17

CH APTER

Number and Algebra

Polynomials
You have spent some time over the last two years studying quadratics, learning
to factorise them and learning to sketch their graphs. In this chapter, we take
the next step and study polynomials such as x 3 − x and x 4 + x 2 + x − 14
that contain higher powers of x . Just as we factorised, solved and graphed
quadratics, we shall do the same for polynomials.
Some modern electronic devices, such as mobile phones and Blu-ray discs, use
error-correcting codes that are based on calculations using polynomials.

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 17A The language of polynomials
A polynomial is an expression, such as:
1 2
x 5 − 5x 2 + 7 x , 3x 7 + 2 x + 2x − 5
and
5
A polynomial may have any number of terms (the word ‘polynomial’ means ‘many terms’), but each
term must be a multiple of a whole-number power of x. (Recall that a whole number is any number
in the sequence 0, 1, 2, 3, ...)
The term of highest index among the non-zero terms is called the leading term. Its coefficient is
called the leading coefficient, and its index is called the degree of the polynomial. Thus:
• x 5 − 5 x 2 + 7 x has leading term x 5, leading coefficient 1 and degree 5
• 3 x 7 + 2 has leading term 3 x 7, leading coefficient 3 and degree 7
1 1 1
• x 2 + 2 x − 5 has leading term x 2 , leading coefficient and degree 2.
5 5 5
A monic polynomial has leading coefficient 1; thus, x − 5 x 2 + 7 x is a monic polynomial. The other
5

two examples above are non-monic because neither of the leading coefficients is 1.
The second term in the polynomial 3 x 7 + 2 is called the constant term, because it does not
involve x. The constant term in x 5 − 5 x 2 + 7 x is zero.

Some names for polynomials

You are already familiar with some simple polynomials.
• Polynomials of degree 2, such as x 2 + 6 x + 2, are called quadratic.
• Polynomials of degree 1, such as 7 x − 3, are called linear.
• A non-zero number such as 8 is regarded as a polynomial of degree 0, because we can write
8 = 8 x 0, and is called a constant polynomial.
The number zero is regarded as a polynomial called the zero polynomial. It has no terms, so the
leading term and the degree of the zero polynomial are not defined.
In this chapter you will begin to study polynomials of degree higher than 2.
• Polynomials of degree 3 are called cubic polynomials.
• Polynomials of degree 4 are called quartic polynomials.
• Polynomials of degree 5 are called quintic polynomials.
Beyond these, we drop the Latin name and refer to a polynomial by its degree.
For example, x 6 + 2 x 3 + x + 2 is a polynomial of degree 6.
When we write down an expression for a general polynomial, we need to use dots:
an x n + an −1x n −1 + ... + a1x + a0
where n is a whole number, the coefficients a0 , a1 , a2 , ..., an are real numbers, and an ≠ 0.
If a polynomial is written in this form, we call it the standard form of the polynomial.

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A new notation for polynomials and substitution

We need a simple way of naming a polynomial such as x 3 + 2 x 2 − 4 x − 5, so that we can talk about
it easily. The new notation is:
P( x ) = x 3 + 2 x 2 − 4 x − 5
The x in brackets indicates that x is the variable in the polynomial.
This notation is called function notation.
When we substitute the number 5 for x, the number we obtain is written P(5) and:
P (5) = 53 + 2 × 52 − 4 × 5 − 5
= 125 + 50 − 20 − 5
= 150
Similarly, P(a) = a 3 + 2a 2 − 4 a − 5.

Polynomials
• A polynomial is an expression that can be written in the form:
P ( x ) = an x n + an − 1x n − 1 + ... + a1x + a0

where n is a whole number, and the coefficients a0 , a1, a2 , ..., an are real numbers, an ≠ 0 .
• The number 0 is called zero polynomial. It has no terms, so the leading term and the
degree of the zero polynomial are not defined.
• The leading term of the polynomial is the term of highest index, an x n , among those with
a non-zero coefficient.
• The degree of the polynomial is the index of the leading term, and the leading coefficient
is the coefficient of the leading term.
• A monic polynomial is a polynomial whose leading coefficient is 1.
• The constant term is the term of index 0 (this is the term not involving x).

