2.

TRANSMISSION LINE PARAMETERS AND PERFORMANCE

2.3. Transmission Line Equations (modelling)

 A TL can be viewed as consisting of a network of a very large number of sections
cascaded in various configurations: T-, L- or Π − equivalent models.
 Each model may be represented using a very short length (𝛿𝑙) or ∆𝑙 of the
transmission line.
 This is an approximation of the uniformly distributed line where a larger
number of lumped parameter sections approaches the true distributed nature of
the line.
 A two-conductor transmission line supports a TEM wave.
 For TEM waves, the fields E and H are uniquely related to voltage V and current
I, respectively:
𝑉 = − ‫𝐄 ׯ‬. 𝑑𝐥, 𝐼 = − ‫𝐇 ׯ‬. 𝑑𝐥 (2.7)
 We will use circuit quantities V and I in solving the TL problem instead of solving
field quantities E and H (i.e., solving Maxwell's equations and boundary
conditions).
 The circuit model is therefore simplified and more convenient.

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2.3. Transmission Line Equations (modelling)

 Consider a simple uniform two-wire transmission line with its
conductors parallel to the z-axis as shown in Fig.2.5.
 The equivalent circuit of a
short segment ∆𝑧 of the two-
wire transmission line of
Fig.2.5 may be represented by
simple lumped-element
equivalent circuit.
 The model is called the L-type
equivalent circuit.
 NB: (There are other possible
types).
Fig.2.5 Uniform two-wire transmission line

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2.3. Transmission Line Equations (modelling)

 Figure 2.6 shows the equivalent circuit of the incremental portion of the
line ∆𝑧 , which is in terms of the line parameters R, L, G, and C, where
 R = series resistance per unit
length ( Ω/𝑚 ) of the TL
conductors.
 L = series inductance per unit
length ( 𝐻/𝑚 ) of the TL
conductors.
 G = shunt conductance per unit
length ( 𝑆/𝑚 ) of the media
between the TL conductors
(insulator leakage current).
 C = shunt capacitance per unit
length (𝐹/𝑚) between the TL Fig.2.6. Two-conductor transmission line
conductors. model of differential length ∆z

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2.3. Transmission Line Equations (modelling)

 In the model of Figure 2.6, we assume that the wave propagates along the
+ 𝑧-direction, from the generator to the load.
 By applying Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) to the outer loop of the
circuit of Fig.2.6, we obtain:
𝜕𝐼(𝑧,𝑡)
𝑉 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝑅∆𝑧𝐼 𝑧, 𝑡 + 𝐿∆𝑧 + 𝑉 𝑧 + ∆𝑧, 𝑡 or
𝜕𝑡
𝑉 𝑧 + ∆𝑧, 𝑡 − 𝑉 𝑧, 𝑡 𝜕𝐼 𝑧, 𝑡
− = 𝑅𝐼 𝑧, 𝑡 + 𝐿 (2.8)
∆𝑧 𝜕𝑡

 Taking the limit of equation (2.8) as ∆𝑧 → 0 leads to

𝜕𝑉 𝑧, 𝑡 𝜕𝐼 𝑧, 𝑡
− = 𝑅𝐼 𝑧, 𝑡 + 𝐿 (2.9)
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡

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2.3. Transmission Line Equations (modelling)

 Similarly, applying Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) to the main node of
the circuit of Fig.2.6, gives:
𝐼 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝐼 𝑧 + ∆𝑧, 𝑡 + ∆𝑧𝐼
𝜕𝑉 𝑧+∆𝑧,𝑡
= 𝐼 𝑧 + ∆𝑧, 𝑡 + 𝐺∆𝑧𝑉 𝑧 + ∆𝑧, 𝑡 + 𝐶∆𝑧 or
𝜕𝑡

𝐼 𝑧 + ∆𝑧, 𝑡 − 𝐼 𝑧, 𝑡 𝜕𝑉 𝑧 + ∆𝑧, 𝑡
− = 𝐺𝑉 𝑧 + ∆𝑧, 𝑡 + 𝐶 (2.10)
∆𝑧 𝜕𝑡

 As ∆𝑧 → 0 equation (2.10) becomes:

