FORM 1 AGRICULTURE NOTES

GENERAL AGRICULTURE
Land use
Forms of land use
Forestry
• This is land set aside for growing forest trees mainly for the production of timber e.g.
Chirinda forest in Chipinge
Wildlife management
• This is land allocated to wildlife so that it can grow and thrive without interfering with
human occupation and human activities
Crop and livestock production
• This is the allocation of land for the production of crops and livestock to meet nation and
export demands
Protected areas
• This refers to the land chosen by national authorities as scientific reserves
• Protected areas are kept under limited access to the public and are protected by law
• These areas include;
o national parks e.g. Chimanimani, Chizarira, Gonarezhou, Hwange, Kasuma etc.
o natural monuments e.g. Chinhoyi Caves, Victoria Falls etc.
o nature reserves e.g. Bing Forest, Haroni/Rusitu and Vumba.
o wildlife sanctuaries e.g. Eland, Mushundike, Kuimba and Tshabala.

Factors limiting land use

Climate
• Rainfall and temperature are the major factors influencing agricultural activities and
forms of land use in Zimbabwe
• Areas receiving the same amount of rainfall are classified into natural farming regions
• Activities in each natural farming region fit the temperature and amount of rainfall
received
Topography
• Terrain and slope also have an influence on agro-activities
• Mountainous areas and steep sloping areas are difficult to raise crops or rear animals
• Such areas are best used for forestry and tea production if rainfall is adequate e.g. Nyanga
and Chimanimani areas

Land tenure
• Land tenure refers to the ownership, control and use of land

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Forms of land tenure in Zimbabwe

Freehold tenure
• The land belongs to an individual, group or company who has property rights and full
control of the land.
• The individual, group or company holds proof of ownership in the form of legal
documents called title deeds

Leasehold tenure
• This is when one occupies land that is not his/hers and pays rent to the land owner for
a given period of time.
• The farmer utilizing the land sings a lease contract which state the period from when
the land is to be used and how the land is to be used among other things
• The owner of the land is called a landlord while the farmer utilizing the land is called
a tenant

Communal tenure
• The land belongs to the state but is given to the community under leadership of the
district council and traditional leaders (chiefs and headman)
• People given the land do not own the land (have no title deeds) but have user rights.

Resettlement tenure
• The land belongs to the state and is allocated to individual households according to
the model of resettlement.
• Resettled farmers have to abide by rules governing the resettlement model such as
keeping the required number of cattle.
• Resettlement officers and chiefs are responsible for the control of these areas and
ensure that rules and regulations are followed.

Historical background to land tenure

Importance of land
• People live on land therefore it is a national heritage which can be passed on to future
generations
• Land carries the most valuable mineral resources such as gold, diamond etc.
• All agricultural activities are done on land therefore land shortage negatively affects the
growing of crops and rearing of animals
• Land is a habitat for wildlife which can be used as building materials, food, medicine and
bring foreign currency

Pre-colonial land tenure

• Long ago people used to live a nomadic life
• They initially relied on gathering fruits and hunting of wild animals for food
• People then started domesticating the wild animals and growing crops
• They moved from place to place herding their animals as nomads

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• Cattle, goats and sheep were the most common animals kept to provide food and clothing
• People later abandoned nomadic life in favour of a semi-sedentary type of life in which
crops where grown under shifting cultivation
• Shifting cultivation is a form of agricultural practice whereby people would grow crops
but did not stay permanently in one place
• Shifting cultivation involved clearing of forests and bushes, planting and caring of crops
(finger and pearl millet) then moving to new land after the land had lost its fertility
• With time people changed to sedentary farming where people lived in permanent
settlements and homesteads were built
• They continued to grow crops and kept animals on subsistence level up to when
Zimbabwe was colonized by white settlers who then introduced commercial farming

Colonial land tenure

• The white settlers occupied Zimbabwe between 1890 to 1920
• During the period, the British South African Company (BSAC) took land cattle from
indigenous people in Matebeleland and Mashonaland
• The land was occupied on racial grounds and white settlers used 45% of the total land of
Zimbabwe which was in high rainfall areas and suitable for farming
• The native population were squeezed on limited land which was infertile and not fit for
agricultural production

Effects of colonial rule on land ownership

• Colonial settlers secured the biggest productive land portions for themselves and their
families while the majority indigenous Zimbabweans were allocated less, infertile land,
which was infested with pests and diseases
• Most indigenous Zimbabweans were employed by white settlers who now owned large
tracts of land
• The indigenous Zimbabweans were also forced to reduce the number of animals they
owned which disempowered them
• There was very little agricultural production from the indigenous Zimbabwean
community due to poor soils and retrogressive laws enacted, barring them from practicing
agriculture beyond the stipulated level

Land reform: The 3rd Chimurenga

• In the year 2000, Zimbabwe embarked on the fast track land reform programme which
was also called the Third Chimurenga
• In this programme, the disgruntled communal farmers forcibly took land from the white
farmers who were owning large tracts of land at the expense of the majority of the
Zimbabwean population
• The government intervened by regularizing the land redistribution process

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Reasons for the land reform programme during the 3rd Chimurenga
o to correct the continued imbalances in land distribution between the blacks and the
whites
o to increase agricultural productivity by peasant farmers through giving more
productive land to indigenous farmers
o to create employment for the black Zimbabweans as farmers
o to involve indigenous farmers in producing export agricultural products

Resettlement models adopted during the agrarian land reform

• After land acquisition, people were settled on the pieces of land following two major
resettlement models
A1 Resettlement model
o Farmers are allocated land approximately 12-15 acres for farming
o They are settled in villages headed by a village chairman
o Each village is also allocated separate grazing land in addition to the farming area
o Land in this category is governed by permits issued by the government
A2 Resettlement model
o All land under A2 model is the large-scale commercial farming
o The government issues a 99-year lease to the farm owners and the farmers are
charged rentals for the land in their custody
o The farm owners also pay levies, fees and other charges as determined by the rural
district council where the farm is located
o The farmer is also required to avail a 5-year development plan to the government
before being allowed to lease the land

Environmental factors influencing agriculture

Temperature
• Is the degree of hotness or coldness of a body e.g. atmospheric air or soil, it is measured
in degrees Celsius (oC).
• Both atmospheric and soil temperature have an influence on crop and livestock
production