Example 1

State whether each of the following functions is a polynomial. If it is a polynomial, arrange

the terms in descending order by degree. Then state the leading term, the leading coefficient,
the degree and the constant term, and say whether or not the polynomial is monic.
a P( x ) = x 3 − 5x 2 − x 6 b Q( x ) = x 2 + x −2
9
c R( x ) = + x d S(x) = 5
2

Solution

a P( x ) = − x 6 + x 3 − 5x 2 b Q( x ) is not a polynomial, because the

This is a non-monic polynomial. index of the term x −2 is not a whole
number.
The leading term is − x 6, the leading
coefficient is −1, the degree is 6 and
the constant term is 0.
(continued over page)

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 1 7 A T H E L A N G U A G E O F P O LY N O M I A L S

9
c R( x ) = x + d S ( x ) = 5 is a non-monic polynomial.
2
The leading term is 5, the leading
This is a monic polynomial.
coefficient is 5, the degree is 0 and
The leading term is x, the leading the constant term is 5.
coefficient is 1, the degree is 1 and the
9
constant term is .
2

Example 2

Expand each expression, and then state the degree, the leading coefficient and the
constant term.
a P( x ) = (3 x + 2)2 b Q( x ) = 3 x (5 − x 2 )(5 + x 2 )

Solution

a P( x ) = 9 x 2 + 12 x + 4
The degree is 2, the leading coefficient is 9, and the constant term is 4.
b Q( x ) = 3 x (25 − x 4 )
= −3 x 5 + 75 x
The degree is 5, the leading coefficient is −3, and the constant term is 0.

Example 3

If P( x ) = x 4 − 2 x 2 + 10 x + 11, then find P(3), P(0), P( −1) and P (2a).

Solution

P(3) = 34 − 2 × 32 + 10 × 3 + 11 P(0) = 0 − 0 + 0 + 11
= 81 − 18 + 30 + 11 = 11
= 104
P (2a) = (2a)4 − 2(2a)2 + 10(2a) + 11
P( −1) = 1 − 2 − 10 + 11 = 16a 4 − 8a 2 + 20 a + 11
= 0

Example 4

If P ( x ) = x 4 − 3 x 3 + ax + 2, and P( −2) = 0 , find a.

Solution

P (−2) = 0
16 + 24 − 2a + 2 = 0
2a = 42
a = 21

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Exercise 17A

Example 1 1 State whether or not each expression is a polynomial.

1
a 5x 2 + 6 x + 3 b 7 +x c 1 − 5 x 5 + 10 x10
x
d 3x + 4 e 5x 3 − 5 f 2x − 1
1 21
g ( x − 5)2 h x +7 x 24 i x+ x
4
3 4 2 − 3x
j x − πx 2 + π k −6 l
5 2 + 3x

Example 2 2 State the degree, the leading coefficient, and the constant term of each polynomial.
Rearrange the terms first.
a x 3 + 5x − 6 b 5x 4 − 5x 2 − 7 x c 7 − 4x
d 15 e 5 − 2x + 7x3 f 8 − 4 x + 3x 2
1 2 x5 x3 1
g x − 14 x 3 h + i − x 5 − 3x 6 − x 3 + + x4
2 5 3 3

Example 1 3 State whether each polynomial is monic or non-monic.

1 3
a x4 + x b −2 x 3 + 5 x − 2 c x + x4
2
4 x + 6x3
d 1 e 5x + 2 x 2 − x 3 f
6

Example 3 4 Let P( x ) = x 3 − x − 6. Find:

a P (1) b P( −1) c P(2) d P ( −2) e P(0)
f P ( −3) g P (a) h P (2a) i P ( − a)

5 Find Q( −1), Q(2), Q( −10) and Q(0) for each polynomial.

a Q( x ) = x 5 + x 4 + x 3 + x 2 b Q( x ) = x 4 − 2 x 3 − 4 x 2 − 8 x + 32
c Q( x ) = 5 x 3 − 3 x 5 + 1 d Q( x ) = x 2 + 8 x − 20

6 Expand and simplify each polynomial, and then state its leading term, its degree and
its constant term.
a A( x ) = ( x − 5)2 b B( x ) = ( x − 5)( x + 10)
c C ( x ) = x 2 ( x − 3x 5 ) d D( x ) = x ( x + 6)2
e E ( x ) = 3 x 3 ( x 2 + 1)2 f F ( x ) = x 2 + 9 − ( x + 3)2
g G ( x ) = ( x + 2)( x + 3)( x + 4) h H ( x ) = ( x + 1)2 + ( x + 2)2 + ( x + 3)2

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Example 4 7 a Find a if P( x ) = x 5 − 3 x 3 − 5 x + a and P(2) = 4 .
b Find b if Q( x ) = 2 x 3 − 3 x 2 + bx + 4 and Q( −1) = 0.
c Find a and d if S ( x ) = x 4 − 4 x 3 + ax 2 − 2 x + d and S ( −1) = S ( −2) = 0.