𝜕𝐼 𝑧, 𝑡 𝜕𝑉 𝑧, 𝑡
− = 𝐺𝑉 𝑧, 𝑡 + 𝐶 (2.11)
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡

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2.3. Transmission Line Equations (modelling)

 If we assume harmonic time dependence* so that
𝑉 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝑅𝑒 𝑉𝑠 𝑧 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 2.12𝑎
𝐼 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝑅𝑒 [𝐼𝑠 (𝑧)𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 ] (2.12𝑏)
where 𝑉𝑠 (𝑧) and 𝐼𝑠 (𝑧) are the frequency domain (phasor forms) of
𝑉 𝑧, 𝑡 and 𝐼 𝑧, 𝑡 , respectively, equations (2.9) and (2.11) can be written
as:
𝑑𝑉𝑠
− = (𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿)𝐼𝑠 (2.13)
𝑑𝑧
𝑑𝐼𝑠
− = (𝐺 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶)𝑉𝑠 (2.14)
𝑑𝑧
 In the two relations in (2.13) & (2.14), 𝑉𝑠 and 𝐼𝑠 are coupled; hence called
Coupled Differential Equations or historically as the telegraphist’s equations.
 They describe the evolution of current and voltage in any TL.
 Their soln leads to the wave equation for the TL.
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2.3. Transmission Line Equations (modelling)

 To separate CDE of eqns. (2.13) & (2.14), we take the 2nd derivative of 𝑉𝑠 in
eqn. (2.13) and employ eqn. (2.14) to get:
𝑑 2 𝑉𝑠
= (𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿)(𝐺 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶)𝑉𝑠
𝑑𝑧 2
or
𝑑2 𝑉𝑠 2𝑉 = 0
2
− 𝛾 𝑠 (2.15)
𝑑𝑧
where 𝛾 is the complex propagation constant defined in eqn.(2.16)
𝛾 = 𝛼 + 𝑗𝛽 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿 𝐺 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶 (2.16)
 By taking the 2nd derivative of 𝐼𝑠 in eqn. (2.14) and employing eqn. (2.13),
we get:
𝑑 2 𝐼𝑠 2
2
− 𝛾 𝐼𝑠 = 0 (2.17)
𝑑𝑧
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2.3. Transmission Line Equations (modelling)

 Eqns (2.15) and (2.17) are respectively the wave equations for voltage and
current similar in form to the wave equations for plane waves.
 We also call them the TL equations/general wave equations for the TL.
 Thus 𝛾 in eqn. (2.16) is the (complex) propagation constant (in per meter),
whose real part, 𝛼 is the attenuation constant (in Np/m or 𝑑𝐵2 /𝑚) and its
imaginary part, 𝛽 is the phase constant (in rad/m).
 The general equations for 𝛼 and 𝛽 in terms of the per-unit-length TL
parameters are:
1
𝛼= 𝑅𝐺 − 𝜔 2 𝐿𝐶 + [ 𝑅2 + 𝜔 2 𝐿2 𝐺 2 + 𝜔 2 𝐶 2 ]1/2 (2.18𝑎)
2
1
𝛽= −𝑅𝐺 − 𝜔 2 𝐿𝐶 + [ 𝑅2 + 𝜔 2 𝐿2 𝐺 2 + 𝜔 2 𝐶 2 ]1/2 2.18𝑏
2
Exercise: Using a diagram(s), explain transit time effect as used in TLs.

