, cauliflower, celery,
peach, pear, spinach, and tomatoes (Chen et al., 2011).

In street-vended foods, pesticide residues at levels above maximum residue limits (MRLs)
have been reported around the world (Bakırcı et al., 2014; Chen et al., 2011; Elgueta et
al., 2017; Łozowicka et al., 2015; Lozowicka et al., 2016; Mebdoua et al., 2017;
Struciński et al., 2015; Szpyrka et al., 2015; Yang et al., 2016). Yang et al. (2016) reported
66.7% while Elgueta et al. (2017) reported 27% of fruit and vegetable samples contained
pesticide levels above MRLs in China and Chile, respectively. In Algeria, Mebdoua et al.
(2017) reported that 12.5% of food samples contained pesticide residues.

Carbamates and organophosphorus compounds are amongst the most commonly used
pesticides in Kenya that have been reported to adversely affect human health (AIRS,
2017). Large exposures to organophosphates produce cholinesterase depression (Hardos
et al., 2020). Cholinesterase inhibition in turn results in an overstimulated nervous system
which further results in nausea, dizziness, confusion, and eventually respiratory paralysis
and death (AIRS, 2017). In the case of organophosphates, it is cumulative and longer-
lasting, and therefore more dangerous (AIRS, 2017; Bosak, 2006). Although there has
been research on pesticide residues around the world, little research has been done in
Kenya. In particular, the levels of pesticide residues in street-vended foods are important.

28
Pesticide residues have been found in soil and water indicating the possible presence in
food (Getenga, Keng’ara, & Wandiga, 2004).

2.5.3 Food processing contaminants in street-vended foods

Using heat to process food paves the way for chemical contamination of the food.
Utilizing high cooking temperatures is the most common method of food processing in
both homes and commercial settings. When combined with other factors, the use of high
heat for cooking can lead to the production of dangerous compounds that affect the food's
quality and safety. Toxic compounds such as nitrosamines, chloropropanols, acrylamide,
furanes, or polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are produced during the heating, roasting,
grilling, baking, canning, fermentation, or hydrolysis processes used to process food.
During the process of preparing food, frying is most usually responsible for the production
of a variety majority of dangerous substances (Rather et al., 2017).

Due to a lack of adequate training in food preparation, most street food vendors heat foods
for an extended period without the replacement of heating oils or fats (Abong & Kabira,
2015). This has the potential for the development of toxic compounds such as nitrosamines
in the case of cured meat products containing nitrates or nitrites (Sen, 2018). Nitrosamines
are formed by the reaction of secondary or tertiary amines with nitrosating agents such as
nitrous anhydride, which is formed from nitrite in an acidic, aqueous solution. The nitrates
and nitrites are used in cured meat products and can easily produce nitrous anhydride
(Scanlan, 1983). The most common nitrosamines are N-nitroso dimethylamine, N-nitroso
diethylamine, and N-nitroso pyrrolidine (Sen, 2018). On the other hand, acrylamide can
be formed in starchy foods. When food is heated at typical cooking temperatures, the
carbonyl-containing compounds may interact with amino groups, especially from amino
acid asparagine to produce acrylamide. According to Zyzak et al. (2003), the formation
process involves the formation of a Schiff base after which decarboxylation and
subsequent elimination of either ammonia or a substituted imine under heat occur resulting
in the formation of acrylamide.

29
Herrmann, Duedahl-Olesen, and Granby (2014) reported the formation of nitrosamines in
cured meat products when heated. Ogolla et al. (2015) reported high levels of acrylamide
(8556.8-9728.1 µg/kg) in especially street-vended potato crisps in Nairobi, Kenya. A
study estimating acrylamide intake among young people found high contamination in
French fries (Altissimi et al., 2017). French fries are common street-vended foods that
rank highest in consumption level amongst young people. Such toxicants have been linked
to causes of non-communicable diseases such as cancer whose prevalence in Kenya is on
the rise (Abong & Kabira, 2015) although their contribution to these diseases is unknown.
Moreover, the number and amount of these chemicals and toxins that make it into the food
supply and eventually into ready-to-eat foods are unknown (WHO, 2015).

Controlled food additives such as nitrites that are used to enhance specific food
characteristics have also been abused and added in excess, especially for street-vended
foods (Abong & Kabira, 2015; Lança de Morais et al., 2018). This also has the potential
to cause adverse health issues. A research study designed to study the effect of synthetic
colour and flavor additives on rats revealed that brilliant blue (124 mg/kg diet), carmoisine
(70 mg/kg diet), tartrazine (75 mg/kg diet), trans-anethole (4.5 g/kg diet), propylene
glycol (0.25 g/kg diet), and vanillin (1.25 g/kg diet) significantly induced a decrease in
hemoglobin concentration, body weight, and red blood cell count (El-Wahab & Moram,
2013). This shows that synthetic flavours and colours may have adverse health effects,
especially if used in foods without regulation. Nevertheless, there is limited research on
the compliance of street food vendors with food additive regulations.

2.5.4 Microbial toxins in street-vended foods

Besides the presence of bacterial pathogens in street-vended foods, mycotoxin-producing

fungi have also been found. Oranusi and Olorunfemi (2011) reported the presence of
Penicillium spp., Aspergillus niger, and Mucor spp. in street-vended foods. Under
appropriate conditions, these fungi have been reported to produce toxins. Mycotoxins are
the secondary metabolites of molds that produce adverse health effects on humans
resulting mostly in illnesses. Mycotoxins of the greatest health and economic importance

30
include aflatoxins, ochratoxins, zearalenone, trichothecenes, tremorgenic toxins,
fumonisins, and ergot alkaloids (Hussein & Brasel, 2001).

Aflatoxins are mycotoxins produced by some strains of Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus

parasiticus, and Aspergillus nomius. There are four main aflatoxin types (B1, B2, G1, G2)
and two more (M1, M2) that are produced through milk by animals that have metabolized
the main four types. Aflatoxins are commonly found contaminating peanuts, maize,
wheat, rice, nuts, milk, eggs, and cheese among other foods. In humans, they have been
found to cause the following pathological effects: hepatotoxicity, bile-duct hyperplasia,
hemorrhage in the Intestinal tract and the kidneys as well as carcinogenesis (Bullerman,
2003).

Fumonisins are mycotoxins produced primarily by Fusarium verticillioides and Fusarium

proliferatum. There are three types of fumonisins (FB1, FB2, and FB3). Fumonisins are
commonly found in contaminated maize. In humans, they have been linked to esophageal
cancer (Bullerman, 2003). Since they may be present in maize, they may also be found in
maize-based food products. Since the storage of street-vended foods is poor, the fungus
may grow and produce these mycotoxins.

Environmental conditions such as temperature and moisture are key factors in mycotoxin
production (Daou et al., 2021). Therefore, street-vended foods improperly stored may
attract mold growth. Since some of these toxins are resistant to heat, the low heat
treatments administered to re-heat street-vended foods on the street may not be sufficient
to reduce the levels in foods. In street-vended foods, mycotoxins have been reported. For
instance, aflatoxins were reported in corn, groundnut, nuts (coconut, tiger nut, and
walnut), and wheat snacks among other street-vended products in Nigeria and Congo
(Ezekiel et al., 2012; Kamika & Takoy, 2011). In Kenya, there is limited research on
mycotoxin contamination in street-vended ready-to-eat foodstuffs. Nevertheless,
aflatoxins and fumonisins as well as aflatoxicosis incidences have been reported involving
foodstuffs (Daniel et al., 2011; Mutiga et al., 2015; Probst, Njapau, & Cotty, 2007).
Recently, aflatoxin was reported in ready-to-eat peanut butter in Kenya (Merab, 2019).

31
Thus, there is a need for the analysis of street-vended foods to identify contamination
levels and avenues for the prevention of toxin formation.

32
 CHAPTER THREE

DETERMINATION OF FOOD SAFETY KNOWLEDGE AND PRACTICES

OF STREET FOOD VENDORS IN SELECTED LOCATIONS WITHIN
THIKA TOWN, KIAMBU COUNTY, KENYA

3.1 Introduction

The growing urban population in developing countries has stimulated a rise in the number
of street food vendors (SFVs) in many cities to satisfy the demand for affordable and
readily accessible ready-to-eat (RTE) meals. Most of the town dwellers rely on such foods
because they are convenient (Moussavi et al., 2016). Not only are street foods valued for
their convenience and affordability, but they also make a significant contribution to the
country's economy, the preservation of society's cultural and social heritage, and
maintaining and enhancing people's nutritional status (Hill et al., 2019). Street food
enterprises are distinguished by their low capital requirement, which makes it easier for
SFVs to enter the market (Rane, 2011).

Food safety knowledge is generally low among street food vendors as not all of them are
usually educated or trained on food handling and safety (Omemu & Aderoju, 2008;
Omorodion & Ogunekum, 2022). In a study on the link between food safety knowledge
and practices of food handlers in Kushtia, in Bangladesh, Aktar and Biswas (2022)
reported that 47.8% of food handlers had not taken any training on food safety. In their
study, 60.4% of the food handlers did not know that uncooked foods should be kept
separate from ready-to-eat foods. Similar findings were reported in a study on food safety
compliance among street food vendors in Can Tho City, Vietnam by Huynh-Van et al.
(2022) who found that only 14% of street food vendors knew that raw food should be
separated from ready-to-eat foods. In Kenya, Muendo et al. (2022) reported that 91.1% of
street food vendors of cooked foods in Chuka town, Tharaka Nithi County, Kenya had not
received any training on food safety. The lack of training on food safety as well as food
preparation has been linked to poor hygiene practices among street food vendors (Huynh-
Van et al., 2022). Published reports, especially from developing countries generally

33
indicate that SFVs primarily sell in crowded places such as open-air markets and bus
terminus to attract consumers (Kariuki et al., 2017). Thus, the vending sites are often
lacking basic provisions such as toilets, potable water supply, handwashing facilities,
waste disposal systems, and good drainage systems. Vending sites such as those close to
waste disposal sites provide ideal breeding sites for rodents and insects which can easily
contaminate the foods with food safety hazards (Imathiu, 2017). Similarly, foods sold on
the roadsides which are often dusty and contaminated with exhaust fumes from vehicles
may easily be contaminated with chemical food safety hazards such as polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons, as well as lead and arsenic which are carcinogenic (Omari & Omari, 2019).

Due to the informal nature of these businesses, compliance with food laws as well as the
enforcement of the same may not always be possible. Thus, the hygiene and sanitary
condition of vending structures, as well as the vending environments, may be
compromised with the possibility of foodborne diseases posing public health risks to the
consumers of these foods (Okojie & Isah, 2014; WHO, 2015). In Kisumu County in
Kenya, Ouma, Oyango, and Kakai (2019) reported the presence of Staphylococcus aureus
in water used by SFVs. These deficiencies in street food vending environments have been
linked to numerous foodborne disease outbreaks, especially microbial illnesses (Alimi,
2016; Cortese et al., 2016). Therefore, the quality and safety of street-vended foods are of
great concern to public health, as consumers are constantly exposed to the risk of illness
every time they consume these foods.

Due to the unsafe practices reported among SFVs, the scarce funds in developing countries
that could have been utilized for infrastructural growth are being harnessed to treat
foodborne disease outbreaks that could have been prevented through the provision of safe
foods (Alimi, 2016). However, there are minimal reports on the handling practices and the
level of food safety knowledge among SFVs in Kenya, especially in fast-growing towns
such as Thika town. On several occasions, especially through media, cases of microbial
foodborne illnesses have been reported in these areas. Therefore, it is necessary to
determine the food hygiene practices and food safety knowledge of SFVs to identify gaps

34
where interventions can be recommended and/or applied to ensure the provision of quality
and safe street-vended foods and help alleviate incidences of foodborne diseases.

3.2 Materials and methods

3.2.1 Study design and study site

A cross-sectional descriptive study was conducted on SFVs in six street food vending
locations in Kiambu County, Kenya between June and July 2019. The study locations
included the area surrounding Thika Level 5 Hospital, Juakali, Kiandutu, Makongeni,
Ngoigwa, and Thika Town Center (Figure 3.1). These study areas are not administrative
units but rather subdivisions of the town taken to ease the data collection and analysis
process as shown in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1: Description of study locations within Thika town

Location Description
Thika level 5 hospital area This is the area surrounding the Thika Level 5 Hospital
and Mount Kenya University.
Juakali area The area comprises small-scale and informal businesses
(Juakali) as well as manufacturing industries within
Thika town.
Kiandutu area The area hosts retail businesses and a slum hosting low-
income earners within Thika town
Makongeni area The area comprises retail businesses, an estate that hosts
low to middle-income earners as well as some
manufacturing industries.
Ngoigwa area The area comprises retail businesses and hosts the
Ngoigwa estate which is home to high-income earners in
Thika town.
Thika town center The area comprises the central business zone within
Thika town. It hosts mainly retail businesses and the
central bus terminus in Thika town.

35
Figure 3.1: Map of the study area showing the study locations in Thika town.

3.2.2 Sampling procedure for street food vendors

Since the total population of SFVs in the study site was unknown, the determination of
the number of SFVs to be used in this study was carried out using the formula described
by Kothari (2004) (Equation 3.1). This equation yielded 385 SFVs. The SFVs were
randomly selected from among the individuals who were found vending street foods at
the time of data collection. No prior notification had been sent to the SFVs to inform them
of the data collection exercise.

𝑧 2 𝑝(1−𝑝)
𝑛= ……………………………………… Equation 3.1
𝑑2

Where: n is the sample size, z is the z statistic at a 95% confidence level (z = 1.96), p is
the estimated population proportion, taken as p = 0.5 (maximum variability), d is the
desired precision level of ±5% (0.05) at 95% confidence level.

36
In this study, street vendors were defined as individuals selling RTE foods in open places
whether mobile or in stationary locations along the streets or in public places. The
inclusion criteria were as follows: (a) vendors must be on the street, mobile, or located in
standard locations with temporary structures and (b) vendors must be selling any RTE
foodstuff that does not require further processing by the consumer before consumption.
Out of 385 identified SFVs, only 345 consented to take part in the study.

3.2.3 Questionnaire design and SFV interviews

The questionnaire designing process was guided by relevant information from literature
and the guidelines provided by WHO (1996) regarding street food vending hygiene and
safety practices. The questions covered the sources of raw materials or RTE foodstuffs
sold, storage and/or preservation of raw materials and RTE foodstuffs during the sale as
well as food preparation and temperature control. In addition, the questions also covered
hygiene and sanitation knowledge and practices, awareness of the potential food safety
hazards in the food products, knowledge of food safety standards, and food contamination.
The questionnaire was pre-tested among 19 street food vendors in Juja town, Kiambu
County, Kenya, and administered through a face-to-face interview by six appointed
individuals.

3.2.4 Assessment tool for observation of street food vendor practices

An assessment tool for observation of SFVs’ practices was administered to each vendor
to determine their compliance with the essential hygiene and safety requirements for SFVs
outlined by WHO (1996). The checklist was used to collect information regarding
personal hygiene practices, food handling practices, and the condition of the vending
environment. For each vendor, the hygiene and sanitary status of the vending place, the
garbage collecting bin, and the vending environment was determined subjectively using a
3-point rating scale as follows: “good” if it was found to be extremely clean, “average” if
the place of vending was moderately clean with efforts put in place to clean the place and
“poor” if the place of vending was dirty. The checklist was filled through observation by

37
the six appointed data collectors immediately after the interview for each SFV was
completed.

3.2.5 Consent to collect information from street food vendors

Permission to carry out this study was obtained from the National Commission for Science
and Technology (NACOSTI) and the County Commissioner for Kiambu County, Kenya
(Research permit number: NACOSTI/P/19/87469/31129). In the actual survey, the
participants were notified of the objective of the study and that the information they were
going to provide would be held confidential. They were further notified that participation
was entirely voluntary and that they could opt out of the survey at any time during the
interview.

3.2.6 Statistical analysis

The data obtained were analyzed using the statistical package for social sciences (SPSS)
software version 25 (SAS Institute). For categorical data, frequencies, and percentages of
occurrence of responses were calculated while numerical data were summarized as means
± standard error. A Chi-square test of independence was used to test whether there were
significant relationships between the categorical variables. All tests were carried out at a
p = 0.05 level of significance.

3.3 Results and discussion

3.3.1 Socio-demographic characteristics of street food vendors

There were more male SFVs (63.2%) compared to female vendors (36.8%) (Table 3.2).
Although food preparation is regarded in African society as the preserve of females, men
are stepping up and picking up roles that were traditionally set aside for females, especially
to gain income. This may explain the high proportion of male vendors in street food
vending in this study. These results are in agreement with those of Cortese et al. (2016)
who reported more males (58%) than females (42%) in the street food vending business
in Brazil. However, contrary to this study, Odundo, Okemo, and Chege (2018) and Da

38
Silva et al. (2014) reported female dominance in street food vending at 60% and 55.9%
in Kenya and Brazil, respectively. These variations underscore the complexity of socio-
economic and cultural factors that shape gender roles in street food vending across
different regions.

Table 3.2: Demographic characteristics of SFVs in selected locations in Thika town,

Kiambu County, Kenya.

Categories Frequency Percentage (%)

Gender Female 127 36.8
Male 218 63.2
Total 345 100.0
Age category Below 18 years 2 0.6
Between 18 – 25 years 113 32.9
Between 26 – 35 years 158 46.1
Between 36 – 45 years 46 13.4
Above 45 years 24 7.0
Total 343‡ 100.0
Education level No formal education 10 2.9
Incomplete primary school 26 7.7
Completed primary school 78 23.0
Incomplete secondary 61 18.0
school
Completed secondary school 129 38.1
College education 27 8.0
University education 8 2.4
Total 339‡ 100.0
:‡
Note Some vendors did not reply to certain questions.

The male dominance observed in our study challenges traditional gender stereotypes
associated with food preparation. This shift could be influenced by the changing landscape
of income opportunities. The consistency of this pattern with findings from Brazil, along
with the contrasts with other studies, underscores the need for a comprehensive
exploration of socio-economic dynamics to fully understand gender distribution in street
food vending.

39
About a third of the SFVs (32.9%) were between 18-25 years old (Table 3.2). This
category constitutes the relatively young and economically vibrant workforce that may be
able to cope with the laborious tasks involved in street food vending (Adama, 2020).
Similar results were reported by Odundo et al. (2018) in Mombasa County, Kenya in a
study investigating food safety practices among SFVs where the most predominant age
group was found to be 19-28 years accounting for 49% of the SFVs.

The study revealed that 38.1% of the SFVs had obtained secondary school education with
10.4% having received college or university training. Only 10.6% of the vendors had not
either completed primary school education or attained any formal education (Table 3.2).
Having completed secondary education level as well as college and university training
may imply that SFVs are offering better quality and safe food since the level of the SFVs’
formal schooling is one of the factors that contribute to food safety (Rebouças et al., 2017).
Generally, higher levels of education are assumed to correlate with higher food hygiene
and safety knowledge (Ma et al., 2019). The findings of this study differed from those of
Ma et al. (2019) who reported that the majority of SFVs (68%) in Handan, China, were
either illiterate or had attained primary or middle school education (level of education
between high school and primary school). This may be because most SFVs may lack the
opportunity to pursue secondary, college, or university education for reasons such as lack
of funds. Nevertheless, some vendors may consider street food vending as an opportunity
to begin their entrepreneurial endeavors. This shows that street food vending is dynamic
and may appeal not only to persons who are less educated but also to those who have
attained college or university education. In addition, the limited availability of formal
employment opportunities in Kenya may also serve as a motivating factor, compelling
individuals with college or university education to engage in street food vending.

3.3.2 Length of time in street food vending business

The length of time spent in the street food vending business may positively correlate with
the level of food hygiene and safety knowledge that the vendor has gathered over time.
Vendors who have been in business for a long time are therefore expected to have better

40
food hygiene and safety knowledge although this is not always the case (Gamieldien &
Van Niekerk, 2017). The mean duration of time in business was 3.3±0.2 years with a
median of 2 years. The median time of 2 years means that at least 50% of the vendors in
this study had been in business for 2 years and below. Thus, there are many entrants into
street food vending businesses in the study area, and this business may not be a permanent
career for most SFVs. This is clearly shown by the large proportion of almost 40% of
vendors who had been in business for one year and below (Figure 3.2). This differs from
the findings of Da Silva et al. (2014) who reported the median time spent working in street
food vending in their study investigating the socioeconomic and food safety perspectives
of SFVs on the coast of Salvador, Bahia, Brazil to be 9 years. This meant that at least 50%
of the vendors had been in business for at least 9 years which is higher than the median
time reported in this study.
Length of time in street food
vending business for SFVs

Above 2 years 43.7

Between 1 - 2 years 16.7

Between 6 months to 1 Year 22.9

Between 1 - 6 Months 12.3

One Month or below 4.4

0 20 40 60

Percentage of SFVs (%)

Figure 3.2: Street food vendors’ length of time in street food vending business.

There were significantly (p<0.001) more vendors aged between 18 to 25 years who had
been in business for one year and below as compared to those in the other age categories
Figure 3.3. This age group comprises the young and most vibrant persons who may have
probably completed their secondary or tertiary education and needed a job to earn a living.

41
Street food vending is an inexpensive venture to start. Thus, it presents an opportunity for
this group of people to start earning a living.
Length of time of SFVs in street food vending business

> 2 years

1 - 2 years

6 months - 1 Year

1 - 6 Months

≤ 1 Month

0 20 40 60
Percentage of SFVs (%)
Above 45 Years Between 36 – 45 Years
Between 26 – 35 Years Between 18 – 25 Years
Below 18 Years

Figure 3.3: Relationship between age category and the duration of time in business.

3.3.3 Washing practices for hands, equipment, and utensils

Washing practices for hands, equipment, utensils, and foodstuff among the SFVs are
shown in Figure 3.4. Most vendors (56.9%) washed their hands using cold water only.
Only 40.8% used cold water with soap to wash their hands. Regarding washing equipment
and utensils, 54.5% of SFVs washed them using cold water and soap, and only 20.1%
used warm water with soap. According to the WHO (1996), essential food safety
guidelines for SFVs, vendors should wash their hands with water and soap every time they

42
engage in any activity that may introduce physical, biological, or chemical hazards to
food. Thus, washing hands and utensils with cold water only may not be as sufficient in
removing all food safety hazards as when washed with water and soap (Shukla et al.,
2019). This implies that there is a high potential for contamination of street-vended food
due to insufficient hand and utensils washing practices. These results were consistent with
the results reported by Muyanja et al. (2011) who studied the practices, knowledge, and
risk factors of SFVs in Uganda where 76.9% of SFVs used cold water and soap, 7.6%
used cold water only while 2.2% and 7.6% used hot water only or hot water with soap,
respectively to wash their utensils. SFVs must possess good hand, equipment, and food
washing practices involving the use of water and soap to ensure the safety of RTE food
(Dudeja & Singh, 2017).

43
 100 93.2

Percentatge of SFVs (%) 80

60 54.5 56.9

40.8
40
22.7 20.1
20
6.2 0.3 0.3
0.6 1.5 0.3 0.3 2 0.3
0
Fruits and vegetables Equipment and utensils Hands
Hands, equipment and utensils and fruits and vegetables

Cold water only Warm water only

Cold water with soap Warm water with soap
Both warm and cold water Wipes with dry/ wet cloth
Never wash Steam in boiling water and lay out to dry

Figure 3.4: Washing practices for hands, equipment, and fruits and vegetables.

44
3.3.4 Handling of ready-to-eat food, utensils, and packaging materials by street
food vendors

About 48.7% of the vendors had plastic serving utensils or packaging materials while
29.3% were found to be using paper. Reused papers such as those used to cover other food
or non-food stuff were found to be used to wrap foodstuffs in 16.5% of the SFVs (Figure
3.5). The use of recycled packaging materials can contaminate food with hazards such as
pathogenic microorganisms or chemical residues that may be injurious to people’s health
(Proietti et al., 2014b). For instance, recycled paper has been reported to contribute to the
exposure of consumers to thousands of toxicants including endocrine-disrupting
chemicals such as bisphenol-A, and dibutyl phthalate, as well as di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate
(Geueke, Groh, & Muncke, 2018; Lopez-Espinosa et al., 2007). In Ethiopia, Eliku (2016)
reported that over 90% of SFVs used recycled paper for packaging food.

100
Percentage of SFVs (%)

80
60
40
20
0
Type of surfaces in contact Type of serving utensils/ Type of enclosing material
with RTE food packaging material for RTE food
Type of food contact surfaces and handling materials

Wooden Paper Plastic

Metallic Glass Reused Paper
Edible packaging material Paper Melamine
None

Note: Percentages are above 100% due to SFVs who used

multiple packaging and food handling materials.

Figure 3.5: Type of materials used for working surfaces, closures, serving utensils,
and/or packaging materials.

45
3.3.5 Storage and preservation practices of ready-to-eat food by street food
vendors

It was found that most vendors would store their stock, including the foodstuff that
required refrigeration at ambient temperatures (78.3%) awaiting preparation and eventual
sale. Most RTE foods (38.6%) were also stored at ambient temperatures (20-25°C).
Similar results were reported by Muhonja and Kimathi (2014) in Nakuru county, Kenya
while assessing the hygiene and food handling practices among SFVs where cooked foods
were stored at ambient temperatures exposed to the environment during the sale which
posed significant safety concerns. Temperature abuse by exposing food to ambient
conditions encourages a wide range of spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms to
proliferate causing infections and intoxications when the food is consumed (Obaji et al.,
2018; Ouma et al., 2019; Shiningeni et al., 2019).

SFVs used various methods to handle leftover food from the day's sales as shown in
Figure 3.6. About 25.5% of the vendors indicated that they would consume the leftovers
while 22.3% stored the foodstuffs without any form of preservation and sold them the
following day. Leftover food can easily be contaminated by especially pathogenic
microorganisms when stored under ambient temperatures posing safety concerns to the
consumers (Obaji et al., 2018). This is worrying considering the poor handling and storage
practices that the foods are exposed to during the day.

46
 Food leftovers handling from the previous day Give out (n=20) 6.4

Sell at subsidized price (n=1) 0.3

Preserve* (sell next day) (n=43) 13.7

Sell to those selling overnight (n=3) 1

Throw away (n=13) 4.2

Store and sell the next day (ambient temperature) (n=70) 22.3

Consume (n=80) 25.5

Give out on loan (n=1) 0.3

No leftovers (n=83) 26.4

0 10 20 30
Percentage of SFVs (%)

Note: *Preservation was occasionally done through refrigeration. Some vendors

indicated that they stored boiled eggs in cold salted water.

Figure 3.6: Street food vendors’ ways of handling leftovers from the previous day.

In case the food was contaminated with pathogens, storage at ambient temperatures allows
the pathogens to proliferate to levels that can cause disease or produce toxins that cause
disease when the food is consumed. Similar results were reported by Muhonja and
Kimathi (2014) in Nakuru county, Kenya while studying the hygiene and food handling
practices among SFVs who found out that SFVs mostly stored leftover foods at ambient
temperatures.