8 a Find the monic polynomial P ( x ) of degree 2, constant term 1 and with P( −1) = 7.
b Write down an example of a quartic polynomial Q( x ) with leading coefficient 2,
constant term 0 and with Q( −2) = 12 .
c Find the quartic polynomial R( x ) with equal coefficients such that R( −1) = 7.

17B Adding, subtracting and

multiplying polynomials
To add or subtract two polynomials, simply collect like terms.

Example 5

For the polynomials P( x ) = 3 x 4 − 2 x 2 + x − 1, Q( x ) = x 2 (7 x 3 + 2) and

R( x ) = 3 x 4 − x − 3, find:
a P ( x ) + Q( x ) b P ( x ) − R( x )
c P ( x ) − Q ( x ) + R( x ) d 2 P( x ) + 3Q( x )

Solution

First, we need to expand Q( x ) and obtain Q( x ) = 7 x 5 + 2 x 2.

a P ( x ) + Q( x ) = (3 x 4 − 2 x 2 + x − 1) + (7 x 5 + 2 x 2 )
= 7 x 5 + 3x 4 + x − 1
b P( x ) − R( x ) = (3 x 4 − 2 x 2 + x − 1) − (3 x 4 − x − 3)
= 3x 4 − 2 x 2 + x − 1 − 3x 4 + x + 3
= −2 x 2 + 2 x + 2
c P ( x ) − Q( x ) + R( x ) = (3 x 4 − 2 x 2 + x − 1) − (7 x 5 + 2 x 2 ) + (3 x 4 − x − 3)
= −7 x 5 + 6 x 4 − 4 x 2 − 4
d 2 P ( x ) + 3Q( x ) = 2(3 x 4 − 2 x 2 + x − 1) + 3(7 x 5 + 2 x 2 )
= 6 x 4 − 4 x 2 + 2 x − 2 + 21x 5 + 6 x 2
= 21x 5 + 6 x 4 + 2 x 2 + 2 x − 2

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Multiplying polynomials
To multiply two polynomials, we use the distributive law a number of times. We multiply each term
in the first polynomial by the second polynomial and add these expressions together. We then expand
the brackets, collect like terms and write the polynomial in standard form.

Example 6

The polynomials P ( x ), Q( x ) and R( x ) are given by P ( x ) = x 3 − x 2 + x − 1,

Q( x ) = 3 x 3 − 2 x 2 and R( x ) = − x 4 + 2 x 3 − 3 x 2. Find:
a P( x )Q( x ) b Q ( x ) R( x )

Solution

a P( x )Q( x ) = ( x 3 − x 2 + x − 1)(3 x 3 − 2 x 2 )
= x 3 (3 x 3 − 2 x 2 ) − x 2 (3 x 3 − 2 x 2 ) + x (3 x 3 − 2 x 2 ) − (3 x 3 − 2 x 2 )
= 3x 6 − 2 x 5 − 3x 5 + 2 x 4 + 3x 4 − 2 x 3 − 3x 3 + 2 x 2
= 3x 6 − 5x 5 + 5x 4 − 5x 3 + 2 x 2
b Q ( x ) R( x ) = (3 x 3 − 2 x 2 )( − x 4 + 2 x 3 − 3 x 2 )
= 3x 3 (− x 4 + 2 x 3 − 3x 2 ) − 2 x 2 (− x 4 + 2 x 3 − 3x 2 )
= −3 x 7 + 6 x 6 − 9 x 5 + 2 x 6 − 4 x 5 + 6 x 4
= −3 x 7 + 8 x 6 − 13 x 5 + 6 x 4

Addition, subtraction and multiplication of polynomials

• Polynomials can be added, subtracted and multiplied using the usual rules of algebra.

• The sum, difference and product of two polynomials is always another polynomial.

Exercise 17B

Example 5 1 Find the sum P ( x ) + Q( x ) and the difference P ( x ) − Q( x ), given that:

a P( x ) = x 3 + 3 x + 5 and Q( x ) = 2 x 3 − 3 x 2 − 4 x
b P( x ) = 2 x 3 − 3 x 2 − 4 x + 5 and Q( x ) = −2 x 3 + 3 x 2 + 5 x − 2
c P( x ) = 4 x 2 − 3 x + 6 and Q( x ) = 4 x 2 − 3 x − 6
d P ( x ) = x 4 − x 2 + x − 1 and Q( x ) = x 3 − x 2 + x − 1
e P ( x ) = 5 x 3 + 2 x 2 − x − 5 and Q( x ) = 5 − 5 x 3 − 2 x 2 + x