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2.4. Wave Velocities and Dispersion

 In Electromagnetics, two types of velocities related to the propagation
of electromagnetic waves were encountered:
1
1. The speed of light in a medium ( )
µ𝜀
𝜔
2. The phase velocity (𝑣𝑝 = )
𝛽
 The speed of light in a medium is the velocity at which a plane wave
would propagate in that medium, while the phase velocity is the speed
at which a constant phase point travels.
 For a TEM plane wave, these two velocities are identical, but for other
types of guided wave propagation the phase velocity may be different.
 The velocity of propagation of wave in free space is the same as that of
light, i.e. ~3×108 m/s.
 The velocity of electrical energy along a line is always less than the
velocity in free space.
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2.4. Wave Velocities and Dispersion

 If the phase velocity and attenuation of a line or guide are not affected
by change in frequency, then the phase of a signal that contains more
than one frequency component will not be distorted.
 If the phase velocity is different for different frequencies, then the
individual frequency components will not maintain their original
phase relationships as they propagate down the TL or waveguide, and
signal distortion will occur.
 Such an effect is called dispersion since different phase velocities
allow the “faster” waves to lead in phase relative to the “slower” waves,
as the signal propagates down the line.
 Hence, Dispersion refers to the spreading of a signal due to the
differences in speed between different frequency components.
 It is often detrimental to digital communication with multiple
frequency components.
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2.4. Wave Velocities and Dispersion

 if the bandwidth of the signal is relatively small or if the dispersion is not
too severe, a group velocity can be defined in a meaningful way.
 Since the phase velocity is independent of frequency, ideal TEM lines are
non-dispersive.
 Refer back to the line shown in Fig.2.2. Since this model can be
considered similar to a ladder network of low-pass T-section filters, it can
be shown that the phase delay, 𝛽, is given by:
𝛽 = 𝜔 𝐿𝐶 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠/𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒
 Given the transmission line propagation constant, the wavelength 𝜆 and
the velocity of propagation (wave velocity) 𝑢 are, respectively, found using
the same equations as for unbounded waves:
2𝜋
𝜆= (2.19𝑎)
𝛽
𝜔
𝑢 = = 𝑓𝜆 (2.19𝑏)
𝛽
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2.4. Wave Velocities and Dispersion

Example 2.1
A transmission line has an inductance of 4 𝑚𝐻/𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 km and a capacitance
of 0.004μF/km. Determine, for a frequency of operation of 1 kHz,
(a) the phase delay,
(b)the wavelength on the line, and
(c) the velocity of propagation (in metres per second) of the signal.
Solution
a) Phase delay,
𝛽 = 𝜔 (𝐿𝐶) = (2𝜋1000 4 × 10−3 0.004𝑋10−6 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟓 𝒓𝒂𝒅/𝒌𝒎
b) Wavelength,
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝜆= = = 𝟐𝟓𝟏𝒌𝒎
𝛽 0.025
c) velocity of propagation,
1000 251 𝑘𝑚
𝑢 = 𝑓𝜆 = = 𝟐𝟓𝟏𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒎/𝒔
𝑠

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2.5. Solution of Transmission Line Equations

 The solns of the linear homogeneous differential equations (2.15)
and (2.17) i.e. the general voltage and current wave equations are:

𝑉𝑠 𝑧 = 𝑉0 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 + 𝑉0 − 𝑒 𝛾𝑧
⟶ +𝑧 −𝑧 ← (2.20𝑎)
and

𝐼𝑠 𝑧 = 𝐼0 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 + 𝐼0 − 𝑒 𝛾𝑧
⟶ +𝑧 −𝑧 ← (2.20𝑏)

where 𝑉0 +, 𝑉0 − , 𝐼0 + and 𝐼0 − are wave amplitudes; the + and - signs,

respectively, denote wave travelling along +z- and –z-directions, as
is also indicated by the arrows.

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2.5. Solution of Transmission Line Equations

 Thus, we obtain the instantaneous expressions for voltage and current as a
function of position along the TL as follows in eqns 2.21𝑎 and 2.21𝑏 respectively.