3.3.6 Personal hygiene of street food vendors

Poor hygiene and sanitary practices were observed among most of the SFVs as shown in
Figure 3.7. For instance, 86.1% of the vendors handled money while serving food without
washing their hands.

47
 Vendor spitting, sneezing or coughing on or near food (n= 341) 6.2 93.8

Vendor smoking while handling food (n=345) 2 98

Personal hygiene and sanitation parameters

Visible bruises, cuts or boils on hands (n=345) 8.4 91.6

Vendor wearing jewelry (n=345) 21.4 78.6

Vendor’s hair covered (n=343) 29.4 70.6

Short nails (n=344) 79.1 20.9

Apron in use clean (n=194) 62.4 37.6

Use aprons (n=345) 56.8 43.2

Washing fruits before preparation/ processing (n=326) 49.4 13.8

The vendor using gloves to handle food (n=344) 3.2 96.8

Washing hands before handling food (n=337) 33.2 66.8

Handling money while serving food and no handwashing (n=339) 86.1 13.9

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Percentage of SFVs (%)
Yes No
Figure 3.7: Observations on personal hygiene and practices of SFVs.

48
The continuous exchange of money between individuals has the potential for
contamination with hazards, especially pathogenic microorganisms. Handling the money
while serving RTE food can potentially result in the contamination of these foods. In a
study carried out to determine the microbial contaminants in banknotes obtained from
food outlets sampled from 10 different countries, Vriesekoop et al. (2010) reported the
presence of Escherichia coli, which is indicative of fecal contamination of the money.
Furthermore, Salmonella and Staphylococcus aureus were also isolated. Similar results
were observed by Da Silva et al. (2014) who reported that 80.2% of the SFVs admitted to
handling money and food simultaneously in Brazil.

Only 56.8% of the vendors wore aprons of which, only 58.1% had clean aprons. Almost
all SFVs (96.8%) in this study handled food with bare hands while about 70.6% had not
covered their hair. Most vendors in this study overlooked basic hygiene practices that have
the potential to contaminate food. According to WHO (1996), street vendors should wear
clean aprons, handle food using clean gloves, cover their hair, and wash their hands every
time before handling food. Similar results were reported in Ethiopia by Eliku (2016) in
their study investigating food hygiene and sanitary practices of SFVs in the city of Addis
Ababa. In their study, the author reported that 88.6% of vendors did not wear aprons, 95%
had uncovered hair and all street vendors handled money with bare hands while serving
food.

Long nails, as well as nail polish, were found among 20.9% and 15.5% of the SFVs in this
study, respectively. Since long nails may harbor pathogenic microorganisms (Ansong,
2015), these can end up contaminating food considering that almost all vendors (96.8%)
in this study handled food with bare hands. Muyanja et al. (2011) reported similar findings
in their study on the practices, knowledge, and risk factors of SFVs in Uganda where
68.6% of the vendors had uncut nails while 75.7% had unclean nails in one of their study
locations.

A few vendors were found to be smoking (2.0%) or spitting, sneezing, or coughing near
RTE food (6.2%). These practices heighten the chance for contamination of food with

49
physical, chemical, or biological food safety hazards. They can also be avenues for the
transfer of communicable diseases from ailing SFVs to the many consumers of street-
vended foods. Smoking among SFVs was reported in 30% of street food vendors by Ma
et al. (2019) in Handan, China.

3.3.7 Condition of the vending environment and the vending structures

Most vendors had temporary stalls constructed (44.2%) or used trolleys (24.7%) to display
their foodstuff. Others utilized carts, tables, wheelbarrows, or car trunks to sell their
foodstuffs. Most vendors sold foodstuff in dirty surroundings (54.7%) and only 45.3%
were in clean areas. The choice of vending structures, as well as vending locations, can
impact the quality and safety of street-vended foods (Bormann et al., 2016). Selling RTE
food using uncovered structures such as wheelbarrows, carts, tables and car trunks located
in unhygienic environments may result in contamination of food with food safety hazards
such as pathogens and chemical toxic contaminants in the air during preparation or
service. Vending sites such as those close to waste disposal sites provide ideal breeding
sites for rodents and insects which can easily contaminate the foods, especially with
pathogenic microorganisms (Imathiu, 2017). Similarly, foods sold on roadsides that are
often dusty and contaminated with exhaust fumes from vehicles may easily be
contaminated by chemical hazards such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, lead, and
arsenic(Omari & Omari, 2019)).

There was a highly significant relationship (p = 0.0001) between the hygiene and sanitary
status of the vending structures, and the condition of the surrounding environment. Almost
all the vendors (98.6%) selling around dirty environments had vending structures with
poor hygiene and sanitary status. Therefore, dirty surroundings would result in unclean
working surfaces and vending structures that were rated as having poor hygiene and
sanitary status.

Garbage collecting bins were only found in 53.8% of the vendors of which only 36.4%
were adequately covered and 20.9% were overfilled. Poor waste management results in
contamination of the environment which in turn increases the chance of contaminating the

50
RTE food during handling (Reddy, Ricart, & Cadman, 2020; Tambekar et al., 2008). As
expected, vendors working without a dustbin were statistically more likely (p = 0.0001)
to be in dirty surroundings than those who had dustbins. Poor waste management practices
result in the dumping of waste around the vending premises. The waste attracts flies and
other crawling insects that were noted in about 52.4% of the SFVs’ premises in this study.
These, in turn, may contaminate the working surfaces, utensils as well as exposed RTE
food. In this study, more than half (54.5%) of the vendors left the packaging materials or
serving utensils exposed (Figure 3.8).

45.51%
54.49%

Exposed Covered

Figure 3.8: The proportion of SFVs whose serving utensils or packaging material
were exposed to the environment

Similar results were reported in Benin City, Nigeria in a study on the sanitary conditions
of vending sites where waste bins were found in 43.4% of the SFVs (Okojie & Isah, 2014).
Okojie and Isah (2014) also reported the presence of flies in 41.3% and rodents and
cockroaches in 2.4% of the SFVs’ premises. This shows that insect control is an important
aspect of the street food vending business. This is because the presence of insects as well
as rodents have been reported to increase the chance of having contaminated food among
SFVs (Amaami, Dominic, & Collins, 2017). While studying environmental factors and

51
food handling practices associated with food contamination among SFVs in Nairobi
county, Kenya, Amaami et al. (2017) reported that the presence of pests or rodents around
street food vending sites was significantly (p<0.001) associated with food contamination.
In this study, SFVs whose vending sites had presence of pests or rodents had a 5.9 fold
risk of having contaminated foods.

3.3.8 Training in food hygiene and safety of street food vendors

About 93% of SFVs had no training in food hygiene and safety. This kind of training is
expected to equip them with the right knowledge that will enhance the quality and safety
of the foods sold. The lack of training for most of the vendors greatly contributed to the
vendor’s poor knowledge of food safety and unhygienic behavior. With this knowledge
gap, vendors hardly pay attention to the cleanliness of the surrounding area or the safe
handling practices for RTE food. The results were comparable to those reported by Okojie
and Isah (2019) in their study on food hygiene knowledge and practices of SFVs where
73.9% of SFVs in Benin City, Nigeria had no formal food safety training. This highlights
the need for training SFVs on food hygiene as well as food safety to preserve and protect
the health of consumers. Training interventions on SFVs have been reported to be
effective in changing their attitudes toward food safety knowledge as well as practices
(Choudhury et al., 2011).

When vendors were asked if street-vended food could be a source of pathogenic

microorganisms, about 40.1% strongly agreed, 16.7% neither agreed nor disagreed while
39.8% and 3.5% disagreed or strongly disagreed, respectively. Although 40.1% of the
street food vendors knew that pathogenic microorganisms could be found in street food, a
substantial proportion (59.9%) of the SFVs were not aware of this possibility. This shows
that most SFVs may be operating without the knowledge that foods could be sources of
microorganisms some of which may be pathogenic to humans. With this knowledge gap,
SFVs would hardly put effort into reducing or eliminating contamination of RTE foods
with pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms. For instance, in the case of fruit juices that
have the potential for contamination during preparation, most vendors (87.5%) in this

52
study did not subject them to heat treatment (Figure 3.9). Heat treatment is a common
method used to eliminate harmful pathogens that could potentially contaminate food and
lead to health risks for consumers (Artes & Allende, 2005). The absence of heat treatment
in the preparation of fruit juices carries implications for food safety.
Questions on food safety knowledge and

Have you ever been visited by a public 49.6

50.4
health officer? (n=343)

Have you ever obtained a food handler’s 73.8

26.2
medical certificate? (n=343)
practices

Have you received any training on food 93

7
hygiene and safety? (n=343)

Would you be willing to receive training 26.4

73.6
on food hygiene and safety? (n=303)

For the fruit juices, do you subject them to 87.5

12.5
any heat treatment? (N=40)
0 20 40 60 80 100
Percentage of SFVs (%)
No Yes

Figure 3.9: Questions on food safety knowledge and practices among street food
vendors

3.3.9 Enforcement of food safety regulations among street food vendors

Seventy-three percent of the SFVs had not obtained a food handlers’ medical certificate.
Of the vendors who had a food handler’s medical certificate, 42% of them never renewed
it while about 1% of them renewed it within 3 months, 30% within 6 months, and 27%
within 12 months. This is possibly due to factors such as ignorance, or weak enforcement
of this requirement by the local government authority concerned (Okojie & Isah, 2019).
Undertaking a medical fitness examination or screening for communicable diseases for
any food handler is a requirement outlined in the public health Act, Chapter 242, 2012 of
Kenya. Having a medical health certificate is important as it confirms that the handler has
no communicable diseases and that the consumer is not at risk of contracting any diseases

53
from the street food vendor. Although mandatory, most SFVs evade taking the
examination possibly because it requires the commitment of not only money but also time
(Apaassongo, Aidoo, & Ohene-Yankyera, 2016). This shows that SFVs may opt to sell
foods even when they are not medically fit to handle food which poses food safety
concerns due to the possibility of the spread of communicable diseases. Improved public
health control can enhance compliance with food hygiene and safety guidelines in street
food vending.

About 50% of the vendors indicated that they had never been visited by public health
officials. Lack of oversight on street-vended foods presents an opportunity for vendors to
sell food even when they are not medically fit to handle food. It may also increase the
chance of adulteration of food with unlicensed harmful substances or the sale of
uncertified food substances that may be harmful to the unsuspecting public. The vendors
who received visits from the public health officers were more likely to have a food
handler’s medical certificate (p<0.0001). This underlines the importance of public health
officers’ oversight of food vending businesses. Continuous surveillance as suggested by
Obaji et al. (2018) is therefore required as a strategy for improved street food safety.

3.4 Conclusion

The findings of this study demonstrate that street-vended foods sold in Kiambu County
may constitute a significant potential hazard to public health. The majority of SFVs were
educated to the secondary school level and had not received any formal training on food
hygiene and safety. The lack of training for most of the vendors may have contributed to
their unhygienic behavior and poor knowledge of food hygiene and safety. Of particular
concern were the findings that almost all SFVs handled food with bare hands, and handled
money and food at the same time without washing hands in between. Storage and
preservation practices were poor as most vendors stored the RTE food including leftovers
at ambient temperature. For most vendors, the condition of the vending environment, as
well as the vending structures, was also poor. Considering the benefits of the street
vending business, including the provision of income and employment for many young

54
people, the inclusion of these businesses in street design may not only benefit the SFVs
but also the consumers of street foods through the provision of high-quality and safe foods.
Continuous provision of food hygiene and safety training to the SFVs, and enforcing the
implementation of appropriate food hygiene and safety practices have the potential to
improve street food quality and safety. Policies specific to the street food vending sector
may streamline the sector and facilitate control and regulation by public health officials.

55
 CHAPTER FOUR

DETERMINATION OF THE CATEGORIES OF FOOD HYGIENE AND

SAFETY KNOWLEDGE AND PRACTICES AND THE FACTORS
INFLUENCING FOOD SAFETY, HYGIENE AWARENESS, AND
PRACTICES AMONG STREET FOOD VENDORS IN THIKA TOWN,
KIAMBU COUNTY, KENYA.
4.1 Identification of the categories of food hygiene and safety knowledge and
practices among street food vendors through nonlinear principal component
analysis

4.1.1 Introduction
Street food vending is a fast-growing informal sector, especially in developing countries
such as Kenya. Numerous studies have been reported investigating street food vendor
(SFV) characteristics including their food hygiene and safety awareness, attitude, and
practices (Bormann et al., 2016; Dwumfour-Asare & Agyapong, 2014; Lawan et al.,
2015; Okojie & Isah, 2014, 2019; Rahman et al., 2016). However, there are minimal
reports that elucidate relationships between the SFV characteristics. Conclusions based on
an analysis performed on individual SFV characteristics may not provide any indication
of the relationships existing among these characteristics, nor allow the grouping of
vendors with similar characteristics. Therefore, it is essential to have a few elements to
synthesize the trends observed among SFVs and thus obtain more information from the
large amount of heterogeneous data collected.

Principal component analysis (PCA) is one of the multivariate statistical methods that can
yield such comparisons by analyzing data in which observations are characterized by
many correlated quantitative dependent variables. Its purpose is to extract the key
information from the data, represent it as a set of new orthogonal variables known as
principal components, and display the pattern of similarity between the observations and
variables as points on maps (Linting et al., 2007). The new uncorrelated variables account
for as much as possible of the variation observed in the data (Abdi & Williams, 2010;

56
Khikmah, Wijayanto, & Syafitri, 2017; Linting et al., 2007). Whenever different
measurement scales are used such that some variables are measured at nominal, ordinal,
or numeric levels, as in the case of this study, PCA which is applied in numeric data may
not be suitable for dimension reduction. Alternatively, nonlinear principal component
analysis (NLPCA) also referred to as categorical principal component analysis
(CATPCA) is ideal for data with different measurement scales including nominal and
ordinal level data (Khikmah et al., 2017).

The main objective of NLPCA is reducing a given set of variables to a smaller number of
uncorrelated principal components or summary variables while taking into account non-
numeric measurement levels (categorical variables at ordinal and nominal scales) and the
probable nonlinear relationships in the data (Kemalbay & Korkmazoğlu, 2014; Linting et
al., 2007; Linting & van der Kooij, 2012). The extracted summary variables represent the
information in the original data as closely as possible avoiding loss of information (Linting
& van der Kooij, 2012; Šnirc et al., 2017). Typically, the number of new uncorrelated key
components is equivalent to the number of all the original variables in the large datasets
and is extracted in diminishing order of importance. Thus, the first component accounts
for the variation in the heterogeneous data as much as possible while the second
component accounts for as much of the residual variation (Mwove et al., 2018). The goal
is to find a small number of variables that explain the variability of the data as much as
possible, thereby revealing relationship structures among the observed variables and the
most important directions of variability in a large set of heterogeneous data sets (Linting
& van der Kooij, 2012; Meulman, Van der Kooij, & Heiser, 2004; Šnirc et al., 2017).

Various researchers have employed NLPCA to study heterogeneous qualitative data

(Manisera, van der Kooij, & Dusseldorp, 2010; Saukani & Ismail, 2019; Vilela, Monteiro,
& Correia, 2017) although, at the time of this study, no research report was found
employing NLPCA to study SFV characteristics. In this study, NLPCA was employed to
identify the components of SFV’s food hygiene and safety knowledge and practices taking
into account the non-numeric measurement levels and the possible nonlinearity of
relationships. The aim was to reduce and summarize the large heterogeneous nominal and

57
ordinal data into fewer components (categories) of SFV food hygiene and safety
knowledge and practices that may be used in further analysis such as in logistic regression
analysis carried out in chapter 5.

4.1.2 Materials and methods

4.1.2.1 Description of the study

A cross-sectional descriptive study was conducted as described in subheadings 3.2.1 to

3.2.5. The pre-tested questionnaires contained 22 questions while the checklist comprised
41 questions.

4.1.2.2 Variable selection for NLPCA

This study included a total of 63 characteristics of SFVs from the six study locations.
Education level, category of street food sold, age of the SFV, gender of the SFV, and
length of time in the street food vending business were chosen as the five labeling
variables for the object scores and were therefore not included in the PCA analysis. The
selection of variables for NLPCA was based on the following rule of thumb as reported
by Linting and van der Kooij (2012): for variance accounted for (VAF) in any variable
per component, 10% is poor, 20% is fair, 30% is good, 40% is very good, and 50% is
excellent. This study aimed at a good VAF for each variable across the principal
components and thus the minimum VAF for inclusion was set as 30%. Nineteen variables
with bad fits were dropped leaving a total of 39 variables for this analysis as shown in
Table 4.1.

58
Table 4.1: Description of the variables selected for categorical principal component
analysis.

Variable description Abbreviation

Condition of working surfaces, cutting equipment, and chopping boards V1
(1 = Dirty; 2 = Clean)
Cleanliness of the place of vending (1 = Poor; 2 = Average; 3 = Good) V2
Ready-to-eat (RTE) food adequately covered (1 = No; 2 = Yes) V3
Condition of the surrounding environment (1 = Dirty; 2 = Clean) V4
Working surfaces are in good condition without crevices or cracks (1 = V5
No; 2 = Yes)
Cleanliness of vendor's apron (1=Dirty; 2=Clean) V6
Working surfaces are cleanable (1=No; 2=Yes) V7
Serving utensils are in good condition with no scratches or rusting V8
observed (1=No; 2=Yes)
There is adequate separation between raw and RTE food (1=No; 2=Yes) V9
Vendor does not touch their mouth, tongue, nose, or eyes while handling V10
food (1=No; 2=Yes)
Garbage collecting bin available (1=No; 2=Yes) V11
Garbage collecting bin not overfilled (1=No; 2=Yes) V12
Garbage collecting bin covered (1=No; 2=Yes) V13
Houseflies and other insects are not present (1=No; 2=Yes) V14
Water is available for washing (1=No; 2=Yes) V15
Cleanliness of the garbage collecting bin (1=Poor; 2=Average; 3=Good) V16
Vendor washes hands before handling food (1=No; 2=Yes) V17
SFV knows that street-vended foods may be sources of pathogenic V18
microorganisms (1=Strongly disagree; 2=Neither agree nor disagree;
3=Strongly Agree)
SFV knows that training of SFVs is important to ensure the safety of V19
consumers (1=Strongly disagree; 2=Neither agree nor disagree;
3=Strongly Agree)
There is a drainage system for wastewater from the business (1=No; V20
2=Yes)
Sufficient water for washing is available (1=No; 2=Yes) V21
How the vendor washes their hands (1=No washing; 2=cold water only; V22
3=warm water only; 4=Coldwater with soap)
How the vendor washes their equipment or utensils (1=No washing; V23
2=cold water only; 3=warm water only; 4=cold water with soap;
5=warm water with soap)
The vendor is aware of food safety standards and regulations in Kenya V24
(1=No; 2=Yes)
The vendor can recall any food safety standard or regulation in Kenya V25
(1=No; 2=Yes)
SFV has received training on food hygiene and safety? (1=No; 2=Yes) V26

59
 Variable description Abbreviation
The vendor employs refrigeration for food (1=No; 2=Yes) V27
Handling of leftovers from the previous day (1=No leftovers; V28
2=Consume; 3=Store at ambient temperatures for selling next day;
4=Throw away; 5=Sell to other sellers selling overnight; 6=Preserve and
sell next day; 7=Sell at a throwaway price; 8=Give out; 9=Give out on
loan)
Storage of serving utensils or packaging material (1=Uncovered; V29
2=Covered)
How food is stored after preparation while awaiting consumers (1=Cold- V30
Refrigerated; 2=Ambient temperatures; 3=Hot-Over the heat source;
4=Warm-Off the heat source but warmer than ambient temperatures)
Nature of storage in practice for foodstuff that is yet to be prepared V31
(1=No stock observed; 2=Refrigeration; 3=Hot – overheat; 4=Ambient
temperatures)
The vendor has obtained a food handler’s medical certificate (1=No; V32
2=Yes)
How often the vendor renews their food handler’s medical certificate V33
(1=Never renewed; 2=Every 6 months; 3=Every 12 months)
Vendor's willingness to receive a food handler's medical certificate V34
(Those without) (1=Unwilling; 2=Willing)
The vendor would be willing to receive training on food hygiene and V35
safety (1=No; 2=Yes)
Vendor mobile (1=No; 2=Yes) V36
Vending structures are washable (1=No; 2=Yes) V37
SFV knows that street food vending is a major source of livelihood for V38
many Kenyans (1=Strongly disagree; 2=Neither agree nor disagree;
3=Strongly agree)
Place of vending (1=Hand-held containers; 2=Trolley, carts, or V39
wheelbarrows; 3=Car trunks; 4=Stall/ Kiosk)

4.1.2.3 Statistical analysis

To perform NLPCA, this study utilized SPSS software version 25, the categorical
principal components analysis (CATPCA) module. In CATPCA, categories of nominal or
ordinal variables are assigned numeric values through a process called optimal
quantification or optimal scaling. Through this process categories of variables with ordinal
or nominal analysis levels are transformed into numeric value variables referred to as
category quantifications through the optimal quantification process. NLPCA is carried out
such that, as much as possible the variance in the new quantified variables is accounted
for (Linting et al., 2007; Meulman et al., 2004; Saukani & Ismail, 2019). A detailed

60
procedure for conducting NLPCA using CATPCA has been described by Linting and van
der Kooij (2012).

4.1.3 Results and discussion

4.1.3.1 Number of principal components
Table 4.2 shows the variance accounted for (VAF) by a seven-component model selected
for this study. The goodness of fit in CATPCA is based on the total VAF in the
transformed variables and Cronbach’s alpha (Kemalbay & Korkmazoğlu, 2014).

Table 4.2: Proportion of the variance accounted for in a seven-dimensional CATPCA

solution on 39 SFV food hygiene and safety characteristics

Dimension Cronbach’s Variance accounted for

alpha Total Percentage Cumulative
(eigenvalue) percentage
1 0.81 4.69 12.03 12.03
2 0.79 4.30 11.01 23.05
3 0.68 2.92 7.49 30.54
4 0.59 2.34 5.99 36.53
5 0.57 2.26 5.80 42.33
6 0.51 2.00 5.13 47.46
7 0.39 1.61 4.13 51.60
Total 0.98a 20.12 51.60
a
Total Cronbach’s alpha is based on the total Eigenvalue

Two criteria have been suggested for choosing the number of dimensions or components
to retain in any solution; one is based on eigenvalues while the other is based on the scree
plot which is a graph that displays the VAF against the dimension number. Following the
criterion based on eigenvalues (‘eigenvalue values greater than one criterion), dimensions
with eigenvalues (VAF) greater than one are usually retained while in the scree plot
criterion, the number of dimensions to retain is the number of dimensions above the elbow
in the plot (Manfredi, Manisera, & Dabrassi, 2009).

In the initial analysis requesting for all components, a total of 12 components were found
to have eigenvalues higher than 1, meaning that 12 components should be extracted
(Linting et al., 2007). The scree plot was inconclusive on the number of components that

61
should be retained as it did not show any distinct elbow. However, since these criteria are
not always optimal (Kemalbay & Korkmazoğlu, 2014), the first seven principal
components were extracted based on the interpretability of the components (Linting &
van der Kooij, 2012). The seven principal components accounted for 51.60% of the
variance observed in the thirty-nine SFV’s characteristics. This means that over half of
the variability observed at the individual objects (SFVs) level was explained by the seven-
component model. The first two components accounted for approximately 23% of the
variance observed in the transformed variables. The Cronbach’s alpha, an internal
consistency coefficient was calculated for each component and the total variance
accounted for in this study. The alpha whose maximum value is 1 was found to be 0.975
for the total VAF in this study indicating a good global fit of the CATPCA solution
(Meulman et al., 2004).

4.1.3.2 Component loadings

The rotated principal component loadings for the 39 SFV hygiene and safety
characteristics are shown in Table 4.3. The variables in this table form roughly seven
groups or components of SFV food hygiene and safety knowledge and practices. The table
presents the classification of the 39 variables based on the components of SFV food
hygiene and safety knowledge and practice. This loading indicates the Pearson
correlations between the quantified variables and the components, and the values range
from – 1 to 1. The sign on each loading, whether positive or negative indicates the relation
of the variable to each principal component whether positively or negatively related
(Linting & van der Kooij, 2012; Saukani & Ismail, 2019).

62
Table 4.3: Rotated component loadings from a seven-dimensional CATPCA on 39
SFV food hygiene and safety characteristics.

PC-1 PC-2 PC-3 PC-4 PC-5 PC-6 PC-7

V1 0.741 -0.014 0.004 0.103 0.045 -0.046 0.108
V2 0.693 0.051 0.311 -0.004 0.024 0.099 -0.054
V3 0.645 -0.086 -0.078 0.041 0.010 0.046 0.049
V4 0.613 -0.035 0.329 0.071 0.086 -0.015 -0.130
V5 0.553 -0.014 0.200 -0.134 0.075 -0.030 0.048
V6 0.510 0.100 0.034 -0.057 0.072 0.094 0.025
V7 0.501 0.096 -0.190 0.177 -0.035 -0.050 0.049
V8 0.457 -0.003 0.056 -0.182 -0.050 0.025 0.257
V9 0.434 -0.063 0.009 0.142 0.024 0.210 0.071
V10 0.377 -0.100 0.372 0.024 0.085 -0.071 -0.323
V11 0.117 0.939 0.037 0.009 0.066 0.091 -0.106
V12 0.126 0.937 0.026 -0.011 0.065 0.078 -0.083
V13 0.102 0.937 0.033 0.008 0.054 0.110 -0.105
V14 -0.179 0.723 0.041 0.086 -0.024 -0.011 0.001
V15 0.116 0.497 -0.282 -0.010 0.079 -0.081 -0.383
V16 0.293 -0.512 0.194 0.005 0.171 -0.035 -0.193
V17 0.136 0.060 0.656 0.181 -0.105 -0.343 0.069
V18 0.229 -0.088 0.593 -0.178 -0.180 0.249 -0.041
V19 0.057 0.017 0.491 0.300 -0.274 0.110 0.174
V20 -0.016 0.133 0.462 0.222 0.029 -0.358 0.026
V21 0.080 -0.326 0.446 -0.019 0.052 0.192 -0.081
V22 -0.002 0.005 -0.678 0.369 -0.122 0.068 0.086
V23 0.400 -0.186 -0.391 0.064 -0.203 0.348 -0.187
V24 0.149 -0.007 0.021 0.783 -0.009 0.076 -0.092
V25 0.052 0.019 0.008 0.771 0.108 0.115 -0.045
V26 -0.031 0.034 -0.051 0.397 0.130 0.332 0.052
V27 0.018 0.016 0.032 0.288 0.607 0.099 -0.023
V28 -0.079 0.094 -0.187 0.113 0.505 0.029 0.135
V29 0.242 0.004 0.063 -0.186 0.489 -0.145 0.156
V30 0.057 -0.010 -0.077 0.056 -0.724 0.035 0.112
V31 -0.187 0.056 0.073 -0.043 -0.733 -0.148 0.119
V32 -0.053 0.152 0.043 0.168 0.116 0.755 0.091
V33 -0.100 0.160 -0.033 0.360 0.101 0.646 0.093
V34 0.331 -0.017 0.009 0.003 -0.006 0.536 -0.141
V35 0.377 0.020 -0.046 -0.004 -0.163 0.483 -0.143
V36 0.155 -0.158 -0.073 -0.114 0.051 -0.017 0.823
V37 0.382 0.024 -0.025 0.237 0.024 -0.144 0.544
V38 -0.199 0.030 0.037 0.173 -0.213 -0.052 0.361
V39 -0.250 0.200 -0.011 0.337 -0.086 -0.087 -0.668

63
Besides the component loadings table, two-dimensional component loading plots, referred
to as biplots also provide further insight into the relationships between the variables. These
biplots are shown in Figures 1a and b. To enhance the clarity of the graphs, the lines
joining each variable to the origin (loading vectors) were removed. The length of the
loading vector usually indicates the variable’s VAF. Thus, the further away a variable is
from the component, the more it is loaded on that component. In interpreting the rotated
components' biplots, the cosines of the angles between the vectors indicate correlations
between variables. Thus, the variables that have vectors that make up an angle of
approximately 180o with each other are closely related and negative. Furthermore, vectors
that make up an angle of 90o are not related but rather independent of each other. In
addition, variables close together are positively correlated, while those lying opposite to
each other tend to have a negative correlation (Baardseth, Helgesen, & Isaksson, 1996;
Linting et al., 2007; Šnirc et al., 2017).