Effects of temperature on plant growth

Effects of extreme high temperature on plant growth
• Withering and dying of plants due to sun scorching
• Plants grow tall and this leads to diseases and stem lodging.
• Some plants produce seeds quickly in response to high temperature leading to poor yields.
NB: Some crops like sugarcane grow well in hot areas provided they are given sufficient
water.
Effects of very low temperature on plant growth
• Slow plant growth
• Fruit injury
• Underground storage organs damage

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• Flower and flower bud injury

• Tissue necrosis (death)/frost damage
Effects of temperature on water loss
• High temperature leads to high evaporation rates and evapotranspiration.
• Evaporation is a process by which liquid water changes to water vapour (gas).
• High evaporation from the ground causes:
i. depletion of moisture from the soil
ii. plant wilting, the rate of evapotranspiration may be higher than the rate of water
uptake
iii. soil crusting due to upper layer of soil drying quickly
Evapotranspiration and wilting of crops
• Evapotranspiration is the loss of water from the soil and other water sources (dams &
rivers) as well as plants through transpiration.
• Transpiration is the loss of water vapour from plants through stomata on leaves.
• Excessive evapotranspiration leads to wilting of crops.
• Wilting is the loss of turgidity in plant cells, it occurs when the rate of transpiration is
higher than the rate of water absorption by plant roots.
• There are two types of wilting:
Temporary wilting
• is the loss of turgidity in plants however, the plants can recover when water is
supplied.
Permanent wilting
• is the loss of turgidity in plants due to excessive water loss and the plants fail to
recover even when irrigated.

Effects of temperature on livestock

Low temperature
• cause death to young animals

High temperature
• cause death of embryo in the uterus/abortion
• reduces animal appetite leading to poor animal growth
• reduce libido in male animals
• animals may come on heat without being noticed
• reduce sperm production and this leads to infertility

Humidity
• Humidity is a measure of the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere, it is measured
using a hygrometer (wet and dry bulb thermometer).

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Effects of high humidity

Positive effects
• slows down the rate of evaporation therefore leads to water retention in the soil
• slows down the rate of transpiration therefore prevents crop wilting.

Negative effects
• encourages growth and spread of fungal diseases in plants e.g. early and late blight in
tomatoes, grey leaf spot in maize, dumping off of seedlings
• encourages multiplication of pathogens in fowl runs.

Effects of low humidity

Positive effects
• less growth and spread of fungal diseases
• less multiplication of pathogens in fowl runs

Negative effects
• increased rate of evaporation and transpiration leading to wilting of plants
• reduce the rate of photosynthesis leading to slow growth rate.

Wind
• is the air in motion caused by differences in atmospheric pressure.

Importance of wind
• Required for pollination of some plants i.e. wind pollinated crops e.g. maize.
• Helps seed dispersal.
• It has a cooling effect on crop as it increases the rate of transpiration.

Effects of wind
• Strong winds damage flowers, break tree branches and cause lodging of crops therefore
reduce yield.
• It increases the rate of evapotranspiration and therefore crop wilting.
• Spread pests and diseases.
• Causes soil erosion.

Rainfall
• is precipitation in the form of water droplets released by clouds.

Effects of excessive rainfall

• soil erosion
• plant lodging
• leaching of nutrients le
• water logging leading to root damage and multiplication of diseases.

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Effects of very low rainfall

• lack of enough soil moisture to support plant growth
• permanent wilting and death of plants
• little grain growth leading to reduced yield
• total crop failure resulting in starvation.

The water (hydrological) cycle

This is the cyclical movement of water through transformation from the earth into the
atmosphere and back.

• Water evaporates from water bodies, trees transpire and animals perspire, this release water
vapour into the atmosphere.
• The water vapour rises and condenses to form clouds which later result in precipitation
reviving water sources on the earth's surface.
• Water from the soil is used by plants and animals which later transpire, perspire and the
water evaporates repeating the process over and over again.

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Natural farming regions

• Rainfall, temperature and soil quality were used to divide the country into the natural
farming regions

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Natural
Annual Agricultural activities and
farming Annual temperature
rainfall farming systems
region
I Above Mean annual - 15-18oC • Suitable for dairy, forestry,
1000mm Mean minimum - 10-12oC tea, coffee, beef and fruit
Mean maximum - 19-23oC production
• Horticultural crops such as
potatoes, vegetables and
protea flower production
II 750-1000mm Mean annual - 16-19oC • Suitable for intensive crop
reliable rains, Mean minimum - 10-13oC and animal production
falling Mean maximum - 19-23oC • Crop production includes
between tobacco, maize and cotton
November to production as well as irrigated
March/April wheat and barley in winter
• Livestock production on
pastures and pen fattening
includes beef, pig and poultry
III 500-700mm Mean annual - 18-22oC • Suitable for drought tolerant
with mid- Mean minimum - 11-15oC crops and semi-intensive
season dry Mean maximum - 23-26oC livestock production on
spells fodder feed
• Common crops grown are
maize, cotton, groundnuts and
sunflower
IV 450-650mm Mean annual - 18-24oC • Suitable for the production of
with severe Mean minimum - 11-20oC drought resistant crops such
dry spells and Mean maximum - 23-26oC as sorghum, pearl millet,
frequent finger millet and maize
seasonal • Cattle production under semi-
droughts extensive system and wildlife
production
V Below Mean annual - 21-25oC • Unsuitable for dry land crop
560mm and Mean minimum - 14-18oC production
very erratic Mean maximum - 26-32oC • Suitable for extensive cattle
and goat production
• Cattle and game ranching

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Forestry
Forestry is the practice of planting, caring and managing use of trees.