2 For P( x ) = 2 x 3 − 3 x 2 + 7, Q( x ) = 4 x 5 − 2 x 2 + 2 and R( x ) = 3 x 5 − x 3 − 2, find:

a 2 P( x ) + 3Q( x ) b 5P( x ) − 4Q( x )
c 3P( x ) − 2Q( x ) + R( x ) d 2 P ( x ) − 3Q( x ) + 4 R( x )

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Example 6 3 Find the product P( x )Q( x ), given that:
a P( x ) = x 3 and Q( x ) = 5 x 3 − 2 x 2 + 7 x
b P( x ) = x 3 + 1 and Q( x ) = x 3 − 1
c P( x ) = x 4 + x 2 + 1 and Q( x ) = x 2 − 1
d P (x ) = − x 3 + x and Q( x ) = − x 2 − 3 x
e P( x ) = x 2 + x + 1 and Q( x ) = x 2 − x + 1
4 Look at the examples in question 3. Then copy and complete:
a ‘When two non-zero polynomials P ( x ) and Q( x ) are multiplied,
the degree of the product …’
b ‘The constant term of P( x )Q( x ) is …’
5 The square of a polynomial P ( x ) is ( P( x ))2 = P( x ) P ( x ). Find the square of P ( x ) given that:
a P( x ) = x − 7 b P( x ) = − x 2 + 3 c P( x ) = x 3 − 7 x
d P( x ) = 3x 5 + 5x 3 e P( x ) = x 2 + x + 1 f P( x ) = x 4 + x 2 + 1
6 Look at the examples in question 5. Then copy and complete:
a ‘When a non-zero polynomial P ( x ) is squared, the degree of the square …’
b ‘The constant term of ( P( x ))2 is …’
c ‘If … then the square ( P( x ))2 is monic.’
7 Expand and simplify D( x )Q( x ) + R( x ) given that:
a D( x ) = x − 1, Q( x ) = −5 x 3 − 7 and R( x ) = −10
b D( x ) = 2 x + 3, Q( x ) = 3 x 3 − 5 x 2 − 1 and R( x ) = 6
c D( x ) = x 2 − 7, Q( x ) = −4 x 2 − 3 x − 2 and R( x ) = 7 x − 12
8 Expand and simplify:
a ( x − 2)( x + 1)( x + 2)( x − 1) b ( x + 1)( x + 2)( x + 3)( x + 4)

17C Dividing polynomials

Whenever we add, subtract or multiply two polynomials, the result is another polynomial. Division
of polynomials, however, does not usually result in a polynomial. For example:
3x 4 − 5x 2 + 7 3x 4 5x 2 7
2
= 2
− 2 + 2
x x x x
7
= 3x 2 − 5 + 2
x
This is not a polynomial.

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You are already familiar with this situation from arithmetic with integers. Adding, subtracting and
multiplying integers always results in an integer, but division with integers may or may not result in
an integer.
For example:
32 30 2
= +
5 5 5
2
= 6+
5
This can also be written without fractions in terms of the quotient and remainder:
32 ÷ 5 = 6 remainder 2
From this we can also write 32 as the subject in this relationship as follows:
remainder
32 = 5 × 6 + 2
quotient
We can see that we have three different ways of writing the same division statement. Similarly, we
can write:
(3 x 4 − 5 x 2 + 7) ÷ x 2 = 3 x 2 − 5 remainder 7
From this we can write 3 x 4 − 5 x 2 + 7 = x 2 (3 x 2 − 5) + 7.

Division of whole numbers

Before we try to divide polynomials, let us review long division of whole numbers by converting
283 months to years and months. That is, we must perform the division 283 ÷ 12.
2 3 quotient
12 2 8 3
2 4
4 3
3 6
7 remainder

Thus 283 ÷ 12 = 23 remainder 7, which we write as:

283 = 12 × 23 + 7
The final remainder 7 had to be less than the divisor 12.
Hence, 283 months is 23 years and 7 months.
• The number 12 that we are dividing by is called the divisor.
• The number 283 that we are dividing into is called the dividend.
• The number of years is 23, which is called the quotient.
• The number of months left over is 7, which is called the remainder.
In general, we can write the dividend as the subject of a division statement in the following way.
Let p (the dividend) and d (the divisor) be whole numbers, with d > 0.
p
• If = q remainder r (q is the quotient), then p = dq + r, where 0 ≤ r < d .
d
• When the remainder, r, is zero, then d is a factor of p because p = dq .