64
 1.5

V11
1.0
V12
V13

V14
0.5 V15
PC-2

V32V20
V31 V26 V8
V22 V19
V30 V7 V1
V18 V9 V3
V33 0.0 V25
V28 V17 V6 V2
-0.4 -0.2 V27
0.0 0.2V29 0.4V10
V34V35 V5 0.6 0.8
V21 V24 V4
V23
-0.5 V16

-1.0
PC-1 (a)

(b)

Figure 4.1a and b: Biplot for PC-1 against PC-2 (a) and PC-1 against PC-3 (b) for
the seven-component CATPCA solution on the 39 SFV food hygiene and safety
characteristics in (Table 4.1).

65
The first dimension was highly characterized by variables (V1-10) related to the condition
of the vending place, personal hygiene, and food handling practices (Figure 4.1a and b).
All 10 variables were positively correlated with this component. As shown in Figure 4.1a,
the variables were located furthest from PC-1 which shows their usefulness in defining
this PC. They are also placed close to one another showing that they are positively
correlated with one another and thus, SFVs whose vending structures and the surrounding
environment were clean were also more likely to exhibit better personal hygiene and food
handling practices. It is also key to note that these variables are however placed very close
to PC-2 meaning that they are less important in defining this component.

The second dimension was characterized by factors related to the initiatives put in place
towards enhancing the hygiene of the vending environment, vending structures, and
vending utensils (Figure 4.1a). All variables loaded positively on this PC except for V16
(cleanliness of the garbage collecting bin) which was negatively loading on this PC. V11,
V12, and V13 are closely bundled together and are therefore highly positively correlated
(Figure 4.1a) implying that vendors who had water available for washing were also more
likely to have a covered garbage collecting bin that was not overfilled. However, having
a clean garbage collecting bin was less likely. V14 and V16 are located on opposite
quadrants with vectors that make approximately 180o with each other. This shows that
they were closely negatively related. Having a clean dustbin for waste has the potential to
reduce the chance of the presence of houseflies and other insects. In this case, having good
hygiene and the sanitary status of the bin reduced the chance of having houseflies and
other insects present. Nonetheless, V14 and V16 have vectors that make approximately
90◦ with V15 suggesting that they are independent of V15. This implies that although
some SFVs had water available, this did not influence the hygiene and sanitary status of
the vending place.

The third component was characterized by factors related to washing practices and
knowledge of food safety. V17-V21 are located furthest from PC-3 and are positively
loading on this PC while V22 and V23 are located on the opposite side and are thus
negatively loading on this PC (Figure 4.1b). This means that vendors who had water

66
available and washed their hands before handling food were more likely to wash their
hands or their utensils without using soap. V17 and V21 are closely located together in
Figure 4.1b indicating that they are positively correlated. Thus, having sufficient water
available for washing was associated with the practice of washing hands before handling
food.

The fourth component was characterized by factors related to SFV’s knowledge of food
safety standards and regulations in Kenya and training on food hygiene and safety.
Training on food safety would increase SFV’s awareness of food safety standards and
regulations in Kenya. The fifth component was characterized by factors related to storage
practices for raw and RTE food while the sixth component was characterized by factors
related to adherence and attitude towards food safety stipulations, specifically the
requirement to obtain a medical health certificate and renew it periodically. SFVs who
had obtained a food handler's medical certificate were more likely to renew it and be
willing to receive training on food hygiene and safety.

The seventh component was characterized by whether the SFV was mobile and their place
of vending. Thus, mobile vendors would be more likely to be using hand-held containers
or trolleys in vending. According to these findings, the NLPCA solution seems to give
sensible insight into the components of hygiene and safety knowledge and practices of
SFVs in the study area. Since all seven components are based on SFV’s hygiene and safety
knowledge and practice, different food safety issues and concerns may occur in line with
each. Thus, the components identified by CATPCA may also be termed as the categories
of concern in enhancing the quality and safety of street food.

4.1.3.3 Object scores

Object scores are also referred to as component scores and are the aggregated summation
of the 39 variables used for CATPCA in this study. An object point (in this case, a street
food vendor (SFV)), in any biplot, is situated as close as possible to the variables or
clusters in which the object (SFV) scored most, taking into account the constraints
imposed by the level of analysis of the different variables, the fact that the component
scores are uniform and that the components are uncorrelated (Linting et al., 2007; Saukani

67
& Ismail, 2019). Figure 4.2, Figure 4.3, Figure 4.4, and Figure 4.5 shows the object scores
plotted on the same axis as the variable scores. To plot the variable scores on the same
axis as the object scores, the variable scores were elongated by a factor of 3.

3
V11
V12
V13
2.5
V14
2

1.5 V15

1
PC-2

V39 0.5
V33
V32
V20
V28 V6
V7
V31
V38 V26 V17 V37 V2
V25
V19
V27 V35
0V22V30 V24 V29 V34 V8 V5
V4 V1
-3 -2 -1 0 V18 1V10V9 V32
-0.5 V36 V23

-1 V21

-1.5 V16

-2
PC-1
Group 1 Group 2

Figure 4.2: Triplot showing object scores plotted on the same axis as the variable
scores for PC-1 against PC-2 for the seven-component CATPCA solution on the 39
SFV food hygiene and safety characteristics (Table 4.1).

Two sets of SFVs were clearly distinguished by PC-2 as shown in Figure 4.2. Vendors
who scored better in V11 - V15, were labeled as group 1 objects, and those who scored
well in V16 were labeled as group 2 objects. Although SFVs in group 1 were more likely
to be having water available for washing (V15) and having a covered garbage collecting
bin and not overfilled (V11, V12, and V13), they were less likely to have clean garbage
collecting bin (V16). On the contrary, SFVs in group 2 were more likely to have a garbage
collecting bin that was clean (V16). This is true since they had sufficient water for washing
available considering that they also scored better in V21.

68
The majority of vendors who had secondary school or tertiary education were clustered
on the left side of the biplot and scored better in V1-V8 (Figure 4.3). Similar observations
can be drawn for the SFVs who were below 2 years in the street food vending business as
shown in Figure 4.4. This means that the vendors who had secondary school or tertiary
education and those who were below 2 years in vending business were more likely to have
better personal hygiene and food handling practices, clean vending structures, and vended
from a clean environment.

Figure 4.3: Triplot showing object scores split by education levels and plotted on the
same axis as the variable scores for PC-1 against PC-3 for the seven-component
CATPCA solution on the 39 SFV food hygiene and safety characteristics (Table 4.1).

69
 2.5

2 V17
V18
1.5 V19
V20 V21
V10
1 V4 V2

0.5 V16 V5
V31V38 V32 V29 V8
V11 V34 V9 V6
PC-3

V14 0 V27
V25V13
V12
V24 V1
V33V26 V37
V35
-3 -2 -1 0 V30 V36 1 V32
-0.5
V28 V7
V15
-1
V23
-1.5

-2 V22

-2.5
PC-1
Above 2 years Between 1 - 2 years Below 1 Year

Figure 4.4: Triplot showing object scores split by the length of time in street food
vending and plotted on the same axis as the variable scores for PC-1 against PC-3
for the seven-component CATPCA solution on the 39 SFV food hygiene and safety
characteristics (Table 4.1).

There was a clear separation of vendors based on whether they sold animal-based foods
only or a combination of plant and animal-based foods (Figure 4.5). Vendors of animal-
based foods scored better on V18 – V21. On the contrary, those who sold both animal and
plant-based foods scored best on V15, V22, and V23. This means that although vendors
of animal-based foods were more likely to wash their hands before handling foods,
vendors of both plant and animal-based foods were more likely to use soap in washing
both hands and equipment. This may be because vendors of animal-based foods were
mostly mobile and would probably carry water without soap unlike those selling both
animal and plant-based foods who were operating from fixed locations.

70
Figure 4.5: Triplot showing object scores split by the nature of food sold by SFVs
and plotted on the same axis as the variable scores for PC-1 against PC-2 for the
seven-component CATPCA solution on the 39 SFV food hygiene and safety
characteristics (Table 4.1).

4.1.4 Conclusion
The results of this study showed that CATPCA is an effective procedure for summarizing
and making a judgment on data that has mixed measurement levels such as numeric,
nominal, or ordinal that may have non-linear relationships with each other. The study
identified seven components of food hygiene and safety knowledge and practices among
SFVs which represent the categories of concern in enhancing the quality and safety of
street food. These included the condition of the vending place, personal hygiene, and food
handling practices, initiatives put in place to ensure food hygiene and safety, washing
practices and food safety knowledge, food safety standards and regulations, storage
practices for raw and ready-to-eat food, adherence and attitude towards food safety

71
stipulations and SFVs’ mobility. Furthermore, CATPCA was also able to group SFVs
depending on whether they had good or poor food hygiene and safety awareness and
practices. These components may be used as the basis for evaluating street food quality
and safety. Further research may be carried out to study the factors influencing street food
vendor knowledge and practice putting into consideration the seven components of food
hygiene and safety knowledge and practices among SFVs.

4.2 Multinomial logistic regression analysis of factors influencing food safety,

hygiene awareness, and practices among street food vendors in Thika town,
Kiambu County, Kenya.

4.2.1 Introduction
Although many researchers have studied the operation of SFVs (Dwumfour-Asare &
Agyapong, 2014; Lawan et al., 2015; Okojie & Isah, 2014, 2019; Rahman et al., 2016),
few have reported the specific factors that may influence the SFVs choices regarding food
safety and hygiene and the resulting outcomes. Due to the different social-economic
characteristics of SFVs in different locations, different factors have been reported to
influence food hygiene and safety awareness and practices among SFVs. These factors
include gender, ethnicity, age, training, duration of time in business, food handler’s license
status, marital status, and religion (Adane et al., 2018; Addo-Tham et al., 2020; Birgen et
al., 2020; Hamed & Mohammed, 2019; Mesele, 2014; Rahman et al., 2016). Whereas
these factors influence the vendors’ food safety and hygiene knowledge and practices
directly, they may also indirectly influence hygiene and safety outcomes including the
quality and safety of RTE foods. SFVs choices, as well as outcomes related to food safety
and hygiene in street food vending, involve trade-offs between these factors. This means
that a single factor may not independently influence SFV's food safety and hygiene
choices and outcomes in the street food vending business. Thus, there is a need to study
the contribution that all these factors have on food safety, hygiene awareness, and
practices (FSHAP) among SFVs.

Logistic regression is one of the statistical analysis tools that can be used in
modeling data to describe and test hypotheses concerning relationships between predictor

72
variables and a categorical outcome variable (Peng, Lee, & Ingersoll, 2002). However,
the literature on statistical modeling to predict SFV's food hygiene and safety knowledge
and practices is scarce. A few researchers have employed logistic regression to predict
FSHAP among SFVs. Rahman et al. (2016) studied the influence of age, training,
knowledge score, duration of time in vending, ethnicity, and marital status on food safety
awareness, practice, and attitude among SFVs in Sarawak, Malaysia. Their results
revealed that age and ethnicity were crucial for food safety awareness while training was
important in influencing attitude among SFVs. Akabanda, Hlortsi, and Owusu-Kwarteng
(2017) developed four models on SFVs' knowledge and attitudes regarding food safety,
personal hygiene, and food hygienic practices in Ghana. Their research included age,
length of employment, and education level as predictors for general knowledge of food
safety revealing education level as a crucial factor influencing the understanding of food
safety issues among SFVs. Such predictive models may be useful in identifying factors of
importance in determining intervention strategies to enhance hygiene and safety among
SFVs for a given location. This study, therefore, employed multinomial logistic regression
analysis to explore the factors influencing FSHAP among SFVs in Thika town, Kenya.

4.2.2 Materials and methods

4.2.2.1 Study area and design
This study was conducted as elaborated in subheading 3.2.1. The study hypothesized that
gender, age, education level, food hygiene, and safety training, public health inspection,
duration of time in street food vending, category of SFVs, and vendor mobility had a
positive influence on the SFV's food safety and hygiene knowledge and practices.

4.2.2.2 Inclusion criteria and sampling procedure for street food vendors
The sampling procedure and inclusion criterion for street food vendors were discussed in
subheading 3.2.2.

4.2.2.3 Data collection

Data collection was done using a pre-tested questionnaire and a checklist for observation
of street food vendors’ (SFVs) food safety and hygiene practices as discussed in

73
subheadings 3.2.3 and 3.2.4. Permission to undertake this study was obtained from the
National Commission for Science and Technology (NACOSTI) as well as the County
Commissioner for Kiambu County (NACOSTI/P/19/87469/31129) as discussed in
subheading 3.2.5.

4.2.2.4 Variable selection for analysis

Eight social and demographic characteristics including gender, age, education level,
training on food safety and hygiene, public health inspection, duration of time in street
food vending, category of street food vendors (SFVs), and vendor mobility were extracted
from the data collection tools and used as predictors (Table 4.4) in the logistic regression
models.

74
Table 4.4: Description of the predictors used in logistic regression analysis.

Variable Description of codes Abbreviation

Gender 1 = Male G1
2 = Female † G2
Age 1 = Vendors aged 25 years and below A1
2 = 26 – 35 Years A2
3 = 36 – 45 Years A3
4 = Above 45 Years † A4
Education level 1 = No completed formal Education E1
2 = Primary Education E2
3 = Secondary Education E3
4 = Tertiary Education level † E4
Training on food 1 = No training T1
hygiene and 2 = Trained † T2
safety
Public health 1 = No public health inspection P1
inspection 2 = Inspected † P2
Category of 1 = Animal-based foods C1
SFVs based on 2 = Plant-based foods C2
the type of RTE 3 = Sellers of both plant and animal-based foods † C3
food sold
Mobility of SFVs 1 = SFV not mobile M1
2 = SFV mobile † M2
Length of time in 1 = Above 2 years L1
the street vending 2 = Between 1 - 2 years L2
business 3 = Between 6 months to 1 Year L3
4 = Between 1 - 6 Months L4
5 = One month or below † L5
† Category was chosen as the reference group in each variable in the logistic regression

analysis; SFV – Street Food Vendor

Thirty-eight characteristics relating to SFVs’ food safety, hygiene knowledge, and

practices were extracted from the research tools and used as dependent variables in the
logistic regression models (Table 4.5). These characteristics were grouped into four food
safety, hygiene awareness, and practices (FSHAP) categories; food safety and hygiene
awareness (AS), working conditions (WC), food handling practice (FH), and personal
hygiene practice (PH). Each vendor was awarded a score for each characteristic depending
on their response or what was observed. For instance, if the SFV had a food handler’s

75
medical certificate (Yes), their score for this characteristic was one (1) while if the SFV
had no food handler’s medical certificate (No), their score was zero (0).

Hygiene and sanitary status were determined using a 3-point rating scale as follows; poor
(1), average (2), or good (3). Hand and equipment washing practices were scored as
follows; using cold water only (1), using warm water only (2), using cold water with soap
(3), and using warm water with soap (4) (Table 4.5). Afterward, the total scores were
tallied for each vendor within each FSHAP category and converted into percent scores.
Percent scores below 50% were classified as poor FSHAP scores while scores greater or
equal to 50 were classified as good FSHAP scores.

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Table 4.5: Food safety, hygiene awareness, and practices characteristics with their respective categories and scores

Categories+ SFV food safety, hygiene awareness, and practice characteristics (FSHAP)†
Food safety and SFV has a food handler’s medical certificate (Yes=1, No=0)
hygiene SFV is aware of food safety standards and regulations in Kenya (Yes=1, No=0)
awareness (AS) SFV is aware that street food may be a source of pathogenic microorganisms (Yes=1, No=0)

Highest score = 3
The vending structures are washable (Yes=1, No=0)
The environment around the vending place is clean (Yes=1, No=0)
Working A garbage collecting bin is available (Yes=1, No=0)
conditions (WC) The garbage collecting bin is covered (Yes=1, No=0)
The garbage collecting bin is not overfilled (Yes=1, No=0)
Highest score = Houseflies and other insects are not present around the vending place (Yes=1, No=0)
13 There is the presence of a drainage system for wastewater from the business (Yes=1, No=0)
Vending place hygiene and sanitary status (Poor=1, Average=2, Good=3)
Garbage collecting bin hygiene and sanitary status (Poor=1, Average=2, Good=3)
Water is available for washing (Yes=1, No=0)
There is a sufficient amount of water for washing (Yes=1, No=0)
SFV does not handle money while serving food and if so, washes hands after (Yes=1, No=0)
SFV washes hands before handling food (Yes=1, No=0)
SFV wears aprons (Yes=1, No=0)
Personal hygiene
SFV uses gloves to handle foods (Yes=1, No=0)
practices (PH)
SFV has short clean nails (Yes=1, No=0)
SFV’s hair is covered (Yes=1, No=0)
Highest score =
SFV is not wearing jewelry (Yes=1, No=0)
18
SFV has no visible bruises, cuts, or boils on any visible part of the body (Yes=1, No=0)
SFV does not chew gum or any other foodstuff while handling food (Yes=1, No=0)
SFV does not smoke while handling food (Yes=1, No=0)
SFV does not sneeze, spit or cough on or near food (Yes=1, No=0)
SFV does not touch the mouth, tongue, nose, or eyes while handling food (Yes=1, No=0)

77
 Categories+ SFV food safety, hygiene awareness, and practice characteristics (FSHAP)†
How the SFV washes their hands (cold water only=1, warm water only=2, Coldwater with soap=3,
warm water with soap=4)
The food handling surfaces are cleanable (Yes=1, No=0)
The food handling surfaces, cutting equipment, and chopping boards are clean (Yes=1, No=0)
There is adequate separation between raw and RTE foodstuffs (Yes=1, No=0)
There are no scratches or rusting observed on serving utensils (Yes=1, No=0)
Food handling
Serving utensils or packaging material are adequately covered (Yes=1, No=0)
practices (FH)
There are separate basins for utensils and food preparation (Yes=1, No=0)
The food handling surfaces are in good condition without crevices or cracks (Yes=1, No=0)
Highest score =
There is a drying rack for clean utensils (Yes=1, No=0)
14
There are dry clean wiping towels available (Yes=1, No=0)
RTE food is adequately covered (Yes=1, No=0)
How the SFV washes their utensils and equipment (cold water only=1, warm water only=2,
Coldwater with soap=3, warm water with soap=4)
SFV – Street Food Vendor, RTE – Ready to Eat, † Scores for the specific characteristics are shown in brackets

78
4.2.2.5 Statistical analysis
Multinomial logistic regression was used to construct statistical models (one for each of
the four categories described in Table 4.5) to describe the relationship between the
explanatory variables in Table 4.4 and the street food vendors’ food safety, hygiene
awareness, and practice (FSHAP) scores categories (good or poor score) from Table 4.5.
Logistic regression uses a set of predictors (explanatory variables) to predict the logit (the
natural log of the odds (probability/(l-probability)) of an event outcome. Starting with the
saturated models (models containing all predictors), the least significant predictors were
dropped one by one until the predictors that remained in the models were significantly
(p<0.05) contributing to the model.

Overall evaluation of the final model containing significant (p<0.05) factors was done
using the likelihood ratio, Wald, and score tests. The likelihood ratio test compares the fit
of two models by evaluating the difference in log-likelihoods, using a chi-squared
distribution to determine statistical significance; it helps decide whether a more complex
model with additional variables is a significantly better fit than a simpler one. The Wald
test estimates the significance of parameters by testing if their values are significantly
different from zero, evaluating the parameter estimates in terms of their standard errors.
The score test, measures the potential improvement in model fit by assessing the change
in the likelihood function if specific parameters are added to the model; it is used to
identify whether omitted variables or constraints should be reconsidered for model
improvement (Bruin, 2011). The three tests test the null hypothesis that the coefficient
(β)=0. A significant (p<0.05) test result indicated that the model with added variables
fitted the data significantly better.

The Wald Chi-square test was utilized to test the significance of individual predictors’
regression coefficients in each model. The Hosmer and Lemeshow goodness-of-fit test
was used to evaluate the fitness of the logistic regression models against actual outcomes.
Validation of predicted probabilities was done using Goodman-Kruskal’s Gemma and the
c statistic (concordance index). The Goodman-Kruskal’s Gemma statistic is Kendall’s
rank order correlation coefficient with adjustments for ties while the c statistic quantifies

79
the fraction of pairs of vendors with distinct observed results, where the model accurately
forecasts a greater likelihood for instances with the event outcome compared to instances
without the event outcome. Odds ratios (OR) were calculated by exponentiation of the
regression coefficients of the respective logistic regression coefficient for any given
predictor in the final models. G2, A4, E4, T2, P2, C3, M2, and L5 were chosen as the
reference group for gender, age, education level, training on food safety and hygiene,
public health inspection, category of SFVs, mobility of SFVs, and duration of time in the
street vending business in the logistic regression analysis, respectively. All statistical
analyses in this study were carried out using SAS software version 9.4M6 (SAS Institute).

4.2.3 Results and discussion

4.2.3.1 Evaluation of the logistic regression models
Overall evaluation of the four models (AS, WC, PH, and FH) using the likelihood ratio
test, Wald test, and Score tests (Table 4.6) showed a significant (p<0.001) improvement
in the logistic models compared to the intercept-only model (null model with no
predictors). This means that the models with the predictors were more effective in fitting
the data on street food vendors' (SFVs) food safety, hygiene awareness, and practices than
the intercept-only model. The null model was chosen as a baseline for comparison to the
model containing the predictors since it had no predictors. The Hosmer and Lemeshow
Tests showed no significant results (p>0.05) for all the models meaning that the models
were a good fit for the data.

Since logistic regression uses a given set of explanatory variables to predict the logit of
an event outcome, it may be transformed back to the probability scale. It is expected that
high probabilities are associated with the outcome of the event (good score) while lower
probabilities are associated with nonevents (Peng et al., 2002). These predicted
probabilities can be re-evaluated as part of the process of ascertaining the usefulness of
the model in predicting the outcomes using measures of association such as Goodman-
Kruskal’s Gemma and the c statistic (Peng et al., 2002). The Goodman-Kruskal’s Gemma
statistic for the models predicting food safety and hygiene awareness (AS), working
conditions (WC), food handling practices (FH), and personal hygiene practices (PH)

80
scores were 0.514, 0.330, 0.410, and 0.425, respectively. This means that 51.4, 33.0, 41.0,
and 42.5% fewer errors were made in predicting which SFVs had a good or poor score by
using the probabilities estimated by the models than by chance alone for the AS, WC, FH,
and PH scores respectively.

The c statistic is a standard measure that shows the predictive accuracy or the
discriminative ability of any logistic regression model (Austin & Steyerberg, 2012). In
this study, it denotes the probability that any randomly selected street food vendors who
had a good score also had a higher predicted probability of having good food safety,
hygiene awareness, and practice (FSHAP) score compared to randomly selected street
food vendors who did not have a good score. The c statistic normally ranges from 0.5 to
1. A value of 0.5 means that the model is poor and is, therefore, no better than randomly
assigning the observations within outcome categories. Higher values mean that the models
are assigning higher probabilities to all the event observations, as compared to those
observations with non-vent outcomes (Peng et al., 2002). The c statistic in this study was
between 0.652 and 0.741 for the models. This means that between 65.2 - 74.1% of all
possible street food vendor pairs (one with good and the other with poor FSHAP score),
the models correctly assigned higher probabilities to the SFVs who had good FSHAP
scores. Both the Gemma and c statistic shows that the four models were moderately good
in predicting outcomes in this study. With the cutoff (probability for assigning outcomes
as either events or nonevents) set at 0.5, the overall correct prediction for the models
ranged between 60.2 - 79.60%, which is an improvement over the chance level set at 50%
(Figure 4.6).

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 Hygiene and safety score Personal hygiene practice score 79.6

Food handling practice score 74.6

Working conditions score 60.2

Food hygiene and safety awareness
78.5
score
0 20 40 60 80 100
Percentage of correct predictions (%)

Figure 4.6: The proportion of correct predictions for the four logistic regression
models at a cut-point set at 0.5.

4.2.3.2 The education level of street food vendors

Results showed that the education level was significant in predicting food safety and
hygiene awareness (AS) score and working conditions (WC) score as shown in Table 4.6.
The odds of having a good AS or WC score for street food vendors (SFVs) who had no
formal education were 0.18 and 0.32 as shown in Figure 4.7 and Figure 4.8 respectively.
Meaning a lack of formal education has the potential to negatively influence food safety,
hygiene awareness, and practice (FSHAP) among SFVs. Similar findings of food handlers
with higher education levels who demonstrated a significantly better understanding of
food safety issues were reported by Akabanda et al. (2017) in Ghana.

Hamed and Mohammed (2019) studying food safety practices and knowledge amongst
food handlers in Egypt also reported that higher education was a strong indicator of good
food safety awareness. Since the street food vending business is popular among persons
who may not have attained higher education, strategies to enhance the hygiene of SFVs
have to be put in place to ensure food safety and therefore public health. This can be
achieved by training all food handlers on food hygiene and safety.

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Key: E1 - not completed primary education, E2 - primary education, E3 - secondary
education, and E4 - tertiary education; T1 - not trained and T2 - trained; P1 - not inspected
and P2 - inspected; C1 - sellers of animal-based foods, C2 - sellers of plant-based foods,
and C3 - sellers of both plant and animal-based foods.

Figure 4.7: Odds ratios with 95% Wald confidence limits for food safety and hygiene
awareness (AS) score.