Importance of forests
Economic importance
• raw materials for paper, cloth, rubber industries and used for making other wearing
materials (Baobab, Mupfuti, Munhondo and Msasa)
• construction poles and building materials e.g. trusses, doors and frames
• chemicals e.g. dyes and tannin
• timber from wood is used to make furniture e.g. kitchen units, tables, chairs and
wardrobes.
• creates employment
• source of foreign currency
• trees provide plywood railroad sleepers

Cultural importance
• food in the form of fruits or roots
• shelter for people and animals
• firewood
• medicinal herbs (roots, barks and leaves)

Ecological importance
• control surface runoff i.e. reduces soil erosion
• recreation, tourism, national parks, protection of endangered species (provides natural
habitat for wild animals)
• wind breaks
• trees transpire and release water vapour to bring rainfall
• trees use carbon dioxide in the atmosphere

Major forests in Zimbabwe

1. Binga forest 3. Wattle forest in the Eastern Highlands
2. Mutare North indigenous forest 4. Mvuma Eucalyptus forest reserve

Indigenous and exotic trees grown in Zimbabwe

Indigenous timber trees
Name Properties and uses
Blood wood o A durable hard wood
(Mukwa) o Used for making furniture and floor tiles
Teak o A durable hard wood
o Used for making floor tiles, railway planks and furniture

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Mahogany o A durable hardwood

(Mukusi) o Used for making furniture, floor tiles and railway line planks
Exotic timber trees
Name Properties and uses
Pine trees o High strength
o Easy to cut and nail
Gum trees o Should be treated to last long
(Eucalyptus) o Used for making electricity and telephone poles as well as firewood

Wildlife
Wildlife refers to all forms of plants (flora) and animals (fauna) in their natural environment

Flora and Fauna found in Zimbabwe

Flora (indigenous plants) Fauna (undomesticated animals)
• Mukwa • Monkeys
• Mahogany • Zebra
• Teak • Pangolin
• Flame lily • Cheetah
• Aloe • Python
• Musasa • Crocodile
• Munhondo • Eagle
Importance of wildlife
Socio-economic importance
• Earns foreign currency through tourism and sales of wildlife products such as hides and
tusks (ivory)
• Creates employment in game parks, hotels and travel agencies
• Source of revenue for hotels and airlines
• Important for safari, hunting and entertainment
Cultural importance
• Wild animals are used as totems (people of the same totem are related and normally do
not marry each other)
• Sight of certain animals is believed to be a sign of good or bad omen
• Skins of some wild animals are worn by traditional leaders to show their respect their
ancestors and the society at large.
• Change of behaviour patterns of certain wildlife are associated with changing seasons
• Wildlife improves the aesthetic value of a place

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Ecological importance
• Wild animals are part of the ecosystem, their waste improves soil fertility therefore
benefits plants
Classification of wildlife according to feeding habits
Producers (autotrophs)
• This group consists of organisms capable of manufacturing their own food e.g. green
plants
• The energy stored by plants is transferred when animals feed on them and the energy is
then converted into animal products
Herbivores
• Herbivores are animals that feed on plant material (producers)
• They are further divided into:
Grazers
o Animals that mainly feed on grass e.g. wild beast, zebra, buffalo etc.
Browsers
o Animals that mainly feed on trees (flowers, fruits, twigs and leaves) e.g. impala,
giraffe, kudu, elephant etc.
Carnivores
• These animals feed on meat (flesh) only
• They hunt and kill their prey for food e.g. lion, leopard, cheetah, hyena, eagle etc.
Omnivores
• These animals feed on both plant and animal material e.g. baboons and monkeys

The “big five”

• In Africa five animals were selected into the “big five” category
• The grouping was named by hunters who identified them as the most difficult to hunt
• The big five animals are:
1. Lion
2. Elephant
3. Buffalo
4. Leopard
5. Rhinoceros
• These animals are found in national parks and game reserves in Zimbabwe

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SOIL AND WATER

Soil formation
• Soil is the loose layer of material covering the earth's surface
• It is the medium in which plants grow.
• The soil was formed through the weathering of rocks.
• The rock from which soil is formed is called parent rock.

Types of rocks from which the soil is formed

Soil is formed from the following types of rocks:

Igneous rocks
• These are rocks formed from the cooling and solidification of molten lava/magma e.g.
granite, basalt etc.

Sedimentary rocks
• Rocks formed from materials produced during weathering of igneous rocks e.g.
sandstone, limestone, ironstone, coal etc.

Metamorphic rocks
• These are formed either from igneous or sedimentary rocks by the action of heat,
pressure and chemical changes e.g. quartzite, slate, marble etc.

The role of weathering in soil formation

• Weathering is the process whereby rocks are broken down into smaller particles (soil).
• Agents of weathering are water, wind, temperature, carbonic acid, oxygen, hydrogen,
plants and animals.
• Weathering is mainly influenced by climate and type of parent rock
• Different types of parent rocks weather differently and yield different types of soils.
• There are three types of weathering and these are:
o Physical weathering
o Chemical weathering
o Biological weathering

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Soil texture
• Soil texture is the percentage composition of sand, silt and clay particles in a soil.
• Soil particles found in the soil are called soil fractions
• The soil fractions are classified according to size measured by their diameter

Soil fractions
Soil fraction Particle size (diameter)
Stone >20mm
Gravel 2.0mm-200mm
Sand 0.02mm-2.0mm
Silt 0.002mm-0.02mm
Clay <0.002mm

The significance of soil texture to plant growth

• It influences the type of crops to grow e.g. groundnuts must be grown in light textured
soil for easy pulling at harvesting.
• It influences water holding capacity of the soil, heavy textured soils have higher water
holding capacity than light textured soils.
• It determines fertilizer application rate and frequency e.g. sandy soil is highly leached
therefore split application of high quantity fertilizer is recommended.
• It influences the type of irrigation method e.g. sandy soils are not suitable for surface
irrigation methods because they are highly drained and the water cannot be distributed
evenly

Soil structure
• Soil structure refers to the arrangement of soil particles (sand, silt and clay) into clusters
called aggregates.

Types of soil structure

Crumb structure
• The aggregates are granular and porous
• It has a mixture of sand and clay
• It contains organic matter and has a good water-holding capacity
• It is also high in nutrients and well aeration
• It allows easy root penetration
• This is the best soil structure for crop production

Single grain structure

• The particles are not aggregated
• It is made up mainly of sand particles
• The soil has poor water holding capacity and poor nutrient status
• It requires heavy application of fertilizer

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Soil fertility
Plant nutrients
• These are elements needed by plants for growth and reproduction
• There are two main groups of plant nutrients: major and minor elements.