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Division of polynomials
These ideas also apply to polynomials.
The key idea when dividing one polynomial by another is to keep working with the leading terms.
The following example shows how to divide P ( x ) = 5 x 4 − 7 x 3 + 2 x − 4 by D( x ) = x − 2 and how
to write this result as P ( x ) = D( x )Q( x ) + R( x ).
There must be a column for each successive power of x. Thus we leave a gap for the missing term in
x 2 in P( x ). Alternatively, ‘+ 0 x 2’ could have been written in its place.
We begin by dividing the leading term of P ( x ) by the leading term of Q( x ).
5x 3
x − 2 5x 4 − 7 x 3 + 2x − 4 (Divide x into 5 x 4, giving the 5 x 3 which is written
directly above the leading term of the dividend.)
5 x 4 − 10 x 3 (Multiply x − 2 by 5 x 3 .)
3x 3 + 2x − 4 (Subtract line 2 from line 1.)

The process will now be repeated with 3 x 3 + 2 x − 4 as the new dividend. The whole process is
shown next.
Keep dividing by the leading term of the divisor, adding terms progressively to the quotient.

5 x 3 + 3 x 2 + 6 x + 14
)
x − 2 5x 4 − 7 x 3 + 2x − 4 (Divide x into 5 x 4, giving 5 x 3.)
5 x 4 − 10 x 3 (Multiply x − 2 by 5 x 3 , then subtract.)
3x 3 + 2x − 4 (Divide x into 3 x 3, giving 3 x 2.)
3x − 6 x
2 2 (Multiply x − 2 by 3 x 2, then subtract.)
6x 2 + 2x − 4 (Divide x into 6 x 2, giving 6 x .)
6 x 2 − 12 x (Multiply x − 2 by 6 x , then subtract.)
14 x − 4 (Divide x into 14 x , giving 14.)
14 x − 28 (Multiply x − 2 by 14, then subtract.)
24 (This is the final remainder.)

Hence, 5 x 4 − 7 x 3 + 2 x − 4 = ( x − 2)(5 x 3 + 3 x 2 + 6 x + 14) + 24 . (1)

We recommend the above method, although other layouts are possible.
• The final remainder must either be zero, or have degree less than the degree of the divisor x − 2.
• We use the same names as for integer division:
– The polynomial x − 2 that we are dividing by is called the divisor.
– The polynomial 5 x 4 − 7 x 3 + 2 x − 4 that we are dividing into is called the dividend.
– The quotient is the polynomial 5 x 3 + 3 x 2 + 6 x + 14.
– The remainder is the polynomial 24.
This process is called the division algorithm for polynomials.
The final statement, (1), is an identity that must be true for all values of x.

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We can perform a partial check that the division has been done correctly by substituting some small
values of x into the final statement marked (1):

When x = 1, LHS = 5 − 7 + 2 − 4 RHS = ( −1) × (5 + 3 + 6 + 14) + 24

= −4 = −28 + 24
= −4
When x = 2, LHS = 80 − 56 + 4 − 4 RHS = 0 × ( . . . ) + 24
= 24 = 24
Notice that x = 2 was particularly easy to substitute into the RHS, because x − 2 = 0 .

Example 7

Divide P( x ) = 5 x 4 − 7 x 3 + 2 x − 4 by D( x ) = x 2 − 2. Express the result in the form

P ( x ) = D( x )Q( x ) + R( x ), where the degree of R( x ) is less than the degree of D( x ).

Solution

This time the divisor x 2 − 2 has degree 2, so the remainder will either be zero, or have
degree 0 or 1.

5 x 2 − 7 x + 10
)
x 2 − 2 5x 4 − 7 x 3 +2+x 2x
− 4− 4 (Divide x 2 into 5 x 4, giving 5 x 2.)
5x 4 − 10 x 2
(Multiply x 2 − 2 by 5 x 2, then subtract.)
− 7 x + 10 x 2 + 2 x − 4
3
(Divide x 2 into −7 x 3, giving −7 x.)
− 7x3 + 14 x (Multiply x 2 − 2 by −7 x, then subtract.)
10 x − 12 x − 4
2
(Divide x 2 into 10 x 2, giving 10.)
10 x 2 − 20 (Multiply x 2 − 2 by 10, then subtract.)
−12 x + 16 (This is the final remainder.)
Hence, 5 x 4 − 7 x 3 + 2 x − 4 = ( x 2 − 2)(5 x 2 − 7 x + 10) + ( −12 x + 16) (2)
The remainder −12 x + 16 has degree 1, which is less than the degree of the divisor x 2 − 2,
which is 2.