83
Key: E1 - not completed formal education, E2 - primary education, E3 - secondary
education, and E4 - tertiary education level; P1 - not inspected and P2 - inspected; M1 -
SFVs not mobile and M2 - mobile.

Figure 4.8: Odds ratios with 95% Wald confidence limits for working conditions
(WC) score.

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Table 4.6: Logistic regression analysis results for the four models

AS WC FS PH
β(SE) Χ2 β(SE) Χ2 β(SE) Χ2 β(SE) Χ2
Intercept -0.20(0.54) 0.13 -0.03(0.39) 0.01 1.52(0.63) 5.82* 1.45(0.27) 28.28***
E1 -1.72(0.74) 5.36* -1.14(0.51) 4.94* - - - -
E2 -0.64(0.47) 1.85 -0.66(0.39) 2.84 - - - -
E3 0.19(0.45) 0.17 -0.16(0.39) 0.16 - - - -
T1 -1.45(0.50) 8.33** - - - - - -
P1 -1.04(0.30) 12.36*** -0.58(0.23) 6.11* -0.62(0.27) 5.15* -0.85(0.29) 8.53**
C1 1.59(0.47) 11.35*** - - - - - -
C2 1.10(0.42) 6.72** - - - - - -
M1 - - 0.62(0.24) 6.79** - - 0.79(0.28) 7.74**
L1 - - - - -0.66(0.62) 1.11 - -
L2 - - - - -0.22(0.67) 0.11 - -
L3 - - - - 0.71(0.67) 1.13 - -
L4 - - - - 1.13(0.79) 2.06* - -
Testing the global null hypothesis: all coefficients except for the intercept are equal to 0 (β = 0) (degrees of freedom are shown in
brackets)
Likelihood - 46.46(7)*** - 24.72(5)*** - 24.11(5)*** - 20.04(2)***
Ratio
Score - 45.00(7)*** - 23.95(5)*** - 22.48(5)*** - 19.70(2)***
Wald - 37.61(7)*** - 22.61(5)*** - 20.68(5)*** - 18.50(2)***
Goodness-of-fit test
Hosmer and - 9.26ns - 6.74ns - 1.74ns - 0.01ns
Lemeshow
Test
The models are predicting whether the vendor had a “good” food safety, hygiene awareness, and practice (FSHAP) score. β is
the estimated coefficients for the independent variables, SE is the standard error for the estimated coefficients, Χ2 is Chi-square;
E1, E2, E3, T1, P1, C1, C2, M1, L1, L2, L3, and L4 descriptions are in Table 4.4; AS, WC, FS, and PH description in Table
4.5; * Significant at 0.05; ** Significant at 0.01; *** Significant at 0.001; ns – Not significant

60
4.2.3.3 Street food vendors’ food safety and hygiene training

Training on food safety and hygiene was significant in predicting AS score only (Table
4.6). The odds of having a good AS score for street food vendors (SFVs) who had not
received any training was 0.24 (Figure 4.7). This means that training on food hygiene and
safety positively influenced good food hygiene and safety awareness among SFVs.
Vendors who had been trained were thus highly likely to make better food safety choices
such as obtaining a food handler’s medical certificate. Training may enhance awareness
of safety standards and regulations applicable in the region which ensures adherence to
these requirements and upholding of good food safety and hygiene practices. Adane et al.
(2018) reported that the odds of having good safety and hygiene practices among food
handlers in Ethiopia who had received training on food handling and preparation were 6.7
times higher as compared to those who had no training. This underlines the importance of
regular training of SFVs on food safety and hygiene practices to enhance the safety of
RTE food and hence assure public health.

4.2.3.4 Public health officers’ inspection

Public health inspection was the only predictor that was important in predicting all the
four-food safety and hygiene scores (Table 4.6). The odds of having good FSHAP scores
for vendors who had not received any public health inspection visit were lower than one
as shown in Figure 4.7 to Figure 4.9. This means that these street food vendors (SFVs)
were likely to have poor food safety and hygiene practice (FSHAP) scores. Public health
inspection is inscribed in the public health act of Kenya (CAP 242, 2012), (GoK, 2012)
which stipulates that no person is allowed to present any foodstuffs for sale without putting
in place adequate measures to safeguard against infections or contamination. Public health
officers are empowered through this act to oversee the safety and hygiene of food sold in
Kenya. They are required to occasionally inspect and examine the suitability for human
consumption of any food found on any food premises with the interest of ensuring public
health. Thus, their role is to ensure compliance with all stipulated standards and
regulations relating to food hygiene and safety. Their regular inspection therefore would
enhance compliance with these stipulations which has the potential to increase awareness

86
of food safety and better hygiene and safety practices among SFVs. Similar findings on
SFVs who were inspected by environmental health inspectors being 2.41 times more
likely to practice safe food handling as compared to those who had no inspection by the
regulatory bodies were reported by Mesele (2014) in Ethiopia. They reported that SFVs
who were inspected by environmental health inspectors were 2.4 times more likely to
practice safe food handling when compared to those who were not inspected by regulatory
bodies.

Although the fear of regulators may be the motivation to adhere to food hygiene and safety
regulations, the regular inspection may grow the desire to improve the quality and safety
of food among the SFVs. This shows the importance of such inspection in enhancing food
safety and hygiene practices among SFVs. Thus, there is a need to sensitize SFVs on the
need for good food safety and hygiene practices as poor choices facilitate poor hygiene
outcomes which have the potential of causing public health issues. Furthermore, the legal
implications of selling unwholesome food that has the potential to negatively affect public
health should be communicated to the SFVs (Okojie & Isah, 2014).

4.2.3.5 Category of street food vendors

Results showed that the category of the street food vendors (SFVs) based on the type of
RTE food sold significantly predicted the vendor’s food safety and hygiene awareness
(AS) score as shown in Table 4.6. The odds of having a good AS score were 4.88 times
higher for SFVs selling animal-based foods only and 2.99 times higher for those selling
plant-based foods only (Figure 4.7). Meaning SFVs selling both plant and animal-based
foods were less likely to obtain a food handler’s medical certificate, to be aware of food
hygiene and safety standards, or even to be aware of the fact that street foods could be
contaminated. Although there are differences in hygiene and safety practices depending
on the type of food sold, all SFVs must have the basic knowledge of food safety and
hygiene to ensure the safety of the food as stipulated in Kenya’s public health act (CAP
242, 2012) (GoK, 2012). Therefore, strategies targeting to improve hygiene and safety
practices among SFVs selling different foodstuffs should also seek to improve their food
safety and hygiene knowledge which has the potential to improve public health.

87
4.2.3.6 Street food vendors’ mobility

The street food vendors’ (SFVs) mobility was important in predicting the working
conditions (WC) and personal hygiene practices (PH) scores (Table 4.6). The odds of
having a good score for vendors who were not mobile were 1.86 and 2.19 for WC (Figure
4.8) and PH scores respectively (Figure 4.9).

Key: P1 - not inspected, P2 - inspected; M1 - SFVs not mobile, and M2 - SFVs mobile.

Figure 4.9: Odds ratios with 95% Wald confidence limits for personal hygiene
practices (PH) score.

Mobile vendors were often found selling in unhygienic surroundings and had poor
personal hygiene practices compared to the vendors operating in stationary locations.
Vending from a designated location allows control of many aspects of street food vending
including the sanitary condition of the surrounding environment, SFVs’ hygiene as well

88
as food handling practices. On the contrary, mobile vendors may not be able to clean their
vending place or carry sufficient water facilities for ensuring adequate personal hygiene
which explains the poor score observed for mobile vendors. A similar finding on mobile
vendors exhibiting poor food hygiene and safety practices was reported by Dwumfour-
Asare and Agyapong (2014) in a Ghanaian study.

Since street vending business is not legal in Kenya (Muiruri, 2010), consideration of street
food vending business locations in the design of towns does not happen. Thus, even the
stationary SFVs may be found setting up their locations in unsanitary sites. This calls for
the inclusion of street vending locations in the design of cities and towns which will limit
mobile vending practices and the haphazard placement of SFVs in unsanitary locations.

4.2.3.7 Duration of time in street food vending business

The duration of time spent in street food vending is an indication of the experience gained
by street food vendors (SFVs) over time. It is assumed that with time SFVs should have
better food hygiene and safety practices. The duration of time in street food vending was
significant in predicting the food handling practices (FH) score (Table 4.6). Vendors who
had been in business between 1 to 6 months and between 6 to 12 months were 3.11 and
2.04 times more likely to show good FH scores compared to the vendors who were in
vending for one month and below as shown in Figure 4.10.

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Key: P1 - not inspected, P2 - inspected; T1 - above 2 years, T2 - between 1 to 2 years, T3
- between 6 months to 1 year, T4 - between 1 to 6 months, and T5 - one month or below.

Figure 4.10: Odds ratios with 95% Wald confidence limits for food handling
practices (FH) score.

This is an indication that vendors who had been in vending for a shorter time had better
food safety and hygiene practices although this was not the case for vendors who were
over 1 year in business. This may mean that although some vendors may have been in the
street food vending business for longer, their food safety and hygiene practices were poor
or deteriorated with time which explains the gradual decrease in the chance of having a
good score with an increase in the length of time in the vending business as shown in
Figure 4.10. These findings suggest that better behavioral practices among SFVs may not
necessarily be acquired simply by work experience but by conscious effort on the part of
the SFVs in doing the right thing as reported by Dwumfour-Asare and Agyapong (2014).

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4.2.4 Conclusions
These findings revealed that public health inspection and street food vendors’ (SFVs)
mobility were the most important factors influencing food safety, hygiene awareness, and
practices (FSHAP) among SFVs in the study area. Public health inspection improved the
chance of having a good FSHAP score while being mobile increased the likelihood of
poor scores. Efforts to reduce the movement of SFVs should be put in place as mobility
impairs the achievement of certain hygienic practices such as regular washing of hands
and maintenance of environmental hygiene.

All the other predictors including education level, training, category of SFV, and the
length of time in vending were significant in predicting at least one FSHAP score except
for the age and gender of the SFVs. Therefore, to improve the hygiene and safety of street
food, emphasis should be placed on all the factors that have the potential to influence
SFVs' food safety and hygiene practices in an integrated approach. These findings can be
used to establish priorities for programs geared toward enhancing street hygiene and food
safety. The study further recommends regular inspection of SFVs by public health
officials to improve compliance with food safety and hygiene standards and regulations
governing the food sector as well as scheduled training on food safety and hygiene
targeting all categories of SFVs. Further, the inclusion of street food vending locations in
the designing as well as planning of cities, towns, and market centers may limit the mobile
vending practices and the haphazard placement of street vendors in unsanitary locations
which have been proven to impair the safety of street food.

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 CHAPTER FIVE

DETERMINATION OF MICROBIAL QUALITY AND SAFETY OF

READY-TO-EAT STREET-VENDED FOODS

5.1 Introduction

Contrary to the potential benefits of street food vending such as affordability, accessibility,
convenience, source of nutrients, and employment (Choudhury et al., 2011; IFRA, 2016;
Micah et al., 2012; Namugumya & Muyanja, 2011; Oyunga-Ogubi et al., 2009; Steyn et
al., 2014; Tesfaye, 2019), the conditions in which they are prepared, processed, stored and
distributed do not always assure their quality and safety (Boko et al., 2017). SFVs who
are mostly untrained in food hygiene and sanitation (IFRA, 2016; Imathiu, 2017) operate
informally with minimal control since they are often unlicensed to handle food. Vendors
often use inefficient vending structures lacking running water, waste management
systems, and accessible toilets. In many cases, handwashing before handling food or after
handling money does not occur and safe storage temperatures for food are
hardly maintained as reported earlier in section 3.0. These conditions and practices are
likely to lead to contamination of RTE foods (Bereda et al., 2016), thus not only
contributing to food waste due to spoilage but also leading to probable foodborne disease
outbreaks. Different countries have different cultures and therefore, there is great variation
in terms of ingredients used, processing, marketing methods, and consumption of SVFs.
This diversity represents the increasing difficulty in ensuring the safety of SVFs (Tesfaye,
2019).

The microbial quality and safety of SVFs are always uncertain (Kassa & Azene, 2017).
Microbiological analyses of SVFs across different countries suggest a high number of
bacteria and a heightened risk of foodborne bacterial pathogens (Nemo et al., 2017; Rane,
2011). For instance, in Bharatpur, Nepal, a study on SVFs revealed contamination with
13 different bacterial species including Salmonella typhi, Salmonella paratyphi, Bacillus
cereus, and S. aureus (Khadka et al., 2018). In Benin city, Nigeria, Isara et al. (2017)
reported that poor handling practices amongst SFVs resulted in contamination with

92
coliforms as well as S. aureus while in Ethiopia, Bereda et al. (2016) reported the presence
of E. coli, S. aureus, and Salmonella spp in SVFs. In Kenya, Kariuki et al. (2017) reported
E. coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae in a sample of boiled egg with a raw vegetable salad
sold on the streets in Githurai and Gikomba markets while Awino (2015) found SVFs to
contain S. aureus, E. coli, and Salmonella in Kisumu in Western Kenya.

A major contributor to the spread of food-borne diseases in most developing countries is

microbiologically contaminated street foods which often result in high morbidities and
mortalities (Amare et al., 2019). There have been several cases of documented food
poisoning outbreaks linked to street foods (Tesfaye, 2019). As a result, billions of
consumers are at high risk and millions contract food-borne diseases of microbiological
nature every year, many of whom die from consuming these unsafe foods (WHO, 2015).
According to the WHO (2022), approximately 600 million individuals worldwide,
become sick due to consumption of contaminated food. Tragically, this leads to
approximately 420,000 deaths annually, resulting in a total loss of 33 million years of
healthy life with children under 5 years of age carrying about 40% of the food-borne
disease burden, with about 125,000 deaths occurring every year. Therefore, there is a need
to develop interventions on food hygiene that can be implemented to curb the spread of
pathogenic microorganisms, especially in SVFs. However, in developing countries such
as Kenya where street-food vending is common, there is generally a lack of information
on the incidence and prevalence of food-borne diseases linked to SVFs. Furthermore,
information on the microbiological safety and quality of SVFs is scarce.

Considering the prevailing burden of infectious diseases, particularly in developing

countries, the microbiological profile of these SVFs should be continuously assessed to
increase awareness and prevent the occurrence of diseases associated with the ingestion
of contaminated foods. Therefore, this study aimed at determining the microbial quality
and safety of RTE street-vended foods sold in selected locations within Thika town,
Kiambu County, Kenya.

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5.2 Materials and methods

5.2.1 Experimental design and study area

A cross-sectional study was conducted between September 2020 and February 2021 in six
locations where street vending activities are high in Thika town, Kiambu County, Kenya.
These areas included the area around Thika Level 5 Hospital, Juakali area, Kiandutu
slums, Makongeni area, Ngoigwa area, and Thika Town center.

5.2.2 Sampling of street-vended foods

Sampling was done for all food samples offered for sale by randomly selecting SFVs
without considering the food history. Table 5.1 shows the constituents and description of
the twelve food samples that were selected for microbiological analysis from the six study
locations. Three samples of the same food type were obtained from each location for
analysis. Between 200 - 300 g sample of each food was collected and bagged in a sterile
500 g plastic ziplock sample bag. Samples were immediately transferred into a cool box
(4oC) for transportation to the laboratory for analysis. All analyses were carried out in the
microbiology laboratory in the Department of Animal Science at Chuka University.

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Table 5.1: Description of food samples selected from six locations in Thika town for
microbiological analysis

Food sample Number Description of samples

type of samples
Sausages 18 Comminuted meat products containing curing salts and
spices. Three sausages were randomly selected from the
SFV’s cart, prepared by SFV in the manner that they do
before presenting them to customers, and bagged in a
sterile sample bag as a single sample. Accompanying
additives such as salt and salads were not included.
Smokies 18 Smoked comminuted meat products containing curing
salts and spices. Three smokies were randomly selected
from the SFV’s cart, prepared by SFV in the manner
that they do before presenting them to customers, and
bagged in a sterile sample bag as a single sample.
Accompanying additives such as salt and salads were
not included.
Boiled 18 Boiled eggs without shells. Three boiled eggs were
deshelled eggs randomly selected from the SFV’s cart, their shells
removed by SFV in the manner that they do before
presenting them to customers, and bagged in a sterile
sample bag as a single sample. Accompanying additives
such as salt and salads were not included.
Cereals 18 Maize mixed with legumes such as beans and peas
(locally referred to as ‘Githeri”). Products were fried
with onions, tomatoes, and cabbage.
French fries 18 Deep-fried Irish potato chips
Groundnuts 18 Roasted unpeeled groundnuts
Juices 20 Blended fruit juice mixes. Commonly used fruits
included bananas, watermelons, avocados, pineapples,
mangoes, and oranges. Other uncommon additions
included sugarcane juice, aloe vera juice, milk, and
groundnuts.
Water melons 18 Sliced watermelon fruit
Pineapples 19 Peeled and sliced pineapple fruit
Salads 19 An assortment of sliced tomatoes, and onions with or
without pepper.
Arrowroots 4 Boiled unpeeled arrowroots
Sweet potatoes 11 Boiled unpeeled sweet potatoes

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5.2.3 Microbial analysis

5.2.3.1 Sample preparation for microbial analysis

A 25 g sample from each food was blended in 225 ml of peptone water and homogenized
in a sterilized laboratory blender. Ten-fold serial dilutions were then prepared for
subsequent microbial analysis. Microbiological media were prepared according to the
manufacturer's instructions.

5.2.3.2 Determination of total viable counts

Determination of total viable counts (TVC) was done following the method outlined by
Maturin and Peeler (2001). From the diluted samples, 1 ml was pour-plated on Plate Count
Agar (PCA) in duplicate. Incubation was done at 35°C for 48 hours after which all visible
colonies were counted and recorded as the number of colony-forming units per gram
(CFU/g).

5.2.3.3 Determination of yeasts and mold counts

Determination of yeast and mold counts was done following the method outlined by
Tournas et al. (2001). From the diluted samples, 1 ml was pour-plated onto
chloramphenicol yeast extract agar in duplicate. Incubation of inoculated plates was done
at 25 °C for 3-5 days. Molds and yeasts were then counted and recorded as CFU/g.

5.2.3.4 Determination of total coliform count and Escherichia coli

Total coliforms were determined following the method outlined by Feng et al. (2017).
One milliliter of each diluted sample was pour-plated onto violet-red bile agar (VRBA) in
duplicate and incubated at 35°C for 24 h. Purple-red colonies that were 0.5 mm or larger
in diameter and surrounded by a zone of precipitated bile acids were counted. To confirm
coliforms, ten representative colonies were transferred to a sterile brilliant green lactose
broth tube and incubated at 35°C for 24 h. Gas-positive tubes showing a pellicle were
subjected to Gram staining to eliminate Gram-positive, lactose-fermenting bacilli. The
coliform count was reported as the number of colony-forming units per gram.
Determination of E. coli was carried out using tryptone-bile-glucuronide (TBX) agar as

96
described by Vergine et al. (2017). Confirmation was done through the determination of
the presence of cytochrome oxidase, the ability to ferment lactose, and the production of
indole. In addition, Voges-Proskauer test, methyl red test, and citrate test were done.

5.2.3.5 Detection and enumeration of Staphylococcus aureus

Isolation and identification of S. aureus in food samples were carried out following the
procedures outlined by Bennett and Lancette (2016). From each diluted sample, 1 ml was
pour-plated onto Baird-Parker agar containing egg-yolk tellurite emulsion in duplicate.
Plates were incubated at 37°C for 48 hours. Grey-black shiny convex colonies surrounded
by a thin white border, and a light area in the media around the colonies, typical of S.
aureus were subjected to the coagulase test for confirmation. Results were reported as the
number of CFU of S. aureus/g of food.

5.2.3.6 Detection and identification of Salmonella spp.

Enrichment, isolation, and identification of Salmonella spp. in food samples were carried
out following the procedures outlined by Andrews et al. (2018). Pre-enrichment was done
using a 25 g sample in 225 ml buffered peptone water followed by incubation at 37°C for
18 hours. Afterward, enrichment was done by transferring 1 ml of pre-enrichment media
into Rappaport-Vassiliadis media and incubating at 42°C for 24 hours. After enrichment,
culturing was done by streaking onto xylose lysine deoxycholate (XLD) agar and
incubating at 37°C for 24 hours. Suspect colonies (red colonies with black centers) were
tested for fermentation of glucose, decarboxylation of lysine, and H2S production using
Triple sugar iron agar and lysine iron agar. Hydrolysis of urea was tested using urea agar
containing urea 40% FD048 supplement while citrate hydrolysis was determined using
Simon’s citrate agar. In addition, the Voges Proskauer test, 0.5% dulcitol fermentation
test, indole test as well as methyl red test were also carried out.

5.2.3.7 Detection and identification of Listeria monocytogenes

Enrichment, isolation, and identification of L. monocytogenes in food samples were

carried out following the procedures outlined by Hitchins, Jinneman, and Chen (2017). A
25g representative food sample was obtained and mixed in a laboratory blender with 225

97
ml buffered Listeria enrichment broth, modified (mBLEB). All samples were incubated
at 30°C for 48 hours. After enrichment, streaking was done onto modified Listeria oxford
agar containing Listeria selective supplement II, modified (FD163), and incubated at 30°C
for 48 hours. Identification of L. monocytogenes was done after streaking purified colonies
onto trypticase soy agar with 0.6% yeast extract (TSAYE). Colonies from TSAYE were
inoculated onto 5% sheep blood agar by stabbing thickly poured plates that were dried
well to perform the hemolysis test. Incubation was then done for 24 hours at 35°C. In
addition, Gram staining, motility test, catalase test, and carbohydrate fermentation tests
using dextrose, maltose, mannitol, rhamnose, and xylose were carried out.

5.2.4 Data analysis

Data were analyzed using statistical analysis system version 9.4 to perform an analysis of
variance and means separated using Tukey's HSD (honestly significant difference) test.
Significance was established at p < 0.05 level. Prevalence was reported as a percentage of
positive samples. Results were reported as mean ± standard deviation log10 CFU/g for all
SVF samples.

5.3 Results and discussion

5.3.1 Determination of total viable counts

There were highly significant differences (p<0.0001) in total viable counts (TVC)
between the food samples as shown in Table 5.2. The highest contamination level was
observed in cereals (6.60±1.02 log10 CFU/g) while the lowest was in groundnuts
(3.38±1.76 log10 CFU/g). The second-highest level of contamination (6.56±1.00 log10
CFU/g) was found in sliced watermelon samples. These contamination levels are
comparable to findings reported by Mafune et al. (2016) who observed the highest
contamination in cereal-based foods (5.08 Log10 CFU/g) in a study investigating microbial
safety of SVFs in Thohoyandou, South Africa. Similarly and consistent with findings from
this study, Oluboyo et al. (2020) reported that watermelons were among the most
contaminated foods (6.02 log10 CFU/g) among other RTE sliced fruits in Ado-Ekiti,
Nigeria. The presence of such high microbial counts can be attributed to improper

98
handling during preparation and inappropriate storage conditions for these products before
the sale (Birgen et al., 2020). Cereal-based foods are high in moisture and thus they are
more prone to the proliferation of microorganisms as compared to dry groundnuts.
Similarly, watermelons are categorized as potentially hazardous foods since they are high
in moisture and do not undergo any processing after slicing which can potentially reduce
contamination (Bhattacharjee, Saxena, & Dutta, 2019).

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Table 5.2: Microbial quality of street-vended food samples sold in selected locations in Thika town, Kenya.

Total viable Total Yeasts and mold Escherichia coli Staphylococcus

Food type counts (log10 coliforms count (log10 CFU/g) (log10 CFU/g) aureus (log10
CFU/g) (log10 CFU/g) CFU/g)
Arrowroots 5.589±0.611abc 4.907±1.370a 4.602±0.442ab 2.033±1.229a 4.807±1.156ab
Boiled 4.559±1.428bcd 1.647±2.307d 1.840±2.055cd 0.000±0.000c 2.459±2.613cd
deshelled eggs
French fries 5.140±1.805abcd 3.866±2.279abcd 3.243±1.977abcd 0.279±1.185bc 5.035±1.960ab
Groundnuts 3.377±1.764d 1.594±2.299d 1.595±2.146d 0.000±0.000c 1.905±1.638d
Juices 5.968±1.016ab 4.807±2.329ab 5.052±1.201a 0.801±1.433abc 3.664±2.530bcd
Cereals 6.590±1.020a 5.567±2.233a 4.581±2.515ab 1.445±2.163abc 5.972±1.170a
Salads 5.830±1.210ab 5.295±1.070a 3.287±2.118abcd 0.105±0.315bc 4.688±1.250abc
Sausages 4.508±2.470bcd 2.285±2.828bcd 2.300±2.504bcd 0.243±1.030bc 3.011±2.959bcd
Sliced 5.311±1.279abc 3.588±2.381abcd 4.048±2.180abc 0.483±1.459bc 1.888±1.660d
pineapples
Sliced 6.564±1.001a 5.431±1.785a 4.853±1.737a 0.805±1.443abc 5.055±1.809ab
watermelons
Smokies 3.900±2.109cd 1.985±2.737cd 1.857±2.185cd 0.000±0.000c 2.076±2.343d
ab abc ab ab
Sweet potatoes 5.956±1.456 4.473±2.938 4.339±1.567 1.556±2.823 4.819±2.059ab
Values are means ± standard deviation log10 CFU/g. Means with different superscript letters in each column are significantly
different (p<0.05).

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Table 5.3: Ready-to-eat foods specification by Kenya Bureau of Standards

Total viable Total Yeasts and mold Escherichia Staphylococcus

Food type counts (CFU/g) coliforms count (CFU/g) coli aureus (CFU/g)
(CFU/g)
Arrowroots* 105 - - 102 CFU/25g 102
Boiled deshelled 105 - - 102 CFU/25g 102
eggs*
French fries** 103 - - - 102
Groundnuts* 105 - - 102 CFU/25g 102
Juices+ 50 absent 20 - absent
Cereals** 103 - - - 102
Salads++ 102 - - 10 CFU/g -
Sausages** 103 - - - 102
Sliced pineapples+ 50 absent 20 - absent
Sliced 50 absent 20 - absent
watermelons+
Smokies** 103 - - - 102
Sweet potatoes* 105 - - 102 CFU/25g 102
Source: KEBs (2022). ** Foods/meals cooked immediately prior to sale or consumption such as pizza, sausages, lasagna, filled
pasta, street foods, burgers kebabs, meat and vegetable nuggets, and frozen doughs with fillings or toppings, etc; + Fresh fruit
++
and vegetable juices/drinks, beverages or other related products; Salad from raw vegetables and/ or fruits including mixed
salads; * Other ready to eat foods not specified above. – No limits were found.