Major plant nutrients (macro-nutrients)

Nutrient Functions in plants Deficiency symptoms Over supply or toxicity

Nitrogen (N) • Stimulates plants to grow • Stunted growth • Delayed maturity

vigorously • Yellowing of leaves and fruit ripening
• It is part of chlorophyll involved (chlorosis) and plants fail • Plant logging due to
in photosynthesis to photosynthesise due to rank growth
• It is also required for protein lack of chlorophyll • Reduce yield quality
formation e.g. high protein
content in barley
• Scorching of leaves
Phosphorus (P) • Stimulates root development • Stunted root development • Early crop maturity
• Stimulates flower formation • Purpling of leaves • Early and
• Uniform crop maturation • Poor flower formation accelerated fruit
• Normal seed development and delayed fruit ripening
• Photosynthesis, respiration and ripening
cell division • Poor nodulation in
legumes
• Small and few tuber
production
Potassium (K) • Increase plant resistance to • Marginal necrosis (burnt • Causes magnesium
logging and diseases by leaf edges) deficiency
strengthening stalks and stems • Curling of leaves • Causes luxury
• Increase resistance of plant to • Leaves fall off consumption
frost prematurely resulting in reduced
• Improves quality of fruits yield and quality
• Activation of enzymes
• Protein synthesis
• Improves drought tolerance in
plants
Calcium (Ca) • Cell wall formation and cell • Results in the formation
division of empty pods (pops) in
• Seed and fruit formation groundnuts
• Pod formation. • Rolling up of leaves
• Chlorosis along leaf
margins
• Poor growth of terminal
buds
Magnesium • Chlorophyll formation and • Yellowing of older
(Mg) photosynthesis leaves
• Normal cell division • Premature leaf fall
• Activation of enzymes and
respiration
Sulphur (S) • Protein synthesis • Uniform chlorosis along
• Vitamin and enzyme formation leaf veins
• Promotes nodulation in legumes • Poor nodulation in
legumes

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Minor plant nutrients

Nutrient Functions in plants Deficiency symptoms Over supply or toxicity
Boron (B) • Cell division and growth of • Distortion of leaves and • Leaf tips turn
meristematic tissues, flowers necrosis of stems brownish followed
and vascular bundles • Irregular cob filling in by rapid necrosis of
• Pollen grain germination and maize the whole leaf
pollen tube growth • Development of heads with
(pollination) many hollow hulls in
• Normal fruit setting and fruit sunflower
formation • Formation of hard fruits
Copper (Cu) • Growth of plant tips • Death of plant tips
• Catalyses plant processes • Retarded plant growth
(respiration, photosynthesis
and protein synthesis)
Manganese (Mn) • Required for chlorophyll • Interveinal chlorosis
formation mainly in older leaves
• Protein synthesis
• Important in respiration
Molybdenum (Mo) • Essential for nitrogen fixing • Uniform paling and floppy
bacteria in root nodules of appearance of young plants
legumes • Whip tail in brassicas such
• Seed germination and as broccoli and cauliflower
seedling development
Zinc (Zn) • Enzyme and chlorophyll • Reduced growth
formation • Chlorosis
• Leaf stripping
Cobalt (Co) • Nitrogen fixation in legumes • Poor growth in legumes
Chlorine (Cl) • Promotes water uptake and • Poor water uptake and
oxygen production during reduced photosynthetic
photosynthesis rate.

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Soil and water conservation

Soil erosion and conservation
• Soil erosion refers to the removal of top soil from the earth’s surface due to the agents of
soil erosion
• Agents of soil erosion are run-off (running) water, raindrops and wind
• These agents are more active when the soil is bare and not covered with organic matter
• Agents of soil erosion influences the type of erosion

Types of soil erosion

Sheet erosion
• This is the uniform removal of a top thin layer of soil by surface run-off
• Sheet erosion encourages other types of erosion to occur

Rill erosion
• It is when very small and defined channels (rills) of flowing water form on the soil
surface
• Rills frequently occur as straight lines between rows of crops along tillage marks usually
on recently cultivated land which is not covered
• If not controlled, rills develop into gullies

Gulley erosion
• Gulley erosion occurs when rills are left unchecked and gather more water cutting the soil
into the channel which gradually becomes deeper, wider and longer resulting in gully
formation
• Gully erosion cuts deep into the sub soil and reduces arable land as the gullies continue to
grow wider and deeper

Causes of soil erosion

Deforestation
• Deforestation results in the removal of vegetative cover on the soil surface
• If the soil surface is left with little or no vegetative cover, the soil becomes prone to
erosion as it is exposed to agents of soil erosion
• Plant roots improve soil aggregation which reduces run-off and improve infiltration
• Bare soils as a result of deforestation become heavily compacted and reduce infiltration
causing more run-off which increases soil erosion

Ploughing up and down slopes

• Surface run-off is increased if a farmer ploughs along the slope causing it to follow the
slope thereby deepening and widening the channels carrying away soil which has been
loosened

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Stream bank cultivation

• Ploughing within 30 metres of a stream or river cause loosened soil to be easily carried
away by running water down the slopes in the streams or rivers during rain storms

Monoculture
• This is when a farmer grows one crop in the same piece of land, year after year
• This results in the soil being overused and loose causing it to become easily eroded

Overstocking
• This is when a farmer keeps more livestock than the carrying capacity of the pasture land
• This results in overgrazing where grass whose roots hold soil particles together is
destroyed
• In addition, hooves of animals such as cattle, goats and donkeys loosen the soil thus
reduces its resistance to erosion

Poor citing of farm road

• Poorly cited farm roads especially on depressions become water channels and increase the
removal of soil by flowing water

Removal of crop residues

• Removing crop residues after harvesting leaves the soil unprotected and prone to erosion

Veld fires
• Uncontrolled burning of the veld destroys vegetation and humus that protects the soil

Consequences (effects) of soil erosion

Soil loss
• Soil erosion removes top soil cover leaving most of the plant roots exposed to sun scotch

Reduced crop yields

• When top soil is washed away from the soil surface, nutrients which support crop growth
are also removed
• Soil erosion therefore results in infertile soil with inadequate nutrients for good yields