𝑉 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝑅𝑒 𝑉𝑠 𝑧 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡

= 𝑉0 + 𝑒 −𝛼𝑧 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧 + 𝑉0 − 𝑒 𝛼𝑧 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛽𝑧 2.21𝑎

𝐼 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝑅𝑒 𝐼𝑠 𝑧 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡

= 𝐼0 + 𝑒 −𝛼𝑧 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧 + 𝐼0 − 𝑒 𝛼𝑧 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛽𝑧 2.21𝑏

 Alternatively, we may consider the coefficients in the solutions for the TL voltage
and current as complex constants (phasors) which may then be defined as

𝑉0 + = 𝑉0 + 𝑒 𝑗𝜙𝑣+ , 𝑉0 − = 𝑉0 − 𝑒 𝑗𝜙𝑣− (2.21a)

𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝐼0 + = 𝐼0 + 𝑒 𝑗𝜙𝑖+ , 𝐼0 − = 𝐼0 − 𝑒 𝑗𝜙𝑖− (2.21b)

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2.5. Solution of Transmission Line Equations

 This is usually the case with sinusoidal excitation, of phase angle 𝜙.
 In this case, the time domain solution to the voltage and current wave
equations (instantaneous voltage and current as a function of position
along the TL) are as given in eqns. (2.22a and b)
𝑉 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝑅𝑒 𝑉𝑠 𝑧 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡

= 𝑅𝑒 𝑉0 + 𝑒 𝑗𝜙𝑣+ 𝑒 −𝛼𝑧 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 + 𝑉0 − 𝑒 𝑗𝜙𝑣− 𝑒 𝛼𝑧 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑧 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡

= 𝑉0 + 𝑒 −𝛼𝑧 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧 + 𝜙𝑣 + + 𝑉0 − 𝑒 𝛼𝑧 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛽𝑧 + 𝜙𝑣 − 2.22𝑎

𝐼 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝑅𝑒 𝐼𝑠 𝑧 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡

= 𝑅𝑒 𝐼0 + 𝑒 𝑗𝜙𝑖+ 𝑒 −𝛼𝑧 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 + 𝐼0 − 𝑒 𝑗𝜙𝑖− 𝑒 𝛼𝑧 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑧 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡

= 𝐼0 + 𝑒 −𝛼𝑧 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧 + 𝜙𝑖 + + 𝐼0 − 𝑒 𝛼𝑧 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛽𝑧 + 𝜙𝑖 − 2.22𝑏

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2.6. Characteristic Impedance

 The region through which a plane wave (unguided wave) travels is
characterized by the intrinsic impedance (𝜂) of the medium defined by
the ratio of the electric field to the magnetic field.
 The guiding structure over which the TL wave (guided wave) travels is
characterized by the characteristic impedance (𝑍0 ) of the TL defined by
the ratio of voltage to current.
 The characteristic impedance or surge impedance (usually written
Z0) of a uniform transmission line is the ratio of the amplitudes of voltage
and current of a single wave propagating along the line.
 The SI unit of characteristic impedance is the ohm.

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2.6. Characteristic Impedance

 By applying the TL model based on the telegrapher's equations, we

proceed to derive the general expression for the characteristic impedance
of a TL.
 If the voltage and current wave eqns. defined by eqn 2.20a and b

𝑉𝑠 𝑧 = 𝑉0 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 + 𝑉0 − 𝑒 𝛾𝑧 (2.20𝑎)
𝐼𝑠 𝑧 = 𝐼0 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 + 𝐼0 − 𝑒 𝛾𝑧 (2.20𝑏)

are inserted into the phasor TL equations given by eqn (2.13) and (2.14),
(repeated while re-written in a different form as below)
𝑑𝑉𝑠
= −(𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿)𝐼𝑠 (2.13)
𝑑𝑧
𝑑𝐼𝑠
= −(𝐺 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶)𝑉𝑠 (2.14)
𝑑𝑧
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2.6. Characteristic Impedance

the following equations are obtained.