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Plant-based foods had significantly higher (p<0.0001) TVC compared to animal-based
foods as shown in Figure 5.1. This high level of contamination could be attributed to
contamination and cross-contamination between RTE foods and contaminated surfaces
occurring due to poor hygiene practices during the handling, preparation, and storage of
plant-based foods as reported earlier in section 3.0. For instance, the microbial quality of
the water used in washing and preparation, as well as the length of time the foods stay
before purchase could have a significant effect on the growth and proliferation of
microorganisms in these foods (Izah, Aseibai, & Orutugu, 2015). In addition, some of the
plant-based foods were prepared and consumed raw.

Escherichia
Escherichia coli
coli count
count a
b

Staphylococcus aureus count a

b

Yeasts and mold count a

b

Total coliforms count a

b

Total viable count a

b

0 2 4 6 8
Log10 CFU/g

Plant (144) Animal (55)

Figure 5.1: Comparison of microbiological quality between plant-based and animal-

based street-vended foods.

There were no significant differences (p˃0.05) in TVC between foods whose preparation
involved heating and those that did not involve heating (Figure 5.2). Heating has the
potential to reduce the microbial load in foods (Cardinale et al., 2015). Foods that were
prepared through heating may have been contaminated after preparation probably due to
poor handling practices during service or storage before selling. As reported earlier in

102
section 3.0, vendors stored foods at ambient temperatures awaiting sale. Furthermore,
leftovers would also be stored under such conditions and sold the following day. These
practices have the potential to negatively affect the quality and safety of SVFs.

Esherichia coli
Escherichia colicount
count a
a
Staphylococcus
Staphylococcusaureus
aureuscount
count a
a
Yeasts and mold count b
a
Total coliforms count b
a
Total viable count a
a
0 2 4 6
Log10 CFU/g

Foods prepared through heating (105) Foods prepared without heating (94)

Figure 5.2: Comparison of microbiological quality between street-vended foods

prepared through heating and those prepared without heating.

According to the Centre for Food Safety (2014), foods that are satisfactory for human
consumption should have aerobic colony counts lower than 3.0 Log10 CFU/g. Foods with
counts of 5.0 Log10 CFU/g or more are categorized as unsatisfactory while borderline
cases are those with counts from 3.0 to 5.0 Log10 CFU/g. Following these guidelines, on
average, none of the foods assessed in this study could be categorized as satisfactory. This
is worrying from a food safety standpoint considering that many consumers depend on
these foods for their meals daily (Moussavi et al., 2016; Tesfaye, 2019).

On average, all food samples were above the established Kenya Bureau of Standards limits
(Table 5.3) for total viable counts in ready-to-eat foods except boiled deshelled eggs. This
suggests that the microbial load in most of the samples exceeded the permissible levels
for consumption, raising concerns about the overall quality and safety of these ready-to-
eat foods.

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5.3.2 Determination of total coliform counts

There were highly significant differences (p<0.0001) in total coliform counts (TCC)
between the food samples as shown in Table 5.2. TCC was highest in cereals (5.57±2.23
Log10 CFU/g) although this level of contamination was not significantly different from
that observed in arrowroots, french fries, juices, salads, sliced pineapples, sliced
watermelons, and sweet potatoes. The lowest TCC was observed in the groundnuts
(1.59±2.30 Log10 CFU/g) (Table 5.2). These levels are comparable to those reported in
salads (4.12 Log10 CFU/g) by Were, Were, and Aduol (2020) in a study investigating
hygiene practices and microbial contamination of SVFs around Kenyatta university in
Kenya. This variation could be attributed to the differences in SFV practices. Whereas
only vendors with pushcarts were involved in Were et al. (2020) study, the diversity of
SFVs in our study was large including SFVs who were mobile or established in specific
vending locations, who were found vending ready-to-eat foods. Bohara (2018) reported
comparable coliform contamination levels ranging between 2.1 to 5.2 log10 CFU/g in all
SVFs sold in Mahendranagar, Farwestern Nepal that were studied. The presence of high
counts of TCC suggests that SVFs were not prepared under hygienic conditions. Cereal-
based foods as well as arrowroots, french fries, juices, salads, sliced pineapples, sliced
watermelons, and sweet potatoes may have recorded high levels of contamination with
coliforms due to their high moisture levels that would have encouraged multiplication of
the bacteria, unlike the groundnuts that were dry. Thus, despite contamination for all
samples, food high in moisture had bacteria proliferating at a higher rate.

There were highly significant (p<0.0001) differences in total coliform counts between the
six study locations as shown in Table 5.4. The Hospital area reported the highest TCC
(4.64±2.66 log10 CFU/g) although the level was not significantly different from Juakali
(4.04±2.51 log10 CFU/g), Thika town center (3.83±2.99 log10 CFU/g), and Kiandutu
(3.41±2.81 log10 CFU/g). The lowest contamination levels were reported in Makongeni
and Ngoigwa areas. Makongeni and Ngoigwa areas are mainly residential areas that may
have better water supply services, unlike the other areas where vendors may not have
access to clean water near their vending areas.

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Table 5.4: Comparison of microbial quality of street-vended foods from the six study locations in Thika town.

Location Total viable Total coliform Yeasts and mold Staphylococcus Escherichia
counts counts count aureus coli
Hospital area 5.795±2.234 a 4.642±2.663 a 2.843±2.721 a 3.798±2.753 a 0.444±1.273 a
Juakali area 5.236±1.731 a 4.043±2.514ab 3.833±2.106 a 4.230±2.129 a 0.529±1.307 a
Kiandutu slums 4.900±1.660 a 3.413±2.805ab 3.186±2.210 a 3.292±2.655 a 0.268±0.767 a
Makongeni 5.071±1.397 a 3.210±2.241b 3.245±2.205 a 3.454±2.048 a 0.493±1.151 a
Ngoigwa 4.943±1.619 a 3.169±2.781b 3.472±2.348 a 3.589±2.387 a 0.523±1.445 a
Thika town center 5.510±2.135 a 3.833±2.993ab 3.621±2.498 a 3.659±2.767 a 0.794±2.029a
Values are means ± standard deviation log10 CFU/g. Means with different superscript letters in the same column are significantly
different (p<0.05).

105
Plant-based foods had significantly (p<0.0001) higher TCC compared to animal-based
foods (Figure 5.1). This is possibly due to poor hygiene practices and the fact that some
plant-based foods such as sliced fruits do not undergo any form of heat treatment before
consumption. This is further qualified by the fact that foods prepared without heating had
significantly higher levels (p = 0.021) of contamination with coliforms as shown in Figure
5.2.

Even though the established standards specify that coliforms should not be present in these
products (Table 5.3), these microorganisms were found in both juices and the slices of
watermelons and pineapples. Coliforms are a group of bacteria that are commonly used
as indicators of overall hygiene and potential fecal contamination in food and water. Their
presence in food products can suggest unsanitary conditions during processing, handling,
or storage, and could also indicate the possible presence of other harmful pathogens. This
emphasizes the importance of proper sanitation, quality control measures, and adherence
to food safety standards throughout the entire production and distribution process to
ensure that the final products are free from contaminants that could lead to foodborne
illnesses.

5.3.3 Determination of yeasts and mold counts

There were highly significant differences (p<0.0001) in yeasts and mold counts (YMC)
between the food samples as shown in Table 5.2. YMC was highest in the juices at a level
of 5.05±1.201 log10 CFU/g as well as sliced watermelons at 4.85±1.74 log10 CFU/g.
Notably, these contamination levels were above the limits set by the Kenya Bureau of
Standards of 20 CFU/g in juices and fruits (Table 5.3). Plant-based foods had significantly
higher (p<0.0001) YMC as shown in Figure 5.1. This was expected since most fruits have
a lower pH which favors the growth of yeasts and molds. Molds and yeasts are generally
acid-tolerant, and as a result, they are linked to the deterioration of acidic foods. Molds
may grow in a pH range of 2 to 8.5 although they prefer an acid pH, while yeasts can
thrive in a pH range of 4 to 4.5 (Perricone et al., 2017). Molds and yeasts are also
ubiquitous in the environment (Yadav et al., 2021). Poor food hygiene practices may have
contributed to the high contamination reported in most plant-based foods. Food that did

106
not undergo any heat treatment before service had significantly (p = 0.017) higher yeasts
and mold counts as shown in Figure 5.2. Room temperature favors the growth of molds
and yeasts as yeasts can thrive at temperatures ranging from 0oC to 50oC (Perricone et al.,
2017). Molds have been reported to have a wide range of growth temperatures. For
instance, Aspergillus niger can grow at temperatures ranging from 8 to 45oC (Perricone et
al., 2017). The presence of molds in SVFs poses a food safety concern since some mold
species have been reported to produce mycotoxins which are of food safety concern to
human health (Peles et al., 2019; Sombie et al., 2018).

5.3.4 Determination of Escherichia coli

There were highly significant differences (p<0.0001) in Escherichia coli counts between
the food samples as shown in Table 5.2. Escherichia coli counts were highest in
arrowroots (2.03±1.23 log10 CFU/g) but absent in boiled deshelled eggs, groundnuts, and
smokies. All arrowroot samples were contaminated with E. coli while 44.4% of cereals
were contaminated as shown in Table 5.5. Only arrowroots exceded the limits set by the
Kenya Bureau of Standards (Table 5.3) for Escherichia coli in ready-to-eat foods. Higher
contamination levels with E. coli have been reported in SVFs. For instance, Birgen et al.
(2020) reported contamination levels of 2.67 log10 CFU/g in RTE chicken in a study
investigating the microbial quality of street-vended chicken products sold in Nairobi
County, Kenya. Sabuj et al. (2018) also reported E. coli counts ranging from 4.43 to 4.60
log10 CFU/g in a study investigating the microbial quality of SVFs in Bangladesh. This
was expected since contamination levels with E. coli depend majorly on food hygiene
practices which may differ from one region to another. The high contamination reported
in arrowroots may be attributed to poor hygiene practices such as vending from
contaminated environments, using contaminated packaging materials, handling foods
with bare hands, and handling money while serving food without washing hands during
the preparation, storage, and service of SVFs as earlier reported in section 3.0. In addition,
arrowroots were among the foods that were probably prepared elsewhere and transported
to the vending site. Long storage coupled with contamination due to poor handling may
explain the high level of contamination with E. coli.

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Table 5.5: Prevalence of E. coli, S. aureus, Salmonella spp., and L. monocytogenes in street-vended food samples

Food type N Salmonella spp. (%) Escherichia coli (%) Staphylococcus Listeria
aureus (%) monocytogenes
Arrowroots 4 25.0 100.0 100.0 Negative
Boiled deshelled eggs 18 5.6 0.0 50.0 Negative
French fries 18 5.6 5.6 94.4 Negative
Groundnuts 18 Negative 0.0 61.1 Negative
Juices 20 5.0 30.0 80.0 Negative
Cereals 18 11.1 44.4 100.0 Negative
Salads 19 Negative 10.5 100.0 Negative
Sausages 18 Negative 5.6 55.6 Negative
Sliced pineapples 19 Negative 10.5 68.4 Negative
Sliced Watermelons 18 Negative 33.3 94.4 Negative
Smokies 18 Negative 0.0 50.0 Negative
Sweet potatoes 11 Negative 27.3 90.9 Negative
N – Number of samples

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Plant-based foods had significantly (p = 0.006) higher E. coli counts compared to animal-
based foods as shown in Figure 5.1. Fisher's Exact test revealed that there was a significant
relationship (p = 0.0002) between the type of food and the presence of E. coli. The odds
for a positive sample were 15.4 times higher for plant-based foods compared to animal-
based foods. The relative risk was 12.2 indicating that the chance for a positive sample
was higher for plant-based foods. Whereas most of the plant-based foods were reported to
be contaminated with E. coli, among all the animal-based foods tested, only 5.56% of
sausages were found to be contaminated with E. coli. This could be attributed to poor
hygiene practices such as vending from contaminated environs, using contaminated
packaging materials, handling foods with bare hands, and handling money while serving
food without washing hands during the preparation, storage, and service of SVFs as earlier
reported in section 3.0. There was no significant difference (p = 0.4967) in E. coli counts
between foods prepared through heating and those that were not prepared through heating
(Figure 5.2). This may suggest that post-heat contamination occurred after preparation,
probably during storage or while handling before service. This also demonstrates poor
hygiene practices among SFVs since the presence of E. coli in food is indicative of fecal
contamination (Holcomb et al., 2020).

5.3.5 Determination of Staphylococcus aureus

There were highly significant differences (p<0.0001) in Staphylococcus aureus counts

between the food samples as shown in Table 5.2. Staphylococcus aureus counts were
highest in cereals (5.97±1.17 log10 CFU/g) although this was not significantly different
from arrowroots, french fries, salads, sliced watermelons, and sweet potatoes. This may
be attributed to poor hygiene practices that resulted in the contamination of RTE food with
S. aureus. Staphylococcus aureus is ubiquitous in the environment and is often found
contaminating food surfaces, hands, and equipment (Ahmad et al., 2020). All these foods
are bulked in a single container from where service is occasionally done for individual
customers. Continuous uncovering and handling during service may potentially result in
contamination with S. aureus. At least one sample in each type of food was found to be
contaminated with S. aureus as shown in Table 5.5. All arrowroots, cereals, and salads

109
were contaminated with S. aureus. Nemo et al. (2017) reported lower S. aureus prevalence
(29.38%) in a microbiological quality and safety of SVFs study in Jimma Town,
Southwestern Ethiopia. Similarly, the lower prevalence was also reported by Asiegbu et
al. (2020) in a study on the microbial quality of RTE street-vended foods sold in the
Johannesburg Metropolis, South Africa. Compared to these findings, the contamination
rate in this study was higher which poses significant health concerns to the consumers.
This may be attributed to poor hygiene and safety practices during the preparation and
sale of SVFs in the areas included in this study. This is because S. aureus is ubiquitous
(Ahmad et al., 2020) and would often contaminate foods due to poor handling and storage
practices.

Plant-based foods had significantly higher (p<0.0001) S. aureus counts as shown in Figure
5.1 compared to animal-based foods. Fisher's exact test revealed that there was a highly
significant relationship (p<0.0001) between the type of food and the presence or absence
of S. aureus. The odds for a positive sample were 5.56 times higher for plant-based foods
as compared to animal-based foods. The relative risk was 1.63 indicating that the chance
for a positive sample was higher for plant-based foods compared to animal-based foods.
Staphylococcus aureus can be isolated from persons and their environs since they are
frequent environmental pathogens that could have contaminated the SVFs after it was
cooked, for example, through utensils, and vendors' hands when handling foods, wiping
cloths, or the water used for washing raw food, dishwashing or handwashing. Plant-based
foods could have been exposed to contamination before preparation or during preparation
unlike some of the animal-based foods such as smokies and sausages that were already
preprocessed and vacuum packaged by the manufacturer.

There was no significant difference (p = 0.22) in S. aureus counts between food that was
prepared through heating and those that did not undergo any heating during preparation
(Figure 5.2). Although heat treatment has been shown to reduce microbial contamination
levels (Mepba et al., 2007), foods prepared through heating were not necessarily served
hot. Thus, poor handling and storage may have occurred resulting in contamination of the
heat-treated food products before sale.

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According to the Centre for Food Safety (2014), foods can be categorized as satisfactory
if they have less than 1.3 Log10 CFU/g, borderline if they have contamination levels from
1.3 to less than 4.0 Log10 CFU/g, and unsatisfactory if they have counts equal or above
4.0 Log10 CFU/g of S. aureus. Following this criterion, on average, none of the food
samples could be categorized as satisfactory. Boiled deshelled eggs, groundnuts, juices,
sausages, sliced pineapples, and smokies were categorized as borderline while all the other
foods were unsatisfactory. Unacceptable handling practices, such as displaying RTE food
in the open air, handling by vendors with dirty hands, and unhygienic food contact
surfaces may be to blame for the unsatisfactory S. aureus contamination levels (Shiningeni
et al., 2019). The presence of high levels of S. aureus is worrying since S. aureus can
produce heat-resistant toxins that are responsible for various diseases such as toxic shock
syndrome, necrotizing pneumonia, and staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome or deep-
seated skin infections (Oliveira, Borges, & Simões, 2018).

Despite the specified KEBs standards indicating the absence of Staphylococcus aureus in
such products, this pathogen was detected in juices as well as in sliced watermelons and
pineapples. Only groundnuts were reported to have mean contamination levels below the
Kenya Bureau of Standards limits (Table 5.3) for Staphylococcus aureus in ready-to-eat
foods. This dissonance between the expected absence and the actual presence of these
microorganisms suggests a breakdown in the production, handling, or storage processes
of these foods. It raises concerns about the hygiene and quality control measures
implemented during the production and distribution of these products. The implication is
that the detected microorganisms could potentially lead to foodborne illnesses if
contaminated street foods are consumed. This underscores the importance of rigorous
quality control, adherence to safety regulations, and proper handling practices throughout
the food supply chain to ensure that food products meet the specified safety standards and
are safe for consumption.

5.3.6 Detection of Salmonella spp.

Salmonella spp. were only detected in boiled arrowroots, boiled deshelled eggs, french
fries, juices, and cereal-based foods. The highest prevalence was observed in arrowroots

111
(25%) followed by cereals (11.1%). Juakali, Kiandutu, Makongeni, and Thika town center
recorded at least one sample that was contaminated with Salmonella spp. The highest
prevalence was recorded in Kiandutu (6.5%) followed by the Juakali area (6.3%) as shown
in Table 5.6. However, Fisher's exact test revealed that there was no significant
relationship (p>0.05) between the type of food as well as the method of preparing food
and the presence or absence of Salmonella. Heating has the potential to reduce the risk of
Salmonella in foods. Cardinale et al. (2005) reported a decreased risk of contamination
with Salmonella when food was adequately cooked.

The overall prevalence of Salmonella in this study was 3.02% which was low compared
to the findings of Nemo et al. (2017) who reported a prevalence of 13.13% in SVFs sold
in Jimma Town, Southwestern Ethiopia. Estrada-Garcia et al. (2004) reported a
prevalence of 5% in taco dressings sold on the street in Mexico City while Shiningeni et
al. (2019) reported Salmonella spp. in 11% and 40% of samples from two study locations
in Windhoek, Namibia.

Table 5.6: Prevalence of E. coli, S. aureus, Salmonella spp., and L. monocytogenes in

the six study locations.

Sampling N Salmonella Escherichia Staphylococcus Listeria

locations spp. (%) coli (%) aureus (%) monocytogenes
Hospital 31 Negative 12.9 74.2 Negative
Juakali 32 6.3 15.6 90.6 Negative
Kiandutu 31 6.5 16.1 67.7 Negative
Makongeni 35 2.9 17.1 80.0 Negative
Ngoigwa 35 Negative 22.9 77.1 Negative
Thika 35 2.9 14.3 71.4 Negative
N – Number of samples

Salmonella spp. detected in a 25 g meat sample is regarded as potentially hazardous

rendering the food unfit for human consumption (Centre for Food Safety, 2014).
Inadequate cooking, contamination from an unsanitary environment as well as food

112
handlers, and poor food handling methods have all been linked to the occurrence of this
pathogen (Shiningeni et al., 2019). Although the sources of the raw materials for foods
contaminated with Salmonella spp. were not examined in this study, the presence of these
pathogens could be due to contamination during the handling of food especially if the raw
materials were already contaminated with the bacteria. In addition, food handlers have
been identified as mechanical vehicles of Salmonella contamination from raw foods such
as vegetables, and meat, or the environment through utensils and other cooking vessels
(Cardinale et al., 2015).

Plant-based foods, as well as foods prepared through heating, revealed high prevalence
levels for Salmonella spp. (Figure 5.3 and Figure 5.4). However, Fisher's exact test
revealed that there was no significant relationship (p>0.05) between the type of food as
well as the method of preparing food and the presence or absence of Salmonella. Heating
has the potential to reduce the risk of Salmonella in foods. Cardinale et al. (2005) reported
a decreased risk of contamination with Salmonella when food was adequately cooked.
Preparation method

16.19
Heated (105) 73.33
3.81

17.02
Cold (94) 80.85
2.13

0 20 40 60 80 100
Prevalence of specific bacterial species
in street vended foods (%)
Escherichia coli Staphylococcus aureus Salmonella spp.

Figure 5.3: Comparison of prevalence of E. coli, S. aureus, and Salmonella spp. in

street-vended foods prepared through heating and those prepared without heating.

113
 22.22
Type of SVF
Plant (144) 86.11
3.47

1.82
Animal (55) 52.73
1.82

0 20 40 60 80 100
Prevalence of specific bacterial species
in street vended foods (%)
Escherichia coli Staphylococcus aureus Salmonella spp.

Figure 5.4: Comparison of prevalence of E. coli, S. aureus, and Salmonella spp. in

animal and plant-based street-vended foods.

For food prepared without heating, the risk is higher, and thus, these are categorized as
potentially hazardous foods. In this study, there was no significant relationship (p = 0.22)
between the method of preparing food (cooked through heating and those that did not
undergo heating) and the presence or absence of Salmonella. This may imply that foods
prepared through heating did not significantly have a reduced risk of contamination with
Salmonella. This is possibly due to post-preparation contamination resulting from poor
handling and storage practices before foods were sold.

5.4 Conclusion

The findings of this study demonstrate that SVFs sold in the streets of Thika Town
constitute a potential health hazard to consumers. TVC, coliform, E. coli, yeast, and mold
counts in all street-vended foods were generally high, making most of these foods
unsatisfactory and unsafe for human consumption. The presence of E. coli in RTE foods
was indicative of poor hygiene and safety practices among SFVs. Pathogenic bacteria such
as Salmonella spp. and S. aureus were also isolated from the SVFs. The presence of these
pathogenic bacteria in RTE foods indicates a major risk to the SFVs as well as the
consumers since they can cause microbiological foodborne diseases. Consequently, there
is a need to regulate the informal food processing and marketing channels, to enhance the
quality and safety standards of SVFs. The public health sector should enhance awareness

114
among SFVs and consumers on food hygiene and safety through education and/or
training. In addition, the provision of basic infrastructure for enhancing hygiene among
SFVs has the potential to improve their food preparation and selling
conditions/environments thus contributing to the production and sale of quality and safe
foods.

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 CHAPTER SIX

DETERMINATION OF LEAD AND CADMIUM IN STREET-VENDED

FOODS

6.1 Introduction

Food safety concerns have been raised regarding the contamination of street-vended foods
with chemical toxic elements (Ankar-Brewoo et al., 2020; Proietti et al., 2014b). Heavy
metals are among the chemical contaminants that may potentially contaminate street-
vended foods (SVFs) before, during, and after preparation for sale (Proietti et al., 2014b).
It has been reported that the use of unsuitable cookware, utensils, and food packaging
material could release harmful chemicals such as heavy metals into the food (Pereira et
al., 2021). In addition, the source of raw food products, and exposure to environmental
contaminants such as vehicle exhaust emissions, and airborne dust particles may cause
contamination of food with heavy metals (Ali & Al-Qahtani, 2012). For instance, the
vegetables used by street food vendors may be contaminated with significant levels of
heavy metals due to farming on contaminated soils, irrigation with polluted wastewater,
as well as industrial and transportation emissions that are released into the environment
(Ankar-Brewoo et al., 2020; Fasinu & Orisakwe, 2013; Iriabije & Uwadiae, 2020; Osaili
et al., 2016). The growing of vegetables in cities and most industrial places has been
reported to yield foodstuff contaminated with heavy metals (Ali & Al-Qahtani, 2012).
Njagi et al. (2017) reported that vegetables grown around dumpsites in Nairobi City
County in Kenya were heavily contaminated with mercury and lead. Foods of animal
origin are also at risk of contamination with heavy metals due to exposure from feeds
given to the animals, or from contaminated air during transportation, and handling
practices at the retailing stages (Ankar-Brewoo et al., 2020).

Heavy metals are extremely toxic to human health and are capable of bioaccumulation
(Ismail et al., 2017; Khan et al., 2015). Continuous ingestion of heavy metals has a
damaging effect on human health (Israel et al., 2020; Jaishankar et al., 2014). The adverse
effects of heavy metals on human health include structural damage, renal failure, damage

116
to cells and tissues, osteoporosis, lung or even blood cancer, hormone imbalances,
gastrointestinal problems, and anemia (Ismail et al., 2017). Previous research has also
linked heavy metals to the increasing cases of cancer in sub-Saharan Africa (Fasinu &
Orisakwe, 2013). Health problems caused by these toxic contaminants may not be
immediate but accumulation in the body may reach toxic levels causing health issues later
in life (Ogu & Akinnibosun, 2020). Lead and cadmium are among the heavy metals of
interest in street-vended foods owing to their frequency of occurrence, toxicity, and
potential for exposure to humans (Proietti, Frazzoli, & Mantovani, 2014a). The
International Agency for Cancer Research (IACR) has classified cadmium and its
compounds as group 1 carcinogens, with substantial evidence linking cadmium exposure
to an increased risk of lung cancer, and albeit limited, evidence suggesting a potential
association between cadmium exposure and kidney, liver, and prostate cancer, while lead
and its compounds have been categorized as 'probably' human carcinogens (group 2A),
(Joint FAO/ WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives, 2011). Accumulation of lead in
different organs can result in detrimental effects that may contribute to anemia, disorders
of the nervous system, impairment of kidney and liver function, hearing problems,
gastrointestinal damage, diminished IQ, and behavioral and learning disorders in children.
Furthermore, it has been associated with Alzheimer's disease, cancer, and the progression
of breast cancer and other types of cancers. Likewise, cadmium has the potential to harm
various organs including the lungs, liver, and kidneys, and it can lead to the development
of liver, prostate, breast, lung, kidney, skin, and pancreatic cancer (Ebrahimi et al., 2020).
For SVFs that have minimal regulation, research on heavy metal contamination can
inform the making of policies to govern street food quality.

Several researchers have reported the presence of heavy metals including lead and
mercury in SVFs (Chavez et al., 2014; Ekhator et al., 2017; Ihsan & Edwin, 2018;
Mohammed, 2010; Solidum, 2010). In a study carried out in Jordan, Osaili et al. (2016)
reported that the mean level of lead (0.15-1.15 mg/kg) in onions, exceeded the European
Union set limits (0.1 mg/kg fresh weight). Ali and Al-Qahtani (2012) reported lead in both
onions (3.52 – 4.28 mg/kg) and tomatoes (2.78 – 3.32 mg/kg) sold in Saudi Arabian
markets. In Nigeria, Ogunkunle et al. (2014) reported the presence of lead (0.07 – 1.93

117
mg/kg) and cadmium (0.00-0.09 mg/kg), in street-vended mangoes, pawpaw, and
watermelons while Ekhator et al. (2017) reported the presence of lead (0.12 - 1.37 mg/kg)
and cadmium (<0.001 – 0.0014 mg/kg)) in commonly consumed street-vended foods sold
in Benin City and Umunede, Nigeria. In Kenya, research on heavy metals especially
ready-to-eat food products is minimal. Kinyanjui (2009) reported lead levels ranging from
0.00 - 0.38 mg/100 g in fruits and vegetables sold in Kisumu County, Kenya. Tomno et
al. (2020) reported contamination of kale and spinach cultivated and sold in Machakos
Municipality, Kenya with cadmium levels ranging between 0.013 – 3.19 mg/kg and lead
levels ranging between 0.02 – 0.368 mg/kg. Knowledge regarding concentrations of heavy
metals in foods and their dietary intake is very useful in the determination of their risk to
human health (Ankar-Brewoo et al., 2020; Khan et al., 2015). Therefore, this study aimed
to determine the level of selected heavy metals in SVFs sold in Thika town, Kenya.