Water pollution
• Surface run-off carrying mud and sediments from eroded areas ends up in rivers and dams
• Muddy water is not ideal for domestic and industrial use
• Fertilizers and agro-chemicals may be dissolved in running water and is carried with soil
into streams, rivers and dams
• The nutrients encourage the development of weeds in dams and rivers e.g. water hyacinth
(eutrophication)
• Agro-chemicals that find their way into rivers and dams results in death of aquatic life

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Land degradation
• Unchecked soil erosion results in the development of gullies in fields thus reduces the
size of arable land as the soil becomes unsuitable for vegetation growth

Siltation of rivers and dams

• The soil washed away by erosion is deposited in rivers and dams
• Deposition of soil reduces the volume of water these water sources can hold resulting in
less water available for agricultural, domestic and industrial uses

Prevention and control of soil erosion

Biological methods
In arable lands
• Early planting for early plant establishment
• Strip cropping
• Intercropping/mixed cropping

In grazing lands
• Correct carrying capacity in paddocks
• Rotational grazing
• Avoid uncontrolled burning of grass
• Fencing of eroded areas so as to protect them from being grazed

Mechanical methods
• Terracing
• Construction of tied ridges
• Construction of storm drains and contour ridges
• Construction of wind breaks
• Contour ploughing
• Minimum tillage (zero tillage)

Cultural methods
• Practice rotational grazing
• Avoid veld fires
• Addition of organic matter
• Correct fertilizer application
• Mulching
• Addition of agricultural lime so that soils will form aggregates leading to a good crumb
structure
• Crop rotation
• Maintaining optimum plant populations

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Water conservation
• This is the wise management and utilization of water as a natural resource in a manner
that does not cause shortage in the future.

Importance of water conservation

• Water conservation increases crop yields through the availability of moisture during
critical growth stages of crops
• It also helps the survival of soil organisms that decompose and contribute to nutrient
recycling
• Water conservation ensures the availability of water for agricultural, domestic and
industrial purposes

Methods of water conservation in arable lands

Mulching
• Mulch cover the soil surface and reduces the rate of evaporation
• Crop residues such as maize, sorghum and millet stalks can be left on the soil surface to
act as mulch
• The presence of mulch also reduces runoff and improves the rate on infiltration and water
storage in the soil

Contour ploughing
• Contours are dug across steep slopes to minimize the loss of surface water which may
occur when water runs down the slope after heavy rains
• The contours promote infiltration of water into the soil

Terracing
• Terraces help to control surface runoff by holding water on the surface and promoting
infiltration

Strip cropping
• Crops are grown in strips across the general slope of the land
• Each strip is at right angle to the flow of water and this blocks water flow to adjacent
strips or rows of crops

Deep ploughing
• Deep ploughing reduces surface runoff thus encourages infiltration

Minimum tillage
• When soil is not disturbed, the rate of evaporation is reduced and more water will be held
under the soil

Addition of manure/lime
• Addition of manure helps to build a good soil structure which holds more water

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CROP HUSBANDRY
Structure of flowering plants
• Flowering plants produce flowers and seeds then die e.g. sunflower, beans, maize etc.

External parts of flowering plants

• Flowering plants are made up of four basic parts; the roots, stem, leaves and flowers

Function of parts of flowering plants

Part Functions

Roots • Absorb water and mineral salts from the soil

• Support or anchor the plant firmly into the ground
• Passage of water and mineral salts from the roots to the leaves and glucose to
Stem
the rest of the plant
• Supports branches, leaves and flowers on the plant
• Trap sunlight energy used in photosynthesis
Leaves
• Green leaves manufacture plant food during photosynthesis
• Release excess water from the plant through a process called transpiration
Flowers • Sexual reproductive organs of flowering plants
• Produce male (pollen) and female (ovules) sex cells

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Classification of plants
• Plant classification refers to the grouping of plants according to their similarities

Classification of plants according to edible parts

Seed crops
• These are crops grown for their edible grain or seeds
• There two common types of seed crops:
Cereals
o Grain crops from grass crops that are grown for their carbohydrate (starch) rich seeds
e.g. maize, wheat, rice, sorghum, millet and rapoko
Legumes
o These are grain crops that have pods and produce seeds rich in fats and proteins e.g.
groundnuts, roundnuts, beans, peas and acacia

Root crops
• Crops grown for their edible underground roots or rhizomes e.g. carrots, sweet potatoes
and beetroot

Tuber crops
• Crops grown for their thickened underground stem e.g. Irish potato and cocoa yams

Leaf crops
• These are crops grown for their edible leaves or stem or flowers e.g. e.g. covo, lettuce,
cabbage, celery, broccoli etc.

Fruit crops
• Crops grown for their edible fleshy fruits e.g. tomatoes, eggplant, oranges, mango,
peaches etc.

Bulb crops
• These are crops grown for their edible underground swollen leaves e.g. king onions, leak
and garlic

Classification of plants according to life cycle

Annual crops
• Crops that complete their life cycle i.e. from seed germination to reproduction in one
season e.g. peas, maize, potatoes, pumpkins, rice, lettuce, peas etc.

Biennial crops
• Crops that complete their life cycle in two growing seasons e.g. cabbages, cassava,
carrots, onions etc.

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Perennial crops
• These are crops that do not die after producing flowers.
• They continue growing from season to season or year to year i.e. they live for many years
e.g. cotton, mango, orange and sugarcane

Horticulture
• It is a branch of agriculture which is concerned with garden crops
• Horticulture can be defined as the branch of agriculture concerned with intensively
cultivated plants directly used by man for food, medicinal or aesthetic purposes.
Branches of Horticulture
Pomology
• the production of edible fruits e.g. orange, mango, peach, apple etc.
Olericulture
• the production of vegetables e.g. cabbage, peas, carrots, tomatoes, potatoes etc.
Floriculture
• involves the growing, marketing of flowers and other ornamental plants
Decorative horticulture)
• the design and alternation of a portion of land by use of planting material (flowers and
other ornamental plants)

Importance of Horticulture
Social importance
• Fruits and vegetables are sources of vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates, fats and proteins
• Flowers and ornamental plants are used for decoration and recreation
• The parts like stem, leaf, flowers, roots and even the fruits of horticulture plants are used
to make drugs, chemicals, insecticides, germicides etc. e.g. rose water is used to cure eyes

Economic importance
• Horticultural products are raw materials for processing and canning industries
• Horticulture creates employment through field operations like fruit picking/harvesting,
grading, packing, selling etc. and chain of industrial processes
• Exportation of products such as fruits and flowers earn foreign currency to the country
• Many horticultural products are sources of dietary nutrients for humans

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Land preparation
• Land preparation is the conditioning (clearing and tillage) of the land before it can be
used for crops production.