Again, we can perform a partial check by substituting some small values of x into the final
statement marked (2):
When x = 0, LHS = −4 RHS = −20 + 16
= −4
When x = 1, LHS = 5 − 7 + 2 − 4 RHS = (1 − 2) × (5 − 7 + 10) + ( −12 + 16)
= −4 = −8 + 4 = −4
A full check may be made by expanding the right-hand side of (2).

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Factors of polynomials
When one polynomial is a factor of another, then the remainder after division is zero. You have
already seen this with whole numbers. For example, 7 is a factor of 42, and when we divide 42 by 7,
we obtain 42 = 7 × 6 + 0 .
We can then go on to factorise 42 completely into primes as 42 = 7 × 3 × 2.
Here is an example of dividing a polynomial by one of its factors.

Example 8

a Divide x 3 + 5 x 2 − 4 x − 20 by x + 5.
b Hence, factorise x 3 + 5 x 2 − 4 x − 20 into linear factors.

Solution

x 2 − 4 −4
)
a x + 5 x 3 + 5 x 2 − 4 x − 20
x 3 + 5x 2
−4−x4x − 20
− 20
−4−x4x − 20
− 20
0 0
Since the remainder is zero, x + 5 is a factor of x 3 + 5 x 2 − 4 x − 20
and x 3 + 5 x 2 − 4 x − 20 = ( x + 5)( x 2 − 4).
b Since x 2 − 4 = ( x − 2)( x + 2), the complete factorisation is
x 3 + 5 x 2 − 4 x − 20 = ( x + 5)( x + 2)( x − 2).

A formal statement of the division algorithm

In the next few sections, we will need a formal algebraic statement of the division algorithm for
polynomials. It is very similar to the statement for whole numbers.

Dividing polynomials
Let P ( x ) (the dividend) and D( x ) (the divisor) be polynomials, with D( x ) ≠ 0.
• When we divide P( x ) by D( x ), we obtain two more polynomials, Q( x ) (the quotient) and
R( x ) (the remainder), such that:
1 P( x ) = D( x )Q( x ) + R( x ), and
2 either R( x ) = 0 or R( x ) has degree less than D( x ).
• When the remainder R( x ) is zero, then D( x ) is a factor of P ( x ).
The polynomial P( x ) then factorises as the product P ( x ) = D( x )Q( x ).

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Exercise 17C

1 Carry out each whole-number division, using long division when necessary. Write the result
of the division in the form p = dq + r , where 0 ≤ r < d .
For example, 47 ÷ 10 = 4 remainder 7, which we write as 47 = 10 × 4 + 7.
a 68 ÷ 11 b 1454 ÷ 12 c 2765 ÷ 21
Example 7 2 Use the division algorithm to divide P ( x ) by D( x ). Express each result in the form
P( x ) = D( x )Q( x ) + R( x ), where either R( x ) = 0 or the degree of R( x ) is less than the
degree of D( x ).
a P( x ) = x 2 + 6 x + 1, D( x ) = x + 2
b P( x ) = x 3 − 5 x 2 − 12 x + 30 , D( x ) = x + 5
c P( x ) = 5 x 3 − 7 x 2 − 6 , D( x ) = x − 3
d P( x ) = x 4 + 3 x 2 − 3 x, D( x ) = x + 2
e P( x ) = 4 x 3 − 4 x 2 + 1, D( x ) = 2 x + 1
f P ( x ) = x 4 + 3 x 3 − 3 x 2 − 4 x + 1, D ( x ) = x + 1
3 a Find the quotient and remainder when x 4 + x 3 + x 2 + x + 1 is divided by x 2 + 2 x.
b Find the quotient and remainder when x 4 − 2 x 3 + 3 x 2 − 4 x + 5 is divided by x 2 − 2.
4 Divide P ( x ) by D( x ) in each case. Express each result in the form P ( x ) = D( x )Q( x ) + R( x ).
a P( x ) = x 3 + 5 x 2 − x + 2 , D( x ) = x 2 + x + 1
b P( x ) = x 3 − 4 x 2 − 3 x + 7 , D( x ) = x 2 − 2 x + 3
c P( x ) = x 4 + 5 x 2 + 3 , D( x ) = x 2 − 3 x − 3
d P( x ) = x 5 − 3 x 4 − 9 x 2 + 9 , D( x ) = x 3 − x 2 + x − 1
5 a If a polynomial is divided by a polynomial of degree 1 and the remainder is non-zero,
what are the possible degrees of the remainder?
b If a polynomial is divided by a polynomial of degree 2 and the remainder is not zero,
what are the possible degrees of the remainder?
c A polynomial has remainder R( x ) of degree 2 after division by D( x ) . What are the
possible degrees of D( x )?
d A polynomial of degree 6 is divided by a polynomial of degree 2. What is the degree of
the quotient?
Example 8 6 a Use long division to prove that P( x ) = x 3 + x 2 − 41x − 105 is divisible by x + 5 .
Hence, factorise P ( x ) completely.
b Use long division to prove that P( x ) = x 4 + 10 x 3 + 37 x 2 + 60 x + 36 is divisible by
x 2 + 4 x + 4 . Hence, factorise P ( x ) completely.
7 a i Divide x 4 − 3 x 3 − 5 x 2 + x − 7 by x + 5.
ii Hence, find a if x 4 − 3 x 3 − 5 x 2 + x + a is divisible by x + 5.
b i Divide x 4 − 3 x 3 − 5 x 2 + x − 7 by x 2 + 5 .
ii Hence, find a and b if x 4 − 3 x 3 − 5 x 2 + ax + b is divisible by x 2 + 5.