6.2 Materials and methods

6.2.1 Study site

This study was carried out in 6 locations namely Thika town center, Goingwa, Juakali
area, Makongeni, Kiandutu, and Thika Level 5 hospital area in Thika town, Kenya. Heavy
metal analysis was carried out at Chuka University, Department of Physical Sciences,
Chemistry laboratory.

6.2.2 Sampling of street-vended foods

The sampling of food samples was done from randomly selected street food vendors in
each study location. There were twelve food sample types selected for analysis including
sausages, smokies, eggs, cereal-based foods (maize mixed with various legumes), french
fries, groundnuts, fresh fruit juices, sliced watermelons, sliced pineapples, salads,
arrowroots, and sweet potatoes. In total, 198 food samples were collected. Approximately
200 - 300 g of each food sample was collected from the randomly selected street food
vendors and bagged in a sterile 500 g sample bag. Samples were immediately transferred
into a cooler box (4oC) for transportation to the laboratory for analysis.

118
6.2.3 Preparation of reagents and standard curves

All reagents used were of analytical grade. Standards for Lead and Cadmium were
procured from Sigma Aldrich Company. The standard analytes for the calibration curve
were made by diluting a 1000 mg/L stock solution of the examined element. For each of
the elements to be examined, different concentrations were prepared from the stock
solution and a calibration curve was plotted using concentration and absorbance data from
each set of standards.

6.2.4 Sample preparation, digestion, and analysis

The levels of Lead and Cadmium in food samples were determined using atomic
absorption spectrophotometer (PG 990 model) as described by Puwastien et al. (2011).
Solid samples were dried at 105oC for 24 hours and homogenized in a laboratory grinder.
Fresh fruit juices, sliced watermelons, sliced pineapples, and salads were blended into a
homogenous mixture and used in their liquid form for analysis. Dry ashing was done in a
muffle furnace at 525oC for 8 hours using 3 g of the dried samples and 10 g of the fresh
fruit juices, sliced watermelons, and sliced pineapples and salads. The fresh fruit juices,
sliced watermelons, sliced pineapples, and salad samples were first dried in an oven at
105oC until all moisture was removed before charring and ashing. The ash obtained was
dissolved in 1 N nitric acid solution, filtered using the Whatman filter paper No. 1, and
the volume adjusted to 50.0 mL with distilled water. A blank sample was digested in the
same way. The instrument wavelength was set at 283.3 and 228.8 nm, for lead and
cadmium, respectively. In both cases, the lamp current was 2.0 A while the slit was 0.4
nm. Measurements were carried out in an air/acetylene flame.

6.2.5 Data analysis

All analyzed sample results were subjected to statistical analysis using SAS (Version 9.4)
software for analysis of variance (ANOVA) and mean separation using Tukey's
studentized range (HSD) test at a 95% confidence interval.

119
6.3 Results and discussion

6.3.1 Level of cadmium in the street-vended foods

Cadmium (Cd) contamination was only quantified in cereal-based foods, eggs, french
fries, fresh fruit juices, sliced watermelons, sausages, and sweet potato samples (Table
6.1). Detectable contamination levels ranged between 0.001±0.001 and 0.010±0.003
mg/Kg. Significantly higher levels (p<0.0001) of Cadmium were observed in cereals-
based foods (0.010 mg/Kg) and fresh fruit juices (0.008 mg/Kg) compared to all other
samples although, none of the samples were above the MRLs established by Codex
Alimentarius Commission (2019). The lowest detectable levels of Cadmium were
observed in french fries although this was not significantly different from the sliced
watermelons.

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Table 6.1: Level of cadmium in specific street-vended foods sold in selected locations in Thika town, Kenya.

Cadmium Level
Sample Number of samples
Mean (mg/Kg) Range (mg/Kg) MRL (mg/Kg)
Arrowroots 6 nd 0.000 - 0.000 0.1
Cereal-based 18 0.010±0.003aᵞ 0.000 - 0.034 0.1**
Boiled deshelled eggs 18 0.004±0.002b 0.000 - 0.031
French fries 18 0.001±0.001cdᵞ 0.000 - 0.013 0.1
Groundnuts 18 nd 0.000 - 0.000
Juice 18 0.008±0.003a 0.000 - 0.038
Watermelon 18 0.003±0.001bc 0.000 - 0.016
Pineapple 18 nd 0.000 - 0.004
Salad 18 nd 0.000 - 0.000 0.05*
Sausages 18 0.005±0.003b 0.000 - 0.036
Smokies 18 nd 0.000 - 0.000
Sweet potatoes 12 0.001±0.000dᵞ 0.000 - 0.004 0.1
Values are mean ± standard deviation. Values in the same column with different superscript letters are significantly different
(p<0.05). nd - not detected. MRL - Maximum Recommended Limit. * Cadmium level in fruiting vegetables (0.05) and bulb
vegetables (0.05), ** Cadmium Level for pulses (0.1) and cereal grains (0.1) (Codex Alimentarius Commission, 2019). ᵞ The
means are below the MRLs specified.

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Table 6.2: Level of lead in specific street-vended foods sold in selected locations in Thika town, Kenya.

Number of Lead Level

Sample
samples Mean (mg/Kg) Range (mg/Kg) MRL (mg/Kg)
Arrowroots 6 0.558±0.093b 0.331 - 0.842 0.1
Cereal-based 18 0.580±0.057b 0.194 - 0.994 0.1-0.2+++
Boiled deshelled eggs 18 0.442±0.204c 0.000 - 2.391 0.1++++
French fries 18 0.511±0.149bc 0.000 - 1.472 0.1
Groundnuts 18 1.891±0.130a 0.937 - 2.986 -
Juice 18 0.271±0.071e 0.000 - 0.815 0.03
Watermelon 18 0.466±0.081c 0.092 - 1.180 0.1
Pineapple 18 0.335±0.059de 0.000 - 0.588 0.1
Salad 18 0.547±0.200b 0.000 - 2.448 0.05 – 0.1+
Sausages 18 0.560±0.073b 0.052 - 0.955 0.1++
Smokies 18 0.577±0.086b 0.000 - 1.003 0.1++
Sweet potatoes 12 0.356±0.100d 0.000 - 0.758 0.1
Values are mean ± standard deviation. Values in the same column with different superscript letters are significantly different
(p<0.05). nd - not detected. MRL - Maximum Recommended Limit. + Lead range given for fruiting vegetables (0.05) and bulb
vegetables (0.1), ++ Lead level set for meat from poultry, cattle, pigs, and sheep, +++ Lead range taken for pulses (0.1) and cereal
++++
grains (0.2) (Codex Alimentarius Commission, 2019). Level of Lead suggested by Joint FAO/WHO food standards
programme (2021). ᵞ The means are below the MRLs specified.

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 Sweet potatoes (12) 16.67
75.00

Smokies (18) 0.00

83.33

Sausages (18) 16.67

100.00
Food types (Number of samples)

Salad (18) 0.00

66.67

Sliced pineapples (18) 11.11

72.22

Sliced watermelons (18) 33.33

100.00

Juice (18) 33.33

61.11

Ground nuts (18) 0.00

100.00

French fries (18) 11.11

66.67

Boiled deshelled Egg (18) 16.67

33.33

Cereal based (18) 50.00

100.00

Arrow roots (6) 0.00

100.00

0 50 100 150
Proportion of samples contaminated with lead or cadmium within all
samples in each food type (%)

Proportion of samples contaminated with cadmium

Proportion of samples contaminated with lead

Figure 6.1: Proportion of samples contaminated with lead or cadmium within all
samples in each food type

Cereal-based foods had the highest number of samples contaminated with cadmium
(Figure 6.1) which were only found in three study locations as shown in Table 6.3.
Contrary to expectations, the Juakali area which is an industrial area within Thika town
reported no contamination with cadmium. In contrast to the findings of this study, Ezeilo
et al. (2020) reported higher contamination levels ranging between 0.03 mg/kg and 0.70
mg/kg in fruits and vegetables.

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The presence of cadmium in cereals and fresh fruit juices might be a result of using raw
materials that were contaminated during the preparation of the SVFs. Cadmium
contamination reaching the food chain may originate from geogenic and anthropogenic
activities (Bolan et al., 2013). In other studies, the presence of Cadmium in plant-based
foods such as cereals and fruits has been attributed to Cadmium impurities in fertilizers
and amendments applied to soils (McLaughlin & Singh, 1999). Furthermore, wastewater
carrying industrial wastes that may be used to irrigate agricultural lands, the burning of
fossil fuels such as coal or oil, and the incineration of municipal waste may be major
sources of Cadmium in the food chain (Adedapo & Adeoye, 2014; Mahmood et al., 2019).
The migration of heavy metals from plastic utensils used for handling food has also been
reported to contaminate food with Cadmium (Pereira et al., 2021). Different foods
undergo different handling and preparation practices. These practices influence the
presence of heavy metals in foods in different ways. This may explain the differences
observed in the concentration of cadmium in different food samples.

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Table 6.3: Cadmium contamination levels (mg/Kg) in different street-vended food samples within different study
locations in Thika town, Kenya.

Study area
Range (mg/Kg) Hospital Area Juakali Kiandutu Makongeni Ngoigwa Thika town Limit
Food Type Area center
Arrow roots 0.000 - 0.000 - - - nd nd - 0.1
Cereal based 0.000 - 0.034 nd nd 0.025±0.0 nd 0.006±0.0 0.03±0.002a 0.1**
03a 01b
Boiled deshelled 0.000 - 0.031 nd nd nd nd 0.022±0.0 nd -
eggs 05a
French fries 0.000 - 0.013 nd nd nd 0.006±0.004 nd nd 0.1
a

Groundnuts 0.000 - 0.000 nd nd nd nd nd nd -

Juice 0.000 - 0.038 0.036±0.001a nd nd nd 0.01±0.00 nd -
2b
Mellon 0.000 - 0.016 0.013±0.002a nd nd 0.006±0.001 nd nd -
b

Pineapple 0.000 - 0.004 nd nd nd nd nd 0.002±0.001 -

a

Salad 0.000 - 0.000 nd nd nd nd nd nd 0.05*

Sausages 0.000 - 0.036 nd nd nd nd nd 0.029±0.003 -
a

Smokies 0.000 - 0.000 nd nd nd nd nd nd -

Sweet potatoes 0.000 - 0.004 - nd - nd nd 0.002±0.001 0.1
a

Values are means ± standard deviation. Values in each row with different superscript letters are significantly different (p<0.05).
nd means not detected. * level of Cadmium in fruiting vegetables (0.05) and bulb vegetables (0.05), ** Level of Cadmium for
pulses (0.1) and cereal grains (0.1), (Codex Alimentarius Commission, 2019). MRL is Maximum Recommended Limit. The
means in bold are below the MRLs specified.

125
The level of Cadmium was highest in SVFs sold around the hospital area (0.005 mg/Kg)
and Thika town center (0.006 mg/Kg) as shown in Table 6.4. As earlier observed, Thika
town center also recorded the highest number of samples contaminated with Cd. In
addition, at least one foodstuff was contaminated with cadmium in all study locations
except the Juakali area (Table 6.3). This was contrary to our expectations since the Juakali
area is an industrial area within Thika Town. This is because, industrial activities and
wastes have been identified as anthropogenic sources of cadmium in the environment
which could be a major source of contamination in food (Kubier, Wilkin, & Pichler, 2019;
Saini & Dhania, 2020). The high levels of contamination of foods with Cadmium in areas
around the hospital area and Thika town center could be attributed to the heavy traffic
around these places as compared to the Juakali area. Exhaust and non-exhaust vehicle
emissions such as brake wear, tire wear, and road wear in urban and motorway road dust
have been found to contain Cd, which may contaminate food and the environment
(Adamiec, Jarosz-Krzemińska, & Wieszała, 2016; Ferretti et al., 1995). Thus, foods that
are not covered adequately during preparation or sold along roads that have heavy traffic
may be contaminated with cadmium to a larger extent as compared to those sold further
away.

Table 6.4: The level of lead and cadmium in street-vended foods within selected
locations in Thika town, Kenya.

Location Number of samples Cadmium (mg/Kg) Lead (mg/Kg)

Hospital Area 30 0.005±0.002a 0.687±0.136a
Juakali Area 33 nd 0.436±0.060c
Kiandutu 30 0.002±0.001b 0.554±0.092b
Makongeni 36 0.001±0.000c 0.410±0.094c
Ngoigwa 36 0.003±0.001b 0.935±0.137a
Thika town center 33 0.006±0.002a 0.570±0.116b
Values are means ± standard deviation. Values in each column with different superscript
letters are significantly different (p<0.05). nd means not detected.

126
Although the levels reported in this study were below the MRLs established by Codex
Alimentarius Commission (2019) shown in Table 6.3, the presence of Cadmium in foods
is a major health concern since there is no treatment for Cadmium poisoning (Ellen &
Costa, 2010). Cadmium has been classified by the International Agency for Research on
Cancer (IARC) as carcinogenic to humans (Group 1), with sufficient evidence for lung
cancer (Joint FAO/ WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives, 2011). Excessive intake
and long-term exposure to Cadmium have also been reported to cause serious illnesses
such as itai-itai disease, chemical pneumonitis, and chronic obstructive lung disease
(Bolan et al., 2013; Ellen & Costa, 2010; Rahimzadeh et al., 2017). Therefore, its presence
in SVFs poses a public health concern considering the huge population of people who
frequently consume these foods daily.

6.3.2 Level of lead in the street-vended foods

At least one sample in each food sample type collected was contaminated with Lead
(Table 6.2). The level of Lead contamination quantified in street-vended food samples
ranged between 0.271±0.07 and 1.891±0.130 mg/Kg. The highest contamination levels
were found in groundnuts (1.891 mg/Kg) while the lowest contamination was in fresh fruit
juices at 0.271 mg/Kg. All arrowroots, cereal-based foods, groundnuts, sliced
watermelons, and sausage samples collected from the different regions were contaminated
with Lead (Figure 6.1). Boiled deshelled eggs were the least contaminated with only
33.3% of all the egg samples analyzed contaminated with Lead.

In contrast to this study, Ezeilo et al. (2020) reported higher Lead contamination levels
ranging between 1.23 ± 0.01 mg/kg to 10.66 ± 0.01 mg/kg in various fruits and vegetables
grown in Anambra State, Nigeria. Similarly, Ankar-Brewoo et al. (2020) reported higher
Lead levels ranging from 0.9 mg/kg to 18 mg/kg in fried rice and chicken samples in
Kumasi, Ghana. Contamination levels quantified in sliced watermelons and sliced
pineapples were higher than those reported by Rotimi, Ogunyebi, and Fingesi (2018) who
found pineapples and watermelons to contain 0.10 and 0.13 mg/Kg, respectively in a study
investigating heavy metal contamination in fruits commonly sold from selected markets
in Lagos, Nigeria.

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Lead contamination was highest around the hospital area (0.687 mg/Kg) and Ngoigwa
(0.935 mg/Kg) as shown in Table 6.4. Juakali area (0.436 mg/Kg) and Makongeni area
(0.410 mg/Kg) recorded the lowest contamination levels which were significantly
(p<0.0001) lower than all other study areas. At least one street-vended food sample in
each food type was reported to contain Lead in all study locations (Table 6.5). Eggs were
the least contaminated food type with contamination only reported around the hospital
area and Kiandutu area. SVFs were most contaminated with Lead in the Ngoigwa area,
with arrowroots, french fries, groundnuts, sliced pineapples, salad, smokies, and sweet
potatoes having the highest contamination levels.

128
Table 6.5: Lead contamination levels (mg/Kg) in different street-vended food samples within different study locations in
Thika town, Kenya.

Study area
Range Hospital area Juakali area Kiandutu Makongeni Ngoigwa Thika town center Limits
Food type (mg/Kg)
Arrow roots 0.331 - 0.842 - - - 0.354±0.011b 0.762±0.04a - 0.1
Cereal based 0.194 - 0.994 0.423±0.039c 0.644±0.012b 0.962±0.017a 0.202±0.007d 0.635±0.026b 0.616±0.046b 0.1-0.2+++
Boiled deshelled eggs 0.000 - 2.391 2.302±0.058a nd 0.348±0.009b nd nd nd 0.1*
b b a a
French fries 0.000 - 1.472 0.182±0.058 0.14±0.037 nd nd 1.402±0.041 1.342±0.049 0.1
Ground nuts 0.937 - 2.986 1.766±0.087c 1.026±0.048d 1.674±0.081c 1.928±0.08bc 2.75±0.118a 2.205±0.074b -
a b b c
Juice 0.000 - 0.815 0.77±0.023 0.462±0.059 0.373±0.006 0.019±0.014 nd nd 0.03
c d b a c d
Sliced watermelons 0.092 - 1.180 0.321±0.024 0.128±0.02 0.598±0.004 1.118±0.039 0.446±0.042 0.186±0.02 0.1
Sliced pineapple 0.000 - 0.588 nd 0.38±0.039b 0.008±0.008c 0.511±0.004a 0.567±0.01a 0.545±0.002a 0.1
Salad 0.000 - 2.448 0.22±0.043c nd 0.221±0.01c nd 2.347±0.079a 0.497±0.005b 0.05–.1+
Sausages 0.052 - 0.955 0.061±0.007c 0.92±0.03a 0.354±0.027c 0.467±0.026c 0.727±0.034b 0.831±0.048ab 0.1++
Smokies 0.000 - 1.003 0.825±0.046a 0.455±0.05b 1±0.003a 0.323±0.015b 0.857±0.073a nd 0.1++
Sweet potatoes 0.000 - 0.758 - 0.638±0.018b - nd 0.734±0.014a 0.053±0.011c 0.1
Values are means ± standard deviation. Values in each row with different superscript letters are significantly different (p<0.05).
nd means not detected. * Level suggested by the Joint FAO/WHO food standards programme (2021). + Range given for fruiting
++ +++
vegetables (0.05) and bulb vegetables (0.1), Level set for meat from poultry, cattle, pigs, and sheep, Range taken for
pulses (0.1) and cereal grains (0.2), (Codex Alimentarius Commission, 2019).

129
Atter et al. (2015) reported Lead contamination levels averaging between 0.34 to 1.25
mg/Kg in a street-vended traditional maize beverage sold in Ghana. Ekhator et al. (2017)
reported Lead contamination levels ranging between 0.014 - 1.37mg/kg in SVFs
consumed in Mid-West Nigeria. These levels are high and comparable to the
contamination levels reported in our study. The high levels of contamination of foods with
Lead in areas around the hospital and Ngoigwa could be attributed to the heavy traffic
around these places. Exhaust and non-exhaust vehicle emissions in urban and motorway
road dust have been found to contain Lead, which may contaminate food and the
environment (Adamiec et al., 2016; Ferretti et al., 1995). The low contamination reported
in eggs could be because eggs were deshelled before sampling was carried out. Eggshells
have been reported to be an avenue for the excretion of lead in birds (Burger, 1994;
Trampel et al., 2003). Thus, contamination with Lead that was possibly in the shell may
have been removed when the eggs were deshelled.

Plant-based foods had significantly higher Lead contamination levels compared to animal-
based foods as shown in Figure 6.2. The sources of Lead in the environment are both
natural and anthropogenic (Davis et al., 2009). The contamination in foods may originate
from vehicle exhaust emissions and contaminated soils which in turn contaminate plant-
based foods and feeds, with the latter contaminating animal-based food products when
animals consume the contaminated feeds (FDA, 2020). Researchers have reported
widespread contamination of soil, water, and food in Kenya. According to research
conducted in Kisumu, Kenya, Makokha et al. (2008) discovered that lead contamination
was prevalent in soil, drinking water, vegetables, and fish. In addition, industrial pollution
with heavy metals has also been reported. For instance, Kinuthia et al. (2020) in a study
investigating levels of heavy metals in wastewater soil samples collected from open
drainage channels in Nairobi, Kenya reported Lead levels in wastewater above Kenya's
allowable limits of 0.01 mg/kg. Furthermore, Kinuthia et al. (2020) also reported that the
soil was also contaminated with Lead above the WHO limits (0.1 mg/kg) for agricultural
soils. This may explain the high level of lead in plant-based foods such as groundnuts that
may absorb the metal whenever the soil is contaminated. These contaminated discharges
are released into the waterways further resulting in the contamination of water and

130
irrigated lands (Kinuthia et al., 2020). As a consequence, foods prepared using
contaminated water or plants irrigated with contaminated water will have heavy metal
residues. Thus, street-vended foods could have been prepared from contaminated raw
materials or water, or exposed to contaminated dust when left uncovered during the sale
in areas that have heavy traffic.

0.526 Animal (54)

0.628 Plant (144)

Figure 6.2: Mean lead contamination levels in animal and plant-based street-vended
food products. The number of samples is indicated in brackets.

On average, all of the street-vended food samples analyzed were above the MRL (0.03
mg/Kg) suggested by the Joint FAO/WHO food standards programme (2021) for RTE
foods intended for infants and young children regarding Lead contamination. As shown
in Figure 6.3, 78.79% of all food samples had Lead within detectable levels of which
77.78% had Lead levels above the MRL suggested by the Joint FAO/WHO food standards
programme (2021) for RTE foods intended for infants and young children. This poses
serious public health concerns considering that children are among the many consumers
of street-vended foods.

131
 Categories based on MRLs of
lead in ready to eat food for
infants and young children
Not detected 21.21

Below Limits (0.03 mg/Kg) 1.01

Above Limits (0.03 mg/Kg) 77.78

0 20 40 60 80 100
Proportion of street vended foods (%)

Figure 6.3: Lead contamination levels in street-vended foods compared to the limits
suggested by the Joint FAO/WHO food standards programme (2021) for RTE foods
for infants and young children.

Like many other heavy metals, Lead is not biodegradable and thus it does not disappear
from the environment over time (FDA, 2020). Furthermore, Lead builds up in the body
over time, and thus, even low-level exposure over time can be dangerous (FDA, 2020;
Naranjo, Hendricks, & Jones, 2020). Infants, young children, pregnant women, and their
fetuses, and individuals with chronic health issues are particularly vulnerable to Lead
poisoning (FDA, 2020). According to Dobaradaran et al. (2010), Lead is toxic even at a
trace level. Lead may cause renal failure, liver damage, impaired hearing, mental
retardation, and shortened gestation in humans (Ankar-Brewoo et al., 2020; Islam et al.,
2014). In children, it can cause adverse and permanent neurodevelopmental problems
resulting in learning deficits, behavioral problems, and a lower IQ in early childhood
(FDA, 2020; Naranjo et al., 2020). Lead

6.4 Conclusion

The vast majority of samples analyzed in this study had Lead contamination levels
exceeding the MRLs suggested by the Joint FAO/WHO food standards programme. At
least one of the food sample types was contaminated with Lead, with the highest

132
contamination levels being observed in groundnuts. In addition, at least one foodstuff was
contaminated with Cadmium in all study locations except the Juakali area. The presence
of Lead and Cadmium in SVFs poses a public health concern considering the huge
population of people who consume these foods daily. Furthermore, these heavy metals
can bioaccumulate in the body posing health risks later in life. Thus, there is a need for
continuous monitoring of SVFs to increase awareness of heavy metal contamination in
the food chain. Furthermore, the establishment and enforcement of policies to govern the
SVFs businesses aimed at reducing heavy metal contamination are recommended.

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 CHAPTER SEVEN

DETERMINATION OF ACRYLAMIDE IN STREET-VENDED FRENCH

FRIES

7.1 Introduction

Acrylamide can be formed in starchy foods through the Maillard reaction, a process that
requires two precursors; free amino acid (asparagine) and reducing sugars (glucose)
(Mencin et al., 2020; Quan et al., 2020; Žilić et al., 2020). When food is heated, carbonyl-
containing compounds may interact with amino groups, especially from amino acid
asparagine to produce acrylamide. Acrylamide forms in food when they are subjected to
high processing temperatures of greater than 120°C. Therefore, higher levels of this
compound may be found in fried, deep-fat fried, and baked food products (Mencin et al.,
2020). Besides potatoes and coffee, cereal products that have been processed through
frying, roasting or baking may have high levels of acrylamide (Žilić et al., 2020). In street-
vended products, few researchers have reported the levels of acrylamide. Ogolla et al.
(2015) reported high levels of acrylamide (8556.8-9728.1 µg/kg) in especially street-
vended potato crisps in Nairobi, Kenya. A study estimating acrylamide intake amongst
young people found the highest contamination in pizza and French fries (Altissimi et al.,
2017), foods that rank highest in this category of people.

Street food vendors have been reported to heat foods for an extended period (Abong &
Kabira, 2015) which has a potential for the development of toxic compounds in street-
vended foods. Frying which is employed by most street food vendors has been reported
as a cooking process that can generate a wide variety of toxic contaminants in food
(Kamboj et al., 2020). One of the commonest process contaminants of interest in street-
vended foods is acrylamide (Imathiu, 2017; Kamboj et al., 2020; Sen, 2018). These
process contaminants have been linked to causes of non-communicable diseases such as
cancer whose prevalence in Kenya is on the rise (Abong & Kabira, 2015). Acrylamide is
a powerful neurotoxin and possesses mutagenic and carcinogenic properties (Navarro et
al., 2017; Quan et al., 2020). It is classified by the International Agency for Research on

134
Cancer as a Group 2A agent, indicating an agent that is probably carcinogenic to humans,
(Kuek et al., 2020; Mencin et al., 2020). However, the number and amount of these
chemicals and toxins that make it into the food supply and eventually into ready-to-eat
foods is unknown (WHO, 2015). Thus, this study aimed to determine the presence of
acrylamide in street-vended french fries sold in selected locations within Thika town,
Kiambu County, Kenya.

7.2 Materials and methods

7.2.1 Study site

A cross-sectional study was conducted on SFVs in six street food vending locations in
Kiambu County, Kenya as described in subheading 3.2.1.

7.2.2 Sampling

A total of 18 street-vended french fries samples were randomly collected from the six
study locations. Approximately 200 grams were collected and immediately transferred
into a cooler box (4oC) and transported to the laboratory for analysis.

7.2.3 Preparation of chemicals and standard curves

Analytical grade acetonitrile, acetone, methanol, and acetic acid were used during this
analysis. Acrylamide standard was procured from Sigma Aldrich (Germany) while
potassium hexacyanoferrate (Carrez I (15 g in 100mL distilled water)) and zinc sulfate
(Carrez II (30 g in 100mL distilled water)) were obtained from Merck (Germany).
Acrylamide stock solution (1 mg/mL) was prepared using distilled water. Dilution of the
stock solution was done to obtain the working standards (0.5, 1.0, 3.0, 5.0, and 8.0 µg/mL)
for the calibration curve.