−𝛾𝑉0 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 + 𝛾𝑉0 − 𝑒 𝛾𝑧 = −(𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿)[𝐼0 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 + 𝐼0 − 𝑒 𝛾𝑧 ] (2.23𝑎)

−𝛾𝐼0 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 + 𝛾𝐼0 − 𝑒 𝛾𝑧 = −(𝐺 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶)[𝑉0 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 + 𝑉0 − 𝑒 𝛾𝑧 ] (2.23𝑏)

Equating coefficients of terms 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 and 𝑒 𝛾𝑧 gives

𝛾𝑉0 + = (𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿)𝐼0 + , 𝛾𝐼0 + = (𝐺 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶)𝑉0 + (2.24a)

𝑎𝑛𝑑

−𝛾𝑉0 − = (𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿)𝐼0 − , −𝛾𝐼− = (𝐺 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶)𝑉0 − (2.24b)

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2.6. Characteristic Impedance

 The ratio of voltage to current for the forward and reverse traveling
waves (treated separately) defines the characteristic impedance of
the transmission line.
 Thus
𝑉0 + (𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿) 𝛾 (𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿)
= = = = 𝑍0 2.25𝑎
𝐼0 + 𝛾 (𝐺 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶) (𝐺 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶)

𝑉0 − (𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿) −𝛾 𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿
− = = =− = 𝑍0 2.25𝑎
𝐼0 −𝛾 (𝐺 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶) 𝐺 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶

𝑵𝑩: It is common to define the characteristic impedance of a

transmission line simply as the ratio of positively travelling voltage wave
to current wave at any point on the line.

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2.6. Characteristic Impedance

 The transmission line characteristic impedance is, in general,

complex and can be defined by

𝑍0 = 𝑅0 + 𝑗𝑋0 (2.26)

where
𝑅0 −resistive component of 𝑍0
𝑋0 −reactive component of 𝑍0

 The voltage and current wave equations can be written in terms of

the voltage coefficients and the characteristic impedance (rather
than the voltage and current coefficients) using the relationships

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2.6. Characteristic Impedance

Example 2.2
Solution
a) A lossless transmission line
i) Since the line is lossless, both 𝑅 and 𝐺 are
is 80cm long and operates at zero. The characteristic impedance is:
a frequency of 600𝑀𝐻𝑧. The
line parameters are 𝐿 = 𝐿 0.25𝑥10−6
𝑍0 = = = 50Ω
0.25𝜇𝐻/𝑚 and 𝐶= 𝐶 100𝑥10−12
100𝑝𝐹/𝑚. Find: ii)Since 𝛾 = 𝛼 + 𝑗𝛽 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿 (𝐺 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶)
i) the characteristic impedance = 𝑗𝜔 𝐿𝐶,
of the line we see that,
ii) the phase constant 𝛽 = 𝜔 𝐿𝐶 =
iii) the velocity on the line 2𝜋 600𝑥106 0.25𝑥10−6 100𝑥10−12
iv) the input impedance for 𝑍𝐿 = = 18.85 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑚
100Ω.

EEE 2314 Transmission Lines Lecture Notes by L.A. Aloo

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 2. TRANSMISSION LINE PARAMETERS AND PERFORMANCE

2.6. Characteristic Impedance

Solution

𝜔 2𝜋 600𝑥106
iii) 𝑣𝑝 = = =2𝑥108 𝑚/𝑠
𝛽 18.85
𝑍𝐿 cos 𝛽𝑙+𝑗𝑍0 sin 𝛽𝑙
iv) 𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 𝑍0
𝑍0 cos 𝛽𝑙+𝑗𝑍𝐿 sin 𝛽𝑙
100𝑐𝑜𝑠(18.85𝑥0.8) + 𝑗50 sin 18.85𝑥0.8
= 50
50𝑐𝑜𝑠 18.85𝑥0.8 + 𝑗100 sin 18.85𝑥0.8
= 60.3∠35.50 = 49.1 + 𝑗35.0Ω
Exercise
At an operating radian frequency of 500𝑀𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠, typical circuit values for
a certain transmission line are: 𝑅 = 0.2Ω/𝑚, 𝐿 = 0.25μH/𝑚 , 𝐺 =
10μS/𝑚, and 𝐶 = 100𝑝𝐹/𝑚. Find: a) 𝛼; b) 𝛽; c) 𝜆; d) 𝑣𝑝 ; e) 𝑍0

EEE 2314 Transmission Lines Lecture Notes by L.A. Aloo

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2/1/2023