Reasons for land preparation

• Land preparation is done to:
o make the land suitable for growing crops.
o destroy growing plants and weeds.
o improve soil aeration and water infiltration.
o improve seed germination.
o break soil pans and surface capping.
o level the land.
o avoid damage of equipment.
o prepare seed beds.
o practice irrigation easily.
o incorporate manure and lime.
o expose pests to the sun so that they die (to control pest and diseases).

Seedbed preparation
• A seedbed is a small bed in which seedlings are raised
• They are also called nursery beds

Steps in seedbed preparation

Marking
• Measuring the dimensions of the seedbed and pegging the corners
• Seedbeds are usually made 1 to 1.5 metres wide
Digging
• The soil is loosened and turned over using digging tools
Making ridges
• A garden line is used to show where the ridges will be
• A hoe or rake is used to make the ridge under the line
Manuring
• Compost or farmyard manure can be sprinkled over using hands or spade to supply
soil nutrients
Levelling
• This is done using a rake to create an even seedbed
• It also mixes manure with soil and breaks soil lumps to create a fine tilth

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Crop protection
Pests
• A pest is an organism that is harmful in some way to crops.
• If unprotected, crops will not grow well and yield will be reduced by pests.

Effects of pests to crops

• Some pests are vectors (transmitters) of plant diseases e.g. leaf hopper and aphids
• Pests damage plant tissues through biting, boring or sap sucking
• They also destroy agricultural stored products such as grains
• Pest infestation in fields can result in total crop failure and yield loss
• Pests affect yield quality thus reduce the nutritional and economic value of the crops

Classification of pests
• Pests attack crops in a number of ways and they can be classified according to the type of
damage they cause (feeding habits).
Biting and chewing pests
• These are adult insects or their larvae which have biting and chewing jaws called
mandibles.
• Mandibles cut or bit plant leaves, leaf sheaths and in some cases the young stem
which is soft.
• Included in this group are locusts, termites, leaf miners, beetles, leaf miners,
armyworms and larvae of moths.
• Damage is by eating leaf material or cutting young stems but there is no transmission
of diseases.
Piercing and sucking pests
• These pierce plants with a needle-like mouth parts called stylets.
• Examples are aphids, mealy buds, scale insects and red spider mites.
• Piecing does very little damage to plant tissues, the actual damage is through sucking
of plant sap.
• Saliva injected into plant may be toxic or contain disease causing micro-organisms
especially viruses.
• Aphids are the most notorious, they transmit rosette viral disease in ground nut, leaf
roll in potatoes in potatoes and tobacco mosaic virus in tobacco.
Boring pests
• These make holes in the plant stem, fruit or grain and live inside them for some part
of their life cycle.
• This group includes grain weevils (adults and larva), maize stalk borer and American
bollworm of cotton (Heliothis spp).

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Nematodes (Eelworms)
• These are very small (microscopic), non-segmented worms, some of which live on
root of certain preferred crop plants such as tobacco, potatoes and tomatoes.
• Usually the larva lives in roots which then form swellings called galls in response to
the attack.

Plant diseases
• A plant disease is an impairment of health (abnormal condition) in plants that is
detrimental.

Classification of plant diseases

• Plant diseases are classified according to their causative agents
• They are caused by fungi, bacteria, viruses or nutrient deficiencies
Fungal diseases
• These are diseases caused by fungi.
• Fungi are simple plants without chlorophyll which range from microscopic to large
mushrooms.
• Disease causing fungi cannot photosynthesise and obtain their food from plants
• Examples include late blight of potatoes, dumping-off of seedlings, powdery mildew
of beans and peas and downey mildew of peas
• Fungi spread by means of spores which can germinate and infect plants through the
stomata or wounds
Bacterial diseases
• These are caused by bacteria.
• Bacteria are microscopic single celled organisms and are smaller than fungi.
• Bacteria cause fewer diseases as compared to fungi.
• The spread of bacterial diseases is either by rain splash, insects, or man and
machinery.
• Examples of bacterial diseases are bacterial blight of cotton (Black arm or Angular
leaf spot) and bacterial wilt of tomatoes
Viral diseases
• These are caused by viruses.
• Viruses are very minute pathogens which cannot be seen through a common
microscope but through an electron microscope.
• They affect plants by destroying chlorophyll resulting in yellowing of the plant and
causes stunting (reduces growth) of crops.
• Viral diseases in plants are spread by vectors such as aphids, leaf hoppers, thrips and
white flies or by planting infected material during vegetative propagation or by tools
and hands of workers
• Examples include maize streak virus disease of maize, tobacco/tomato mosaic virus,
bushy top and rosette virus of groundnuts

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Weeds
• Weeds are undesirable or unwanted plants which grow in crop fields
• They are competitive and adaptable to adverse conditions or environments

Harmful effects of weeds

Harmful effects of weeds are divided into direct and indirect effects.
Direct effects
• They reduce crop yields through competition for light, moisture and nutrients.
• Weeds interference with agricultural operations such as cultivation, spraying and
harvesting
• Some weeds such as Shamva grass have hairs on their surfaces which cause itching
when they come in contact with the skin and this disturbs workers.
• Weeds can also reduce machine efficiency through blockages.
• Some weeds can reduce quality of harvest e.g. black jack in cotton and too much
weed seed in crop harvest used for seed leads to rejection of the seed.
• Weed burs of weeds like upright star bur, black jack and pig weed reduces quality of
cotton.
• Weeds increase the cost of production because money has to be spent to control the
weeds either chemically or mechanically.
• Some weeds are poisonous to livestock e.g. Lantana camara.
• Aquatic weeds reduce affects the quality of water for irrigation in rivers and dams e.g.
the water hyacinth in Manyame river at lake Chivero.
Indirect effects
• Weeds harbour rodents e.g. rats and mice which destroy crops.
• They also host plant pests and diseases e.g. Wild rose (Hibiscus dongolensis) hosts
the cotton boll worm

Benefits of weeds
• They provide cover against soil erosion during furrow periods in a crop rotation cycle.
• Weeds add organic matter to the soil upon decomposition.
• Some weeds are used as human food e.g. Amaranthus (mowa/bonongwe), black jack
(tsine) and okra.
• Other weeds have medicinal properties and are used to cure snake bites, gastric troubles,
skin disorders and some control diabetes
• Provide nectar for bees.