7.2.4 Sample preparation, extraction, and analysis procedure

All french fries samples were first dried in a hot air oven at 60oC for 24 hours and then
ground into a powder using an MRC laboratory grinder (Model SM-450). The powder

135
obtained was used for all analyses. Sample extraction and analysis were done following
the procedure outlined by Ghalebi, Hamidi, and Nemati (2019). One gram of finely ground
dried french fries was weighted and mixed well with 10 mL of acetone in a 15 mL
centrifuge tube. The resulting solution was centrifuged at 10,000 rpm for 10 min at 10 °C
using a centrifuge (Eppendorf 5430R). The supernatant was carefully transferred into
another test tube and treated with Carrez I (15 g potassium hexacyanoferrate in 100ml
distilled water) and Carrez II (30g zinc sulfate in 100ml distilled water) solutions to isolate
the co-extractives. Carrez solutions are useful in purifying the extract from colloids as
well as helping to prevent acrylamide evaporation during the evaporation process. The
sample was then centrifuged again at 10,000 rpm at 10°C for 10 min. The resulting
supernatant was carefully transferred into a conical flask and placed in a rotary vacuum
evaporator until dry. The remaining residue was then dissolved in 4 mL of acidified water
(pH 3) and vortexed for 2 min. The solution obtained was afterward filtered through a
0.45 µm syringe filter. For quantification, 20 µL of the final solution was injected into the
HPLC system fitted with a C18 column (15 × 4.6 mm × 5µm) and a diode array detector
(DAD), (Agilent 1100, Waldbronn, Germany) set at 222nm. The flow rate of the mobile
phase (0.1% acetic acid in HPLC grade water) was adjusted to 1.0 mL/min with a run time
of 20 min.

7.2.5 Daily consumption level for french fries

This study did not determine the consumption level of french fries in Thika town, Kenya.
Therefore, for purposes of calculating estimated exposure levels and the margin of
exposure to acrylamide, the daily french-fries consumption data presented by George et
al. (2021) who were studying the levels of acrylamide intake in Nairobi, Kenya was
adopted. In their study, a plate of french fries was found to be equivalent to 311 g.
Respondents in their study were reported to often purchase a single full plate of french
fries. For purposes of comparing exposure to young children and adults, adults (weighing
60 Kg) were assumed to be consuming a full plate equivalent to 311 g while children (20
kg) would consume half the plate equivalent to 155 g. Estimated weight for children at 5

136
years of age was determined using the formula provided by Tinning and Acworth (2007):
Weight (kg) = 2 x (age in years + 5).

7.2.6 Data analysis

Data were analyzed using statistical analysis system (SAS) version 9.4 to perform an
analysis of variance and means separated using the least significant difference (LSD) test.
Significance was established at a p < 0.05 level of significance. Results were reported as
mean ± standard deviation. The margin of exposure was calculated using Equation 8.1
where De is the acrylamide dietary exposure (μg/kg BW/day), and BMDL10 is the
benchmark dose lower limit of 10% (μg/kg BW/day) provided by Nematollahi et al.
(2020).

𝐵𝑀𝐷𝐿10
𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 (𝑀𝑂𝐸) = …………………………. Equation 7.1
𝐷𝑒

The estimation of margin of exposure (MOE) was based on the lower limit on the
benchmark dose for a 10% response (BMDL10) of 0.31 mg/kg BW/day for mammary
tumors in rats and 0.18 mg/kg BW/day for Harderian gland tumors in mice (Joint
FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives, 2011). Higher MOEs mean that there
is a lower risk of a given contaminant while a lower MOE value means there is a higher
risk posed to the consumers (George et al., 2021).

7.3 Results and discussion

7.3.1 Level of acrylamide in street-vended french fries

The mean acrylamide level for the street-vended french fries that were obtained randomly
from selected locations in Thika town was 0.558±0.128 μg/g. The highest acrylamide level
was found in the Kiandutu slums area, while the lowest acrylamide level was in french
fries collected around Thika Level 5 hospital area. High variability in the amounts of
acrylamide was seen for these streets vended french fries, which ranged from 0.333 μg/g
to 0.764 μg/g (Figure 7.1). These average levels of acrylamide were higher compared to
the average level (0.354 μg/g) reported in french-fries sold in the streets of Nairobi, Kenya

137
by George et al. (2021) and in Spain (0.329 μg/kg) by Mesias et al. (2020) who studied
the level of acrylamide in french fries prepared in 31 primary school canteens.

Acrylamide in fried products varies considerably depending on the variety of potatoes

used, storage and handling methods as well as processing methods, and process
parameters (George et al., 2021). The level of reducing sugars and asparagine in potatoes
has been linked to acrylamide formation in fried potatoes, with lower levels resulting in
lower acrylamide formation (Becalski et al., 2004; Pedreschi, Kaack, & Granby, 2008;
Wang et al., 2021). Storage of potatoes for a long period generates reducing sugars which
may also contribute to high levels of acrylamide in french fries if the potatoes are used
(Foot et al., 2007). Burnt or dark golden-colored food products have been found to possess
higher levels of acrylamide as compared to lightly colored products (Mesias et al., 2020).
Other factors such as the level of free fatty acids, oil types and the number of frying cycles
(Kuek et al., 2020), cooking time, and frying temperature (Pedreschi et al., 2007; Romani
et al., 2009), as well as pretreatments such as immersion in a citric acid solution, have
been reported to potentially influence the levels of acrylamide in fried french fries. These
factors may explain the variation in the levels of acrylamide reported in different locations
owing to the huge diversity in preparation and handling practices among street food
vendors reported earlier in this study(Section 3.0).

138
 0.9

0.8
a
a
0.7
Acrylamide level (µg/g)

0.6
b
bc 0.5
0.5
c bc
0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
Thika level 5 Juakali area Kiandutu Makongeni Ngoigwa Thika town
hospital area slums area area center
Location
Mean acrylamide level
Benchmark level (0.5µg/g ) set for french fries by the European Union commission regulation
(EU) 2017/2158

Figure 7.1: Level of acrylamide in street-vended french fries sold in Thika Town,
Kenya.

The benchmark level for acrylamide in ready-to-eat french fries as set by the European
Union Commission (Article 6 Regulation 2017/2158) is 0.5 μg/g. At least one food sample
in all locations had acrylamide levels above this benchmark level, except in Thika Level
5 hospital area. In addition, 33% of all street-vended french fries had acrylamide levels
above the allowable limits by the EU regulation. Higher levels of contaminated french
fries were reported in a study in Ethiopia, where 40% of french fries surpassed the levels
recommended by the EU (Deribew & Woldegiorgis, 2021). This shows that the french
fries sold in Thika town pose a health risk due to the higher levels of acrylamide
contamination. Intervention strategies designed to help reduce contamination levels
during food preparation should be implemented to reduce production and exposure to
consumers.

139
7.3.2 Estimation of the dietary exposure to acrylamide in Thika Town

The dietary exposure to acrylamide was found to be highest in the Kiandutu slums and
lowest in the Thika Level 5 hospital area (Figure 7.2). Intake levels (from half a plate of
french fries (155g)) were found to be higher than the stated tolerable daily intake level
(2.6 μg/kg BW/day) for children (5 years, 20 kg BW) to avoid acrylamide carcinogenic
effects (Mencin et al., 2020). Kiandutu slums and Makongeni areas had as much as two-
fold the stated tolerable daily intake level. The high levels of acrylamide intake may be
due to the nature of the potato variety used, the storage practices, or processing practices
that increase the level of acrylamide in french fries. This reveals the high risk posed to
children who consume street-vended french-fries daily. This is a health concern
considering acrylamide is both carcinogenic and genotoxic.

6 a
a
Acrylamide level (µg/kg bw/day)

5
b
bc
4
c bc

3 2.6

0
Thika level 5 Juakali area Kiandutu Makongeni Ngoigwa Thika town
hospital area slums area area center
Locations

Assumed consumption for a single portion (155g) of frenchfries per day (µg/day)

Tolerable daily intake level ( 2.6 μg/kg bw/day) for children (5 years, 20 kg BW) to avoid
acrylamide carcinogenic effects

Figure 7.2: Dietary exposure to acrylamide among children (5 Years) in Thika Town
Kenya.

140
Intake levels for acrylamide for adults (assuming consumption of a full plate of french
fries (311g)) were highest in both Kiandutu slums and Makongeni areas (Figure 7.3). All
locations had at least one food sample whose acrylamide levels exceeded the tolerable
daily intake level for the assumed consumption level for adults except Thika Level 5
hospital area. Although the risk is still high for adults since over 66% of samples exceeded
the TDI level for the assumed consumption level, children are exposed to much greater
risk when consuming these street vended french fries. The TDI of acrylamide to avoid its
neurotoxicity estimated at 40 μg/kg bw/day, was not reached for both children (Figure
7.2) and adults (Figure 7.3).

4.5
a
4 a
3.5
Acrylamide level (µg/ kg bw/day)

3 b
bc
2.6
2.5 c bc

1.5

0.5

0
Thika level Juakali area Kiandutu Makongeni Ngoigwa Thika town
5 hospital slums area area center
area
Locations

Assumed consumption for a single portion (311g) of frenchfries per day (µg/day)

Tolerable daily intake level (2.6 μg/kg bw/day) for adults (60 kg bw) to avoid acrylamide
carcinogenic effects

Figure 7.3: Estimated dietary exposure to acrylamide among adults (weighing 60kg)
in Thika Town, Kenya.

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Table 7.1: Margin of exposure to acrylamide in street-vended french fries sold in Thika Town, Kenya.

Thika Level Juakali Kiandut Makongen Ngoigwa Thika Town

5 Hospital Area u slums i area area Center
area
Children (5 years, Acrylamide exposure 3.300 3.391 5.616 5.318 3.874 4.122
BW=20Kg, (μg/kg bw/day)
consuming 155g MOE (BMDL10 = 180 54.540 53.076 32.054 33.845 46.470 43.670
of french fries perµg/kg BW per day)
day) MOE (BMDL10 = 310 93.929 91.409 55.203 58.289 80.031 75.209
µg/kg BW per day)
Acrylamide exposure 2.207 2.268 3.756 3.557 2.591 2.757
Adults (60 Kg, (μg/kg bw/day)
consuming 311g MOE (aBMDL10 = 81.547 79.358 47.926 50.604 69.480 65.294
of french fries per 180 µg/kg BW per
day) day)
MOE (bBMDL10 = 140.442 136.672 82.539 87.152 119.660 112.451
310 µg/kg BW per
day)
MOE – Margin of exposure, aBMDL10, and bBMDL10 - Benchmark dose for a 10% response of 0.18 mg/kg body weight (BW)
per day for Harderian gland tumors in mice and 0.31 mg/kg BW per day for mammary tumors in rats, respectively (Joint
FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives, 2011).

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7.3.3 The margin of exposure to acrylamide in street-vended french fries

Dose-response modeling using exposure studies has been employed by the Joint
FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives, to evaluate exposure-related effects
and to derive points of departure (POD) for the estimation of margin of exposure (MOE)
to acrylamide (Joint FAO/ WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives, 2011). The
estimation of the margin of exposure was based on the lower limit on the benchmark dose
for a 10% response (BMDL10) of 0.31 mg/kg BW per day for the development of
mammary tumors in rats and 0.18 mg/kg BW per day for Harderian gland tumors in mice
(Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives, 2011). Considering the
possibility of the development of mammary tumors in rats, the Joint FAO/WHO Expert
Committee on Food Additives (2011) reported that margins of exposure; 310 and 78 for
average and high dietary exposures, respectively indicate a health concern since
acrylamide is both genotoxic and carcinogenic (Kuek et al., 2020; Mencin et al., 2020).
Similarly, in the case of the development of harderian gland tumors in mice, MOEs; 180
and 45 for average and high exposures, respectively indicate a health concern to human
beings.

The margin of exposure to acrylamide from street-vended french fries was found to be
extremely low between 32-54 and 55-94 in children for Harderian gland and mammary
tumor induction endpoints, respectively (Table 7.1). Amongst the adults, the margin of
exposure was between 47-81 and 82-140 for an adult averaging 60kg in weight for
Harderian gland and mammary tumor induction endpoints respectively. All study
locations revealed MOEs below 141 in both adults and children. In a study on acrylamide
intake in Nairobi, Kenya, George et al. (2021) reported the margins of exposure for street-
vended french fries to be 260. Although these authors’ margins were lower than 310,
indicating a health risk to consumers, this study revealed even lower MOEs. This shows
that there is even a greater risk posed to consumers of french fries in the area of study. An
even greater risk is posed to children who may consume these street-vended french fries
daily.

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7.4 Conclusion

This study estimated the level of acrylamide in street-vended french fries where the mean
level was found to be higher than the EU benchmark value. Intake levels of acrylamide
were found to be higher than the stated tolerable daily intake level for children in all
locations. For the adults, over 66% of samples exceeded the TDI level for the assumed
consumption level. The margin of exposure to acrylamide from street-vended french fries
was found to be extremely low in both adults and children in all locations. This shows that
the consumption of street-vended french fries in some locations within Thika town poses
a great risk to the health of street-vended french fries consumers. An even greater risk is
posed to children who consume these street-vended french fries daily. The high exposures
reported in this study, especially in children are a major health concern and calls for the
training of street food vendors on strategies such as decreasing the frying temperatures,
cooking to a lighter color, or selecting potato varieties that are low in precursors of
acrylamide to minimize the risk of exposure to acrylamide through street-vended french
fries in Kenya. However, research is required to provide information on the varieties of
potatoes that are low in precursors of acrylamide.

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 CHAPTER EIGHT

DETERMINATION OF AFLATOXIN IN GROUNDNUTS AND CEREAL-

BASED STREET-VENDED FOODS

8.1 Introduction

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites of a variety of mold species that produce toxins
with adverse health effects on humans, resulting mostly in acute and chronic illnesses
called mycotoxicoses (Peles et al., 2019; Sombie et al., 2018). Among the mycotoxins of
the greatest health and economic importance are aflatoxins (Hussein & Brasel, 2001;
Sombie et al., 2018). Aflatoxins are produced by some strains of Aspergillus flavus,
Aspergillus parasiticus, and Aspergillus nomius. There are four main aflatoxin types (B1,
B2, G1, G2) and two more (M1, M2) that are produced by animals through milk after
metabolizing the main four types (Bullerman, 2003).

A wide range of food commodities including cereals especially maize and maize products,
rice, sorghum, millet, cassava, yams, beer, and animal products; dairy products, dried fish,
meat, and eggs have been implicated in mycotoxin contamination (Omara et al., 2021;
Peles et al., 2019; Rubert et al., 2013). In street-vended foods, aflatoxins were reported in
corn, groundnut, coconut, tiger nut, walnut, and wheat snacks among other street-vended
products in Nigeria and Congo (Ezekiel et al., 2012; Kamika & Takoy, 2011). In Kenya,
there is limited research on mycotoxin contamination in street-vended RTE foodstuffs.
Nevertheless, aflatoxins and aflatoxicosis incidences have been reported involving
foodstuffs (Daniel et al., 2011; Mutiga et al., 2015; Probst et al., 2007). In Kenya, at least
500 acute human illnesses as well as 200 deaths due to aflatoxins have been reported
(Omara et al., 2021). Recently, aflatoxin was reported in ready-to-eat peanut butter in
Kenya (Merab, 2019).

Cereals as well as groundnuts form a substantial part of street-vended foods (Haleegoah

et al., 2015). Many researchers have reported the presence of mycotoxigenic fungi and the
presence of mycotoxins in especially cereals and nuts (Elzupir, 2019; Oranusi &
Olorunfemi, 2011; Rubert et al., 2013). Food contamination with mycotoxins such as

145
aflatoxin may occur at various points along the food chain if conditions such as
temperature and moisture are suitable for mycotoxin production (Asemoloye et al., 2017).
This can be during the pre-harvest, harvest, drying, or storage period for the raw materials
used in making ready-to-eat food (Adetunji et al., 2018; Asemoloye et al., 2017; Temba,
Njobeh, & Kayitesi, 2017). Contamination may also result from the use of additives in
food processing. For instance, spices may be contaminated with aflatoxins (Jonathan,
Adeniyi, & Asemoloye, 2016) which may end up in processed foods.

Consumption of food that contains mycotoxins may cause serious health complications in
humans. Mycotoxins such as aflatoxins are known to be hepatotoxic, carcinogenic,
genotoxic, nephrotoxic, teratogenic, and immunosuppressive. They are also capable of
causing bile-duct hyperplasia as well as hemorrhage in the intestinal tract and the kidneys
(Bullerman, 2003; Omara et al., 2021; Temba et al., 2017). Aflatoxin exposure among
school children in Kenya, who form a substantial part of street food consumers has been
reported as a potential cause of chronic hepatomegaly (Gong et al., 2012).

The risks associated with mycotoxins have a huge economic impact which strongly
supports the need for further research in this area (Asemoloye et al., 2017; Peles et al.,
2019). Thus, there is a need for the analysis of street-vended foods to identify the levels
of aflatoxin contamination. This study aimed to determine the presence of aflatoxin in
street-vended foods sold in selected locations in Thika town.

8.2 Materials and methods

8.2.1 Study location

This study was carried out in six street food selling locations including Thika Level 5
Hospital area, Juakali area, Kiandutu area, Makongeni area, Ngoigwa area, and Thika
Town Center in Thika town. Sample analysis for aflatoxin was carried out at the Kenya
Bureau of Standards (KEBs) laboratory.

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8.2.2 Sampling

A total of 36 street-vended food samples consisting of cereal-based (maize mixed with a

variety of legumes) foods (18) and groundnuts (18) were randomly collected from the six
study locations. Approximately 200 grams were collected from each street food vendor
and bagged in a sterile sample bag. Samples were immediately transferred into a cooler
box (4oC) and transported to the laboratory for analysis.

8.2.3 Determination of moisture content of street-vended food samples

Determination of moisture content was done using the standard oven drying method.
Approximately 5 g of each sample was weighed after grinding and placed in a drying oven
at 105°C for 3 hours. The sample was then cooled in a desiccator and weighed again taking
care not to expose the sample to the atmosphere. Moisture content was calculated and
reported as the percentage of the wet sample.

8.2.4 Screening for aflatoxins in cereals and groundnuts using NEOGEN®'s

Reveal® Q+ for Aflatoxin test kit

The screening was carried out using NEOGEN®'s Reveal® Q+ for the Aflatoxin test kit
following the manufacturer’s instructions. Dried samples were ground using an MRC
laboratory grinder (Model SM-450). Ten grams of the ground material were weighed into
an extraction cup and 125 ml of 65% ethanol solution was added. The mixture was
vigorously shaken by hand for 3 min and allowed to settle. Filtration followed using
Whatman No. 4 filter paper to collect 3 mL filtrate into a sample collection tube. A new
Reveal Q+ for the Aflatoxin test strip was inserted into the sample cup and allowed to
stand for 6 min. The test strip was withdrawn from the sample cup and immediately read
using the AccuScan reader.

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8.2.5 Determination of aflatoxin B1 and total aflatoxin in cereals, nuts, and derived
products by competitive direct enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay

8.2.5.1 Sample extraction and analysis

Determinations were carried out using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)

testing kits (Helica Biosystems, USA) for total aflatoxin and aflatoxin B1 levels, following
the manufacturer’s instructions. Preparation and analysis of the groundnut samples were
carried out at room temperature. A 20 g ground (capable of passing through a 20 mesh
screen) portion of the ground nuts sample was accurately weighed into a test tube into
which 100 ml of 70% methanol in distilled water was added for the extraction process.
This mixture was shaken for 2 min and then filtered through a Whatman No.1 filter paper
to obtain 5 – 10 ml of the filtrate. The extract obtained was used in the testing process.

The appropriate number of mixing wells for all the samples and standards were placed
into a microtitre wells holder. In addition, two antibody-coated wells were set in place for
each sample or standard. Test wells were correctly labeled for standards and samples to
be tested. Then, 200 µL of the enzyme conjugate was pipetted into each mixing well and
100 µL of standards and samples were added to the respective mixing wells. For each
addition, mixing was achieved by priming the pipettor at least 3 times. Using a new pipette
tip for each sample or standard, 100 µL of contents from each mixing well was transferred
to a corresponding labeled antibody-coated well after which incubation was done for 15
min. Afterward, the contents of the antibody-coated wells were appropriately discarded.
Then, the antibody-coated wells were filled with the manufacturer’s wash buffer solution,
and the contents were also discarded. The washing process using the wash buffer was then
repeated four more times. After the final wash, the antibody-coated wells were carefully
inverted and tapped onto absorbent paper to remove the remaining wash buffer solution.
Afterward, 100 µL of the substrate was transferred into each antibody-coated well,
covered to avoid direct light, and incubation was carried out at room temperature for 5
min. Finally, 100 µL of stop solution was transferred into each test well in the same
sequence and pace as the substrate. Then optical densities of each antibody-coated well
were read at 450 nm using a microtitre plate reader.

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8.2.6 Data analysis

Data were analyzed using statistical analysis system (SAS) version 9.4 to perform an
analysis of variance and means separated using Tukey's HSD (honestly significant
difference) test. Significance was established at a P < 0.05. Results were reported as mean
± standard deviation for all samples.

8.3 Results and discussion

8.3.1 Moisture level in street-vended groundnuts

Moisture levels in stored groundnuts have also been reported as a risk factor for the
production of aflatoxins (Hell & Mutegi, 2011; Mutegi et al., 2013). However, in this
study, no link could be established between the moisture level in groundnuts and the level
of aflatoxin present in the samples. Groundnuts in this study had moisture levels between
0.8 to 3.7% for the six study locations (Table 8.1).

There was no significant linear correlation between the moisture level in groundnuts and
the total aflatoxin (r = 0.026, p = 0.92) or aflatoxin B1 (r = -0.035, p = 0.89) levels
reported. Similar findings were reported by Hlashwayo (2018) who found no relationship
between high levels of aflatoxin B1 (χ² = 0.04, p = 0.85) in groundnuts and the moisture
level of the groundnuts. Although many fungal strains have the capability of producing
mycotoxins, they may not do so until many conditions are met. Despite the availability of
moisture, other physical, chemical, and biological factors may also affect toxin production
(Asemoloye et al., 2017). Thus, higher moisture levels may not always be indicative of
high aflatoxin levels in food samples.

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Table 8.1: The moisture level in street-vended cereal-based foods and groundnuts.

Location Cereal-based foods (%) Ground nuts (%)

a
Thika level 5 hospital area 66.293±2.823 0.877±0.160a
Juakali area 64.910±0.130a 1.497±0.463a
Kiandutu slums 64.670±4.964a 3.758±2.854a
Makongeni area 68.630±1.011a 1.270±0.632a
Ngoigwa area 71.397±1.689a 1.162±0.461a
Thika town center 65.763±5.406a 1.702±0.456a
Values are means ± standard deviation. Values in each column with different superscript
letters are significantly different (p<0.05).

8.3.2 Screening for aflatoxins in cereal-based foods and groundnuts

The results for screening cereal-based foods and groundnuts for aflatoxins are shown in

Table 8.2. All cereal-based food samples had aflatoxin levels below the detectable level
(limit of detection = 0.002 μg/g) while 83.3% of all groundnuts had aflatoxin levels above
the detection level according to the NEOGEN®'s Reveal® Q+ for Aflatoxin test kit. All
samples showing the presence of aflatoxins were subjected to the competitive direct
enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) test for quantification.

Table 8.2: Proportion of samples contaminated with aflatoxin in street-vended

cereal-based foods and groundnuts.

Location Cereal-based foods* Groundnuts (%)

Makongeni Not detected 100.0
Thika town center Not detected 100.0
Kiandutu Not detected 66.6
Thika Level 5 Hospital area Not detected 100.0
Ngoigwa Not detected 100.0
Juakali Not detected 100.0
*Cereal-based foods included maize mixed with legumes such as beans and pigeon peas.
Not detected = <2 µg/kg.

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8.3.3 Total aflatoxin and aflatoxin B1 in groundnuts

Figure 8.1 shows the total aflatoxin levels reported in groundnuts from selected locations
in Thika Town. Total aflatoxin in street-vended groundnuts averaged between 4.4 - 14.2
µg/kg.

18.0

16.0
a
14.0
Level of total aflatoxin (µg/kg)

12.0

10.0

8.0 b
b
6.0 b b b
4.0

2.0

0.0
Thika level Juakali area Kiandutu Makongeni Ngoigwa Thika town
5 hospital slums area area center
area
Sample Locations
Total aflatoxin (µg/kg)

Limit of total aflatoxin in foods in Kenya and by Codex Alimentarius

Commission (10 µg/kg)
European Union limit of total aflatoxin in groundnuts (4 µg/kg)

Figure 8.1: The mean total aflatoxin level in groundnuts from selected locations in
Thika Town.

There was no significant difference in the total aflatoxin level in groundnuts for all
locations except Thika town center which had significantly (p=0.0012) higher total
aflatoxin level. The range of total aflatoxin in this study in groundnuts was comparable

151
but lower than those reported in a study on the safety of chilled cereal beverages sold as
street food in some open markets in Ghana (Atter et al., 2015), where the total aflatoxins
content in samples ranged from 7.0 to 22.2 µg/kg. Higher contamination levels were also
reported by Sombie et al. (2018) in Sierra Leone where they found roasted street-vended
nuts to contain aflatoxins averaging 487.8 μg/kg.

The Kenyan regulatory limit for total aflatoxin in food products is 10 µg/kg as set by the
Kenya Bureau of Standards (KEBs) (Mutegi et al., 2013; Sirma et al., 2018). On average
83.3% of groundnut samples had aflatoxin levels below this regulatory limit while only
16.7% of samples had aflatoxin levels above the limits. Compared to the 4 μg/kg limit set
by the European Union (European Commission, 2006; Rubert et al., 2013) for total
aflatoxin, 72.2% of the samples were above the limit. However, on average, none of the
study locations had mean total aflatoxin levels below the European Union established
limit. Higher contamination levels were reported by Mutegi et al. (2013) in a study on the
incidence of aflatoxin in groundnuts from various markets in Kenya where they observed
that aflatoxin levels in 37% of the samples exceeded the regulatory limit for aflatoxin
levels (10 μg/kg) set by the KEBs.

Aflatoxin B1 level in street-vended groundnuts averaged between 3.4-11.3 µg/kg as

shown in Figure 8.2. There was no significant difference in aflatoxin B1 level in
groundnuts for all locations except Thika town center which had significantly higher
aflatoxin level (p = 0.001). Sombie et al. (2018) in Sierra Leone reported even higher
contamination levels in roasted street-vended nuts which contained aflatoxins levels
ranging between 0.6–1,387.0 μg/kg while Vabi et al. (2020) found aflatoxin B1
contamination levels ranging from 3.8 - 12.3 µg/kg in groundnut kernels and 12.3 - 99.4
µg/kg in groundnut-based products in Northwestern Nigeria. In addition, Hlashwayo
(2018) found groundnut contamination of 0.0 - 72.9 μg/kg with an average of 2.7 μg/kg
while studying the level of aflatoxin B1 contamination in raw peanuts sold in Maputo
City, Mozambique.