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 17D The remainder theorem
and factor theorem
Long division of a polynomial P( x ) by another polynomial is a cumbersome process. Sometimes
we are only interested in the remainder, and unfortunately this only appears at the very end of the
division algorithm.
Proof of the remainder theorem
The remainder theorem enables us to find the remainder. When we divide P ( x ) by a factor of the
form x − α, the remainder is a constant, which we will call r. That is:
P( x ) = ( x − α )Q( x ) + r
When we substitute x = α into this identity, we get:
P (α ) = 0 × Q(α ) + r
= r
So we have an interesting result – the remainder is simply P (α ). This result is called the
remainder theorem, and it allows us to find the remainder easily without performing the
division algorithm. It also allows us to find linear factors, as we will see next.

The remainder theorem

Let P( x ) be a polynomial and let α be a constant. When P( x ) is divided by x − α ,
the remainder is P(α ).

Keep in mind two things about this theorem.

• It tells us nothing at all about the quotient.
• It only applies when the divisor has the form x − α (that is, when the divisor is a monic linear
polynomial).

Example 9

Find the remainder when 2 x 3 + 4 x 2 − 5 x − 7 is divided by x − 3:

a by long division b by the remainder theorem
Solution

a 2 x 2 + 10 x + 25 b Using the remainder theorem, the

)
x − 3 2 x 3 + 4 x 2 − 5x − 7 remainder is:
2x3 − 6x 2 P(3) = 2 × 27 + 4 × 9 − 5 × 3 − 7
10 x 2 − 5 x − 7 = 54 + 36 − 15 − 7
= 68
10 x 2 − 30 x
25 x − 7
25 x − 75
68
Thus, the remainder is 68.

The above example shows how much easier it is to find the remainder using the remainder theorem.

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Example 10

Find the remainder when P ( x ) = x 4 − 3 x 2 − 10 x − 24 is divided by:

a x−3 b x+2 c x d x+5

Solution

a We are dividing by x − 3, so the b We are dividing by x + 2 = x − ( −2),

remainder is: so the remainder is:
P(3) = 81 − 27 − 30 − 24 P( −2) = 16 − 12 + 20 − 24
= 0 = 0
Thus, x − 3 is a factor of P( x ). Thus, x + 2 is a factor of P ( x ).
c We are dividing by x = x − 0, so the d We are dividing by x + 5 = x − ( −5),
remainder is: so the remainder is:
P(0) = 0 − 0 − 0 − 24 P( −5) = 625 − 75 + 50 − 24
= −24 = 576

Using remainders to find coefficients

In some situations, we do not know all the coefficients of a polynomial, but we do know the
remainder after division by one or more linear polynomials. This may give us enough information to
work out the unknown coefficients.

Example 11

The polynomial P ( x ) = x 5 − 7 x 3 + ax + 1 has remainder 13 after division by x − 1.

Find the value of the coefficient a.

Solution

The remainder theorem tells us that, after dividing P( x ) by x − 1, the remainder is P(1).
P(1) = 13
Thus, 1 − 7 + a + 1 = 13
a − 5 = 13
a = 18

The factor theorem

Suppose we want to know whether x + 3 is a factor of the polynomial P ( x ) = x 3 + 2 x 2 − 5 x − 6.
All we need to do is to find the remainder after division by x + 3.
• If the remainder is 0, then we know that x + 3 is a factor.
• If the remainder is not 0, then we know that x + 3 is not a factor.

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Using the remainder theorem, the remainder is P( −3).