Classification of weeds
Annual weeds
• These are weeds which complete their life cycle (grown, mature and produce seeds) in
one season e.g. Black jack, Mexican marigold, Sodom apple and Witch weed.
Perennial weeds
• These need more than one season to complete their life cycle e.g. Wondering jew, Coach
grass, Star grass, Thorn apple and Nutgrass.

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ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
Types of livestock
• Livestock refers to the various kinds of domesticated animals reared on a farm.

Poultry
• Includes all animals in the bird family
• These animals are covered by feathers, lay eggs and are two legged
• Poultry includes animals such as chickens, ducks, turkeys, geese, guinea fowl and pigeons

Importance of poultry
o Most birds are kept for meat e.g. broilers, turkeys, ducks
o Some are kept for eggs e.g. layers, guinea fowl
o Poultry are a source of income when sold as live birds or dressed chicken
o Poultry production creates employment

Fish
• These are aquatic (water living) animals
• Fish are grown in tanks, ponds, cages or irrigation ditches
• There are different types of fish breeds farmers can produce, these include breams, tilapia
and trout

Importance of fish
o Source of proteins, vitamins and minerals for human beings
o Also provide proteins to animals when fed to animals as fish meal feed formulation
o Good source of income when sold as fresh or dried
o Fish are raw materials for processing and canning industries

Ruminants and non-ruminant animals

Ruminants
• These are animals which graze grass and browse on tree leaves
• They have a stomach chamber which is divided into four compartments: rumen,
reticulum, omasum and abomasum
• They chew cud after grazing, during grazing or browsing, the grass or leaves collect in
the first stomach then is later returned to the mouth for chewing, a process called
regurgitation
• Ruminants are able to digest cellulose, a tough plant material
• These animals include cattle, sheep and goats

Non-ruminants
• These are animals which have one stomach chamber and do not chew the cud
• Non-ruminants cannot digest cellulose and thus feed on foods with less fibre
• These animals include rabbits, donkeys, pigs and horses

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Importance of ruminants and non-ruminants

o Produce meat e.g. cattle, sheep, goats, rabbits and pigs
o Produce milk e.g. dairy cattle and goats
o Provide raw materials for processing industries for the production of processed foods
such as cheese, ice cream, yoghurt, and other products such as shoes from the hide
o Source of income when the animals or meat is sold
o Creates employment through the production system

Animal health
• Good health is a condition when an animal is in a good state and responding well to the
environment
• Ill-health is a condition in which the animal is not well
• Healthy and Ill-health animals can be identified by their behaviour and condition such as
physical appearance
Healthy animal Ill-health animal

Has normal posture, very alert and bright Keeps down with running nose and dull
eyes eyes

Difficulty walking with irregular steps and

Walks properly with regular steps
usually unbalanced

Has a good appetite and feed to satisfaction Loss of appetite and does not feed

Stained or abnormal colour in urine, dung or

Normal colour of urine, dung or droppings
droppings

Abnormal breathing and continuous

Normal breathing
coughing

Correct consistency of dung or droppings

Hard or watery dung/droppings
not too hard or watery

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Small livestock production

Broiler production
Importance of rearing broilers
• Broilers produce meat which is an important source of high-quality proteins, minerals and
vitamins
• Broilers have a high feed conversion ratio, they grow quickly per mass of feed consumed
• Broilers are an important source of income, either sold as live or dressed birds. When
exported, broilers give farmers foreign currency
• Broiler production creates employment throughout the production system
• Broiler droppings have high nutrient content and are used as manure in crop production
• Feathers of broilers can be used as dusters or used to make pillows

Breeds of broilers
• There are different breeds of broilers
• Common broiler breeds in Zimbabwe are:
o Hubbard
o Cob 500
o Ross

Housing requirements for broilers

• Broiler chicks are received from hatcheries when they are a day old
• Common hatcheries in Zimbabwe are Irvines, Pro feeds and Novatek
• After arrival the chicks should be kept in brooders
• Brooders are special housing for raising chicks which provide adequate warmth needed
by chicks until they are two or three weeks old
• The common types of brooders are canopy brooder, hay box brooder and circular wire
mesh brooder
• Brooders also protect the chicks from infection, diseases and parasites
• Brooders should be kept clean and well ventilated to prevent diseases and parasites
Brooder temperature management
• Warmth in a brooder is provided through the use of infra-red lamps, tungsten bulbs,
charcoal burners, electric heaters or gas heaters
• Poor temperature management can result in high deaths (mortality) during the
brooding period
• Litter material such as soft grass, wood shavings or sawdust should be spread to a
depth of 5cm on the floor of the brooder to keep the place warm
• The chicks require a warm temperature of 35oC which needs to be reduced by 2oC
every week as they grow
• When heat is inadequate, chicks will huddle together, this indicates that the chicks are
cold
• If using infra-red lamp, the farmer should add an extra infra-red lamp or lower the
height the source of heat or move it closer to the chicks

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• When temperatures get too high in the brooder, the chicks respond by moving away
from the source of heat
• The farmer should increase the distance between source of heat and the chicks
Deep litter housing for broilers
• After the brooding period chicks are introduced to a deep litter housing system
• Deep litter housing systems involve rearing birds in large unit with no divisions or
cages and bedding made from wood shavings, saw dust or dry grass is laid on the
floor
• The birds live and feed from drinkers (drinking water containers) and feeders (feed
containers)
• The feed and water containers are changed to larger sized feeding equipment to
accommodate the age of the broilers
• Clean water should be available all the time
• Spilling of water should be avoided as it promotes the multiplication of pathogens
• The bedding should be changed regularly to keep it dry and prevent diseases

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FARM STRUCTURES AND MACHINERY