152
 16.0
Level of aflatoxin B1 (µg/kg) 14.0

12.0 a

10.0

8.0

6.0 b b
b b
4.0 b

2.0

0.0
Thika level Juakali area Kiandutu Makongeni Ngoigwa Thika town
5 hospital slums area area center
area
Sample Locations
Aflatoxin B1 (µg/kg)
Limit of aflatoxin B1 in foods in Kenya (5 µg/kg)
European Union limit of aflatoxin B1 in groundnuts (2 µg/kg)

Figure 8.2: The mean aflatoxin B1 level in groundnuts from selected locations in
Thika Town.

The Kenyan regulatory limit for aflatoxin B1 in food products is 5.0 µg/kg (Sirma et al.,
2018). On average 55.6% of groundnut samples had aflatoxin B1 levels below the
regulatory limit while 44.4% of samples had aflatoxin B1 levels above the allowable
limits. Compared to the 2 μg/kg limit set by the European Union (European Commission,
2006) for aflatoxin B1, all the individual samples from all study locations were above the
established limits. Similar to this study, levels of aflatoxin B1 exceeding the maximum
allowable limit set by the European Commission (2006) were found in 91% of groundnut
and groundnut-based products in Northwestern Nigeria (Vabi et al., 2020).

153
The high level of total aflatoxins and aflatoxin B1 reported in Thika town center as
compared to the other locations could be attributed to the possible differences in handling
practices and storage among street food vendors as well as the sources of raw materials.
It is possible that despite the possible poor handling practices such as exposing groundnuts
to moist air resulting in growth and toxin production by Aspergillus spp., vendors in Thika
town center may have bought their raw materials from the same source which may have
had high contamination levels in groundnuts and hence the high contamination levels
reported in the street-vended product. In addition, it is possible that due to higher
competition among the vendors in Thika town center, vendors have to sell their
groundnuts for an extended time which may allow for the proliferation of fungi and toxin
production in the groundnuts. Nonetheless, aflatoxin production has been reported to vary
greatly depending on many physical, chemical, and biological factors such as the moisture
content of the food product, the temperature of storage, the location of the street food
vendors, the storage practices, and personal hygiene (Asemoloye et al., 2017).

The high levels of total aflatoxins and aflatoxin B1 reported in this study could be
attributed to many factors. This is because aflatoxin contamination of foods may occur at
different points in the food chain depending on the time of mold invasion. It may be
produced during the pre-harvest, harvest, drying, or storage period of the groundnuts
although they ultimately depend on the handling method, packaging, or transport
conditions of the food materials (Asemoloye et al., 2017). All these factors may be
different for different street food vendors from different regions. Insufficient drying and
humid storage environmental conditions may result in high mold invasion and concurrent
aflatoxin contamination in foods (Asemoloye et al., 2017; Proietti et al., 2014b). For
instance, poor packaging and storage methods that are mostly applied by street food
vendors may contribute to the contamination of groundnuts with aflatoxins. According to
Mutegi et al. (2013), packaging materials used in groundnuts significantly influenced the
levels of aflatoxin in the product, with 68% of groundnuts that were stored in plastic
containers having more than 10 μg/kg of aflatoxin. The majority of street vendors use
plastic containers for packaging or storage of groundnuts (Section 3.0). The plastic
containers may retain moisture and trap heat and retain them inside thus providing a

154
conducive environment for mold growth and eventual toxin production. Similar findings
were reported by Hlashwayo (2018) who reported that the highest levels of aflatoxin B1
contamination were found in groundnuts sold in plastic containers.

These high levels of aflatoxin particularly aflatoxin B1 in groundnuts are worrying

considering that aflatoxins are hepatotoxic, carcinogenic, genotoxic, nephrotoxic,
teratogenic, and immunosuppressive (Omara et al., 2021). Aflatoxin B1 has been reported
as being the most potent of the aflatoxin compounds capable of causing the development
of hepatocellular carcinoma in humans as well as many other complications including
malnutrition, immunomodulation, and growth impairment (Deng et al., 2018; Rushing &
Selim, 2019). These high levels of aflatoxins, especially aflatoxin B1, highlight the need
for Kenya to take the necessary steps to effectively manage aflatoxins in ready-to-eat
foods.

8.4 Conclusion

Although aflatoxin was absent in cereal-based foods, the results revealed the presence of
aflatoxin B1 in 44.4% of groundnut samples above the recommended limits (5 µg/kg) set
by the Kenya Bureau of Standards (KEBs). In addition, all groundnut samples had
contamination levels exceeding the EU set limits of 2 µg/kg which may pose serious food
safety concerns. Aflatoxin B1 has been proven to be carcinogenic and thus, there is a great
need for interventions to reduce contamination in street-vended groundnuts. These high
levels of aflatoxins, especially aflatoxin B1, highlight the need for Kenya to take the
necessary steps to effectively manage aflatoxins in ready-to-eat foods. Mapping the
groundnut value chain in Kenya may assist in identifying avenues of contamination and
developing strategies to reduce contamination.

155
 CHAPTER NINE

GENERAL CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

9.1 Conclusion

In Kenya, the safety of street-vended foods continues to be a public health problem. Their
consumption has the potential to cause foodborne diseases due to contamination with
pathogenic microorganisms as well as the presence of toxic chemical contaminants. This
study sought to determine the level of food safety knowledge and practice of street food
vendors and to determine the microbial and chemical quality of ready-to-eat street-vended
foods sold in selected locations within Thika town, Kiambu County, Kenya. The findings
of this study demonstrate that street-vended foods sold in Thika Town, constitute a
significant potential hazard to public health. The majority of street food vendors were
educated at the secondary school level but had not received any formal training on food
hygiene and safety. The lack of training for most of the vendors may have contributed to
their unhygienic behavior and poor knowledge of food hygiene and safety. Of particular
concern were the findings that almost all SFVs handled food with bare hands, and handled
money and food at the same time without washing hands after. Storage and preservation
practices were poor as most vendors stored the ready-to-eat food including leftovers at
ambient temperature. For most vendors, the condition of the vending environment, as well
as the vending structures, was also poor.

Nonlinear principal component analysis (NLPCA) is an effective procedure for analyzing

data that has mixed measurement levels such as numeric, nominal, or ordinal that may
have non-linear relationships with each other. This study identified seven components of
food hygiene and safety knowledge and practices among street food vendors in Kiambu
County which also represent the categories of concern in enhancing the quality and safety
of street food. Furthermore, NLPCA was also able to group street food vendors depending
on whether they had good or poor food hygiene and safety awareness and practices. These
components may be used as the basis for evaluating street food quality and safety. This
study further revealed that public health inspection and street food vendors’ mobility were

156
the most significant factors influencing food safety, hygiene awareness, and practices
(FSHAP) among street food vendors. Public health inspection improved the chance of
having a good FSHAP score while being mobile increased the likelihood of poor scores
implying that public health inspection is paramount in enhancing street food safety.
Efforts to reduce the movement of street food vendors should be put in place as mobility
impairs the achievement of certain hygienic practices such as regular hand washing and
maintenance of environmental hygiene. The education level, training in food hygiene and
safety, category of street food vendors, and length of time in vending were significant in
predicting at least one FSHAP score. Therefore, to improve the hygiene and safety of
street food, emphasis should be placed on all the factors that have the potential to influence
street food vendors’ food safety and hygiene practices. These findings should be used to
establish priorities for programs geared toward enhancing street hygiene and food safety.

Total viable counts, coliform, Escherichia coli, yeast, and mold counts in all street-vended
foods were generally high, implying that most of these foods were unsatisfactory and
unsafe for human consumption. The presence of Escherichia coli in ready-to-eat foods
was indicative of poor hygiene and safety practices among street food vendors which have
the potential to cause health issues to both consumers and street food vendors upon
consumption. Pathogenic bacteria such as Salmonella spp. and Staphylococcus aureus
were also isolated from the street-vended foods. The presence of these pathogenic bacteria
in ready-to-eat foods indicates a major risk to the street food vendors as well as the
consumers of street-vended foods since they can cause microbiological foodborne
diseases.

The presence of heavy metals in foods is of public health concern. The lead concentrations
in the majority of samples analyzed had contamination levels exceeding the maximum
recommended limits suggested by the Joint FAO/WHO food standards programme. At
least one of all food sample types was contaminated with lead, with the highest
contamination levels being observed in groundnuts. The presence of lead and cadmium in
street-vended foods poses a public health concern considering the huge population of
people who consume these foods and the frequency at which this food is consumed.

157
Furthermore, these heavy metals can bioaccumulate in the body posing health risks later
in life.

The margin of exposure to acrylamide from street-vended french fries was found to be
extremely low in both adults and children in all locations. This shows that the consumption
of street-vended french fries in any location within Thika town poses a great risk to the
health of street food consumers. An even greater risk is posed to children who consume
these street-vended french fries frequently. The high exposures reported in this study,
especially in children are a major health concern and call for the development of strategies
and implementation of appropriate measures to minimize the risk of exposure to
acrylamide through street-vended french fries in Kenya.

The presence of aflatoxin B1 in groundnuts samples above the recommended limits set by
the Kenya Bureau of Standards (KEBs) is a cause for concern considering the proven
carcinogenic effect of aflatoxin B1 as well as the negative effect it has on nutritive status,
growth, and development, and immune system functions in humans. These high levels of
aflatoxins, especially aflatoxin B1, highlight the need for Kenyan food safety competent
authorities to take the necessary steps to effectively manage aflatoxins in ready-to-eat
foods.

Considering the benefits of the street vending business, including the provision of income
and employment for many young people, the inclusion of these businesses in street design
may not only benefit the street food vendors but also the consumers of street foods through
the provision of high quality and safe foods. Continuous provision of food hygiene and
safety training to the street food vendors as well as consumers, and enforcing the
implementation of appropriate food hygiene and safety practices among street food
vendors have the potential to improve street food quality and safety. Policies specific to
the street food vending sector may streamline the sector and facilitate control and
regulation by public health officials. In addition, the provision of basic infrastructure for
enhancing hygiene among street food vendors has the potential to improve their food
preparation and selling conditions/environments thus contributing to the production and
sale of quality and safe foods.

158
9.2 Recommendations

The following recommendations were made from this study:

i. Poor street vending environmental conditions identified as a key characteristic of

street food vendors could be solved through the inclusion of street vending
businesses in the street design of towns or estates.
ii. Continuous monitoring of street-vended foods to determine the presence of
pathogenic and toxic chemical contaminants should be carried out to increase
awareness and the development of strategies to enhance the safety and quality of
these foods.
iii. The establishment and enforcement of policies and preparation of guidelines
specific to the street food sector to govern the street-vended food businesses aimed
at reducing biological and chemical contaminants are recommended:
a. A policy that recognizes street food vending as a legal business and allows
for vending to be undertaken from specific fixed locations that have all
required facilities to guarantee hygiene, quality, and safety.
b. A policy outlining the minimum sanitary and hygiene conditions for street
food vendors.
c. A policy that requires street food vendors to undertake mandatory food
hygiene and safety training courses and to obtain a food handlers certificate
before the start of vending.
d. A policy that requires street food vendors to undertake mandatory food
hygiene and safety refresher course after a prescribed time, for instance,
two years since the last course.
iv. Development and implementation of comprehensive guidelines for street food
vendors to uphold the highest standards of quality and safety in the preparation
and sale of street-vended foods. Analysis for other toxic contaminants such as
nitrosamines, fumonisins, patulin, antibiotic residues, and pesticide residues that
were not evaluated in this study is recommended.

159
 v. Assess the impact of implementing food safety management systems such as
hazard analysis and critical control points on the quality and safety of street-
vended foods
vi. Mapping of the groundnut value chain in Kenya may assist in identifying avenues
of contamination and developing strategies to reduce contamination.
vii. A chemical risk assessment to determine the public health risk posed to street food
consumers in Thika town due to the presence of toxins such as aflatoxins and
acrylamide in street foods should be carried out.

160
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Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 51(16), 4782-4787.

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 APPENDICES

Appendix 1: Research License

195
Appendix 2: Questionnaire for assessing handling practices and safety knowledge of
street food vendors in Thika sub-county, Kiambu County, Kenya

Introduction: You are being asked to participate in a research study by Johnson Kyalo
Mwove, a Ph.D. candidate at Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology
in the School of Food and Nutrition Science. This study is designed to assess the food
handling practices and safety knowledge of street food vendors in Thika Town, Kiambu
County, Kenya.

Purpose of the study: To assess the food handling practices and safety knowledge of
street food vendors in Thika Town, Kiambu County, Kenya.

Consent to participate in research: Participation is entirely voluntary. You are free to

choose to participate or not to participate in this research. Nevertheless, if you choose to
participate, you will be contributing to the body of knowledge on the safety of ready-to-
eat street-vended foods. You are also free to pull out of the study at any time during the
interview. In case any questions are asked that you would rather not respond to, you may
request that we skip them. Agreeing to answer the question will indicate acceptance to
participate.

Confidentiality: If you choose to participate in this research, your information will be

kept safe in the hands of the researchers alone. No names or personal information will be
collected or published by the researchers. The data collected will only be used to give an
understanding of the handling practices and food safety knowledge of street food vendors
in general, not individually.

Benefits: There may be no direct benefit to you now. However, your participation is likely
to help us find out more about food hygiene practices and safety knowledge among street
food vendors and may also assist the County government to learn how to improve the
hygiene and safety of street foods as well as the welfare of street food vendors.

Procedures: You will be asked several questions related to your food handling practices
as well as food safety knowledge. Please answer them to the best of your knowledge.

196
 Checklist Number: _________________ Date: _______________________________
Interviewer: ______________________________________________________
Ward ______________________________________________________
Estate/ Street ______________________________________________________
Co-ordinates (Longitude: Latitude) ______________________: _______________________

Social and demographic characteristics of the street food vendors

1. Gender: (0) Male [ ] (1) Female [ ]

2. The average age in years:
(0) Below 18 Years [ ]
(1) Between 18 – 20 Years [ ]
(2) Between 21 – 25 Years [ ]
(3) Between 26 – 30 Years [ ]
(4) Between 31 – 35 Years [ ]
(5) Between 36 – 40 Years [ ]
(6) Above 40 Years [ ]
3. Level of education
(0) No formal education [ ]
(1) Primary school (In-complete) [ ]
(2) Primary School (Complete) [ ]
(3) Secondary school [ ]
(4) College Education [ ]
(5) University Education [ ]
4. What length of time have you been in this business?
(0) < 6 months []
(1) 6-12months []
(2) 1-2years []
(3) more than 2years []

197
5. (a) How many customers do you serve in an hour? ______/ hour
(b) Of the customers served in an hour (Question 5a), how many are young children
____/hour

6. Products sold:

(0) Foods of animal origin [ ] ______________________________________

(1) Foods of plant origin [ ] ______________________________________
(2) Both animal and plant foods [ ] ______________________________________

Food hygiene, safety, and practices

1. Where do you get supplies from? _________________________________________

2. In what quantities do you buy your supplies? _____________________________
3. How long does it take to clear the supplies? __________________________ Days
4. a) How do you handle leftovers from the previous day?
(0) Use them for the next day []
(1) Consume []
(2) Throw away []
(3) Refrigerate []
(4) Other(specify)____________________
b) If you preserve, explain how? __________________________________________
5. a) What do you do when you receive your supplies?
(0) Sorting and cleaning []
(1) Preserve []
(2) Don’t do anything []
(3) Other (specify) _____________________
b) If you preserve, how do you do it? ________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

198
6. How do you wash your hands?
(0) Coldwater only
(1) Warm water only
(2) Cold water with soap
(3) Warm water with soap
(4) Other (specify) _______________________
7. How do you wash your equipment and utensils?
(0) Cold water only
(1) Warm water only
(2) Cold water with soap
(3) Warm water with soap
(4) Other (specify) _______________________
8. How do you wash fruits and vegetables meant for salads or juices or pudding
preparation?
(0) Never wash
(1) Cold water only
(2) Warm water only
(3) Cold water with soap
(4) Warm water with soap
(5) Other (specify) _______________________
9. a) For the fruit juices, do you subject them to any heat treatment?
(0) Yes [] No (Go to 9) []
b) Do you have a specific heat target? ________________________________ Degrees C
10. a) Have you received any training on food hygiene and food safety?
Yes [] No (if no skip to question 9 d) []
b) If yes, where and when were you trained?
Institution Place Date

199
c) Was the training helpful to you?
Yes [] No []

d) Would you be willing to receive training on food hygiene and sanitation?

Yes [] No []
11. If food is held hot or cold, what temperatures are set for that?
__________________________
12. a) Have you ever obtained a food handler’s medical certificate?
Yes (Go to 12. b) [] No (Go to 12. c) []
b) If Yes, how often do you go to renew your food handler’s medical certificate?
(0) Every 3 months []
(1) Every 6 months []
(2) Every 12 months []
(3) Don’t know []

c) If No, how willing would you be to receive a food handler's medical certificate?

(0) Willing []
(1) Not sure []
(2) Unwilling []
13. a) Have you ever been visited by a public health officer?
Yes (Go to 13. b) [] No []
b) If yes, how often are you visited?
(0) Once per year []
(1) Every month []
(2) Never []
(3) Other (specify) ________________________________________
14. What precautions do you take while handling food to avoid contamination?

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_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
15. a) Are you aware of any food safety standards and regulations in Kenya?
(0) Yes (Go to 15. b) [] No []
b) If yes, which one(s)? ___________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

16. Show how much you agree with the statements below on a scale of 1 – 5, where 1
strongly disagrees and 5 strongly agree

Neither Agree nor Disagree

Strongly Disagree
Strongly Agree

Disagree
Agree
Street-vended foods may be sources of pathogenic
microorganisms

Training street food vendors is important to ensure the safety

of consumers

Street food vending is a major source of livelihood for many

Kenyans

There is a need for regulating the street food vending

businesses

There is a need to legalize the street food vending business

I am willing to attend sanitation and hygiene training if offered

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Appendix 3: Checklist for assessing the handling practices of street food vendors in
Thika Town, Kiambu County, Kenya

Checklist
Number: _________________ Date: _______________________________
Interviewer: ______________________________________________________
Ward ______________________________________________________
Estate/ Street ______________________________________________________
Co-ordinates (Longitude: Latitude)
______________________:______________________

Hygiene and sanitary

status

General information
1 Category of foodstuff sold
(0) Plant-based only
(1) Animal-based only
(2) Both plant and animal-based foods
2 List of foodstuff on site:

3 Vendor mobile?
(0) Yes []
(1) No (occasionally moves around) []
4 For the food requiring heat treatment, the nature of
heating
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________

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5 Form of storage in practice for stock
(0) Store at ambient temperature []
(1) Store in cold temperatures []
(2) Other (specify) _________________________
The vending environment
1. Vendor location
(0) Near school []
(1) Around institutions for the elderly []
(2) Hospitals []
(3) Business Center []
(4) Residential place []
(5) Other (specify) ____________________
2. Place of vending (0) Good
(0) Cart [] []
(1) Wheelbarrow [] (1) Average
(2) Stall [] []
(3) Other (specify) _______ (2) Bad
[]
3 Nature of construction material (0) Good
(0) Polythene bag [] []
(1) Wood [] (1) Average
(2) Iron sheets [] []
(3) Other (specify) (2) Bad
[]
4 Are building structures washable and working surfaces
cleanable?
Yes [] No []

203
5 A) Condition of working surfaces/ Cutting equipment/
chopping boards
Yes [] No []
5 B) Nature of the material used for working surfaces
(0) Steel []
(1) Wood []
(2) Plastic []
(3) Other ____________________
6 Condition of the surrounding environment
(0) Clean (Garbage absent) []
(1) Not clean (Garbage present) []
7 Garbage collecting bin present (0) Good
Yes [] No [] []
(1) Average
[]
(2) Bad
[]
8 The garbage collecting bin covered
Yes [] No []
9 The garbage collecting bin overfilled
Yes [] No [ ]]
10 Houseflies and other insects present
Yes [] No []
11 Availability of water for washing
Yes [] No []
12 Sufficient water for washing
Yes [] No []
13 Adequate washing processes
Yes [] No [ ]]

204
14 Presence of a drainage system (0) Good
Yes [] No [] []
(1) Average
[]
(2) Bad
[]
15 Adequate separation between raw and ready-to-eat
foodstuffs
Yes [] No []
Personal hygiene of street food vendors
1 Washing hands after a bathroom visit
Yes [] No []
If yes in 1 above, how does the vendor wash their hands?
(0) Cold water only []
(1) Hot water only []
(2) Cold water with soap []
(3) Hot water with soap []
2 Handling money while serving food and not washing it
after
Yes [] No []
3 Washing hands before handling food
Yes [] No []
4 Washing food before preparation/ processing
Yes [] No [ ]]
5 Use aprons (0) Good
Yes [] No [] []
(1) Average
[]

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 (2) Bad
[]
6 Use gloves / bare hands to handle foods
(0) Gloves []
(1) Bare hands []
(2) Other []
7 Short nails
Yes [] No []
8 Nails with polish/ attached nails
Yes [] No [ ]]
9 The vendor’s hair covered
Yes [] No []
10 Vendor wearing jewelry
Yes [] No []
11 Visible bruises, cuts, or boils
Yes [] No []
12 Vendor chewing gum etc. while handling food
Yes [] No []
13 Vendor smoking etc. while handling food
Yes [] No []
14 Vendor spitting, sneezing, and coughing on or near food
Yes [] No []
15 Vendor touching mouth, tongue, nose, eyes, etc while
handling food
Yes [] No []
Nature of service
1 Type of serving utensils/ packaging material (0) Good
(0) Enamel [] []
(1) Plastic []

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 (2) Disposable polythene bags [] (1) Average
(3) Metal [] []
(4) Other (specify) _______________ (2) Bad
[]

2 Cleaning done for utensils

(0) Cold water only []
(1) Hot water only []
(2) Cold water with soap []
(3) Hot water with soap []
(4) No cleaning []
(5) Not cleanable []
3 Condition of utensils – scratches or rusting observed
Yes [] No []
4 Storage of serving or packaging material
(0) Exposed []
(1) Enclosed []
5 Separate basin for utensils and food preparation
Yes [] No []
6 Working surfaces in good condition, crevices, cracks,
etc.
(0) Good []
(1) Average []
(2) Bad []
7 Drying rack for clean utensils present
Yes [] No []
8 Dry clean wiping towels present (0) Good
Yes [] No [] []

207
 (1) Average
[]
(2) Bad
[]
9 Ready-to-eat prepared (cut/ sliced for fruits) food
adequately enclosed
Yes [] No []
10 Nature of enclosing material (0) Good
(0) Plastic [] []
(1) Metallic [] (1) Average
(2) Caramel [] []
(3) Other (specify) _____________ (2) Bad
[]
11 How is food held after cooking or preparation while
awaiting consumers? ____________________________
_____________________________________________

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Appendix 4: A pictorial description of samples used for analysis in this study

Sample type Picture Description of samples

Sausages Cured meat products containing meat and
spices. Three sausages were randomly
selected from the SFV’s cart, prepared by
SFV in the manner that they do before
presenting them to customers, and bagged
in a sterile sample bag as a single sample.
Accompanying additives such as salt and
salads were not included.

Smokies Cured meat products containing meat and

spices. Three smokies were randomly
selected from the SFV’s cart, prepared by
SFV in the manner that they do before
presenting them to customers, and bagged
in a sterile sample bag as a single sample.
Accompanying additives such as salt and
salads were not included.

209
Boiled Boiled eggs without shells. Three boiled
deshelled eggs eggs were randomly selected from the
SFV’s cart, their shells removed by SFV in
the manner that they do before presenting
them to customers, and bagged in a sterile
sample bag as a single sample.
Accompanying additives such as salt and
salads were not included.

Cereals Maize mixed with legumes such as beans

and peas (locally referred to as ‘Githeri”).
Products were fried containing varied
additives such as onions, tomatoes, and
cabbages.

210
French fries Deep-fried Irish potato chips

Groundnuts Roasted unpeeled groundnuts

211
Juices Blended fruit juice mixes. Commonly used
fruits included bananas, watermelons,
avocados, pineapples, mangoes, and
oranges. Other uncommon additions
included sugarcane juice, aloe vera juice,
milk, and groundnuts.

Watermelons Sliced watermelon fruit

212
Sliced Peeled and sliced pineapple fruit
Pineapples

Salads An assortment of sliced tomatoes, and

onions with or without pepper.

213
Arrowroots Boiled unpeeled arrowroots

Sweet potatoes Boiled unpeeled sweet potatoes

214
Appendix 5: The standard curve used during spectrophotometric analysis of
cadmium in street-vended food samples

215
Appendix 6: The standard curve used during spectrophotometric analysis of lead in
street-vended food samples

0.012

0.01

0.008
Absobance

0.006

0.004

0.002

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
-0.002
Concentration (ppm)

216
Appendix 7: The standard curve used during HPLC analysis of acrylamide in street-
vended food samples

25000000

20000000 y = 50973x + 158857

R² = 0.9948

15000000
Peak Area

10000000

5000000

0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Acrylamide concentration (µg/g)

217
Appendix 8: Publication 1: Mwove, J., Imathiu, S., Orina, I., & Karanja, P. (2020).
Food safety knowledge and practices of street food vendors in selected locations
within Kiambu County, Kenya. African Journal of Food Science, 14(6), 174-185.

218
Appendix 9: Publication 2: Mwove, J., Imathiu, S., Orina, I., & Karanja, P. (2020).
Multinomial logistic regression analysis of factors influencing food safety, hygiene
awareness, and practices among street food vendors in Kiambu County, Kenya.
Current Research in Nutrition and Food Science Journal, 8(3), 988-1000.

219
Appendix 10: Publication 3: Mwove J, Imathiu, S., Orina I, & Karanja, P. (2021).
Microbial quality and safety of ready-to-eat street-vended foods sold in selected
locations in Kenya. Journal of Food and Dietetics Research, 1, 34-40.

220
Appendix 11: Publication 4: Mwove, J., Imathiu, S., Orina, I., & Karanja, P. (2022).
Determination of total aflatoxin and aflatoxin B1 in groundnuts and cereal-based
street-vended foods sold in selected locations in Thika Town, Kenya. Journal of Food
and Dietetics Research, 2(3), 1-7.

221
Appendix 12: Publication 5: Mwove, J., Imathiu, S., Orina, I., & Karanja, P. (2023).
Environmental exposure assessment of lead and cadmium in street-vended foods
sold in selected locations in Kenya. Food Science & Nutrition. 11(6), 2610-2619

222