Farm implements
Tillage implements
• Tillage is the mechanical preparation of the soil e.g. ploughing, digging, disking, ripping,
cultivation etc.
• Tillage operations are divided into two phases:
o Primary tillage
o Secondary tillage

Primary tillage
• This is the initial cultivation of the soil and involves the use of heavy-duty equipment.
• It leaves the soil in a rough state not ideal for planting.
• Primary tillage implements are:
o Disc plough o Mouldboard plough
o Chisel plough o Ripper

Secondary tillage
• This is a light duty operation specifically to break large clods of soil produced by primary
tillage.
• It leaves the soil level, with a fine tilth suitable for planting.
• Secondary tillage implements are:
o Disc harrow o Cultivator
o Spike-toothed harrow o Planter
o Roller
Mouldboard plough

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Functions of parts of a mouldboard plough

Part Function
Share Penetrates and cuts the soil in a horizontal direction below the soil
surface leaving a furrow
Mouldboard Receives furrow slices from the share and turns them over
Landside Slides along the furrow wall to stabilize the plough while in operation
Frog It is part of the plough bottom on which the share, mouldboard and
landside are attached rigidly
Hitch assembly It is used to adjust depth and width of furrow
It is where the trek chain is attached
Draw bar Transmits the pull of oxen to the beam
Can be raised or lowered at the front to control depth of ploughing
Wheel Makes the plough steady and stable
Also prevents the plough from digging too deep
Handles These are used to control and guide the plough
Beam It is where the frog, handles and hitch assembly are attached

Fencing
• A fence is a barrier constructed around property, fields, paddocks or animal kraals

Reasons for fencing

• To protect crop fields from livestock
• To make paddocks in order to facilitate rotational grazing, proper breeding systems and
night paddocking.
• To control movement of animals and people around the farm.
• To mark farm boundaries in order to avoid boundary disputes.
• To keep different classes of animals separate e.g. bulls alone, cows, heifers, steers etc.
this makes feeding of the animals easier.
• To enable mixed farming at the farm.
• To protect property from thieves.

Types of fences
1. Barbed wire fence
2. Plain wire fence
3. Post and rail fence
4. Diamond wire mesh fence
5. Hedge fence
6. Stone wall fence
7. Electric fence

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Harnessing
Harnesses
• Harnesses can be defined as the straps, bands and wooden devices that link draft animals
and implements.
• They also serve to control and direct draught animals during operation of implements
• Harnesses for horses, donkeys and mules are very different from harnesses used on cattle
• Cattle produce most of their power from their necks and humps that is why farmers fit
yokes around necks of trek oxen.

Types of yokes
1. Single neck yoke
• This is a wooden framework used to secure a single draught animal to farm
implements

2. Double neck yoke

• This is a wooden framework used to link two draught animals and secure them to
farm implements

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Functions of parts of a double neck yoke

Part Description and functions
Yoke This is the main framework of the yoke that carries or bears load
shaft Its length is determined by use of the yoke
Skeis These are wooden pieces shaped to fit into the yoke shaft slots and have notches on
the outer edges which hold the looped ends of strops
They keep animals secured at a distance from each other
Also prevent the trek chain from continuously rubbing on to the skin of animals
Strops These are made from hides, robes and a combination of rubber and fibre
They have looped ends that fit into the notches on skeis
Strops prevent the yoke from slipping back over draught animals
Clamps These are U-shaped metal rods fitted at the centre of the yoke
They are the point of attachment for trens
Trens These are large metal rings that link the trek chain to the clamps
Trek It is made of several metal rings joined together to a length of 2.9 metres
chain The trek chain is fitted to the clamp and links draught animals to the implement
Types of double neck yokes
Type of yoke Distance between animals Drawn farm implements
Plough yoke 90 cm Plough, ripper and planter
Cultivator yoke 180 cm Cultivator and ridger
Cark yoke 120 cm Cart

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AGRI-BUSINESS
Farm records
• Farm records are documents that show detailed and accurate information (facts and
figures) of everything connected with the farm.
Importance of farm records
• They show history of the farm
• Farm records are used to control and track movement of tools and equipment into and out
of the farm
• They help to identify losses of stock or equipment
• Also help in planning and implementing irrigation programmes
• They are used as source documents for the calculation of profit or loss made on the farm
• Farm records are required by banks when securing loans or funds from donors
• A farmer uses farm records as a reference in decision making
• Help in evaluating the performance of individual stock
• They are used in breeding of animals to keep track of mating dates, age and breeds used
• Records are useful guidelines for preparing budgets
Types of farm records
Physical records (Production/Management records)
• These show farm activities and contain all the details in the production of crops or
livestock
• Livestock records include breeds, mating dates, birth dates, weaning dates, weaning mass,
breeding season, dipping, mating ratios, supplementary feeds, culling
• Crop records include ploughing dates, irrigation dates, sawing dates, fertiliser application
dates, seeds, seed rates, cultivators, harvest time, chemicals used for pest and disease
control, land area, marketing
• Physical records also include inventory records (records of assets or tools) and weather
records (rainfall and temperature)
Financial records
• These records show or have monetary values of farm activities, inputs and outputs
• They are records of the income (revenue) and expenditure on a farm
• Financial records include:
o Income and expenditure account
o Profit and loss account

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Agricultural co-operatives
• A co-operative is a registered organization of people who have decided to work together
for mutual benefits.
• The minimum number of members for a co-operative is 10.
Principles of co-operatives
• Anyone who meets the requirements of the co-operative is free to join (open membership
• In a co-operative, there is democratic control over assets, operations and decision-making
processes
• Profits are distributed to members following ratios agreed to by all members usually
based on each member’s contribution
• All members are obliged to have full knowledge of the functioning and benefit offered by
the co-operative
Types of agricultural co-operatives
Producer co-operative
• Farmers grow crops or produce livestock together
• Member in this co-operative must contribute equal amounts of efforts in work and time
Marketing co-operative
• Producers sell their products together to receive better prices for their products and meet
supply needed by a market
Savings co-operative
• Interested farmers can group together and establish an account where members deposit an
agreed amount of money for a certain period of time
• Members can decide on sharing the money or they can use it to buy inputs and share the
inputs

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