P( −3) = −27 + 18 + 15 − 6
= 0
so x + 3 is a factor of P( x ).
Is x + 2 a factor of P( x )? After dividing by x + 2, the remainder is P( −2).
P( −2) = −8 + 8 + 10 − 6
= 4 ≠0
so x + 2 is not a factor of P( x ).
Indeed, by performing polynomial division we can show that:
P( x ) = ( x + 3)( x 2 − x − 2)
= ( x + 3)( x − 2)( x + 1)
This suggests P(2) = 0 and P( −1) = 0 , which is easily verified.

The factor theorem

Let P( x ) be a polynomial and let a be α constant.
• If P(α ) = 0, then ( x − α ) is a factor of P( x ).
• If P(α ) ≠ 0, then ( x − α ) is not a factor of P( x ).

Example 12

The polynomial P ( x ) = 3 x 6 − 5 x 3 + ax 2 + bx + 10 is divisible by x + 1 and x − 2 .

Find the values of the coefficients a and b.

Solution

Since x + 1 is a factor, P( −1) = 0

3 + 5 + a − b + 10 = 0
a − b = −18 (1)
Since x − 2 is a factor, P(2) = 0
192 − 40 + 4 a + 2b + 10 = 0
4 a + 2b = −162
2a + b = −81 (2)
Adding (1) and (2), 3a = −99
a = −33
Substituting into (1), b = −15
Thus, a = −33 and b = −15, and P ( x ) = 3 x 6 − 5 x 3 − 33 x 2 − 15 x + 10

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Exercise 17D

Example 10 1 Use the remainder theorem to find the remainder, and state whether or not D( x ) is a
factor of P ( x ).
a P( x ) = x 2 − 5 x + 2 , D( x ) = x + 4
b P( x ) = 3 x 2 − 16 x + 21 , D( x ) = x − 3
c P ( x ) = x 3 − 6 x 2 + 1 , D( x ) = x + 5
d P( x ) = x 3 − 11x 2 + 8 x + 20 , D( x ) = x − 10
2 Use the remainder theorem to find the remainder when P( x ) = x 4 − 6 x 2 + 3 x + 2 is
divided by each linear polynomial D( x ). Then state whether or not D( x ) is a factor of P( x ).
a D( x ) = x − 1 b D( x ) = x + 1 c D( x ) = x − 3 d D( x ) = x + 3

3 Use the remainder theorem to find the remainder when each polynomial P ( x ) is divided by
D( x ) = x + 1. Then state whether or not x + 1 is a factor of P( x ) .
a P( x ) = 5 x 2 − 7 x − 12
b P( x ) = 5 x 2 + 7 x − 12
c P( x ) = x 6 − 4 x 4 + 6 x 2 − 2
d P( x ) = 7 x 5 − 3x 3 − 2 x − 2
e P( x ) = 4 x 5 + 5x 4 − 3x + 2
f P( x ) = x100 − x 99 + x − 1

4 Check systematically which, if any, of x + 1, x − 1, x + 2 , x − 2 , x + 4 and x − 4 are

factors of each polynomial P ( x ).
a P( x ) = x 3 + x 2 − 4 x − 4 b P( x ) = x 4 + 5x 3 + 3x 2 − 5x − 4
Example 11 5 Use the factor theorem to answer these questions.
a Find k if x − 1 is a factor of P( x ) = 5 x 3 − 2 x 2 + kx − 7 .
b Find m if x + 2 is a factor of P( x ) = 5 x 3 + mx 2 − 7 x + 10 .
6 Use the remainder theorem to answer these questions.
a When the polynomial P( x ) = 2 x 4 − x 2 + x − p is divided by x − 2, the remainder is 2.
Find p.
b When the polynomial P( x ) = x 3 − bx 2 + 6 x − 24 is divided by x + 2, the remainder
is 48. Find b.
Example 12 7 a When the polynomial P( x ) = x 4 − 5 x 3 + 6 x 2 − ax + b is divided by x − 3 , the
remainder is 20, and when P( x ) is divided by x + 2 , the remainder is 30. Find a and b.
b Find a and b, given that the polynomial P( x ) = x 4 + x 3 − ax 2 + bx + 2 is divisible by
x − 2 and x − 1.
c Find a, b and c, given that P( x ) = 5 x 9 − ax 6 + 17 x 4 + bx 3 − 26 x + c is divisible by x,
by x + 1 and by x − 1.

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 17E Factorising polynomials
The factor theorem often allows us to find a linear factor of P ( x ) of the form x − α . Then by long
division, P( x ) = ( x − α )Q( x ), where the degree of Q( x ) is one less than the degree of P( x ). We may
be able to repeat this process to obtain the complete factorisation of P( x ).
In this section, for simplicity, we will only look for factors with integer coefficients.
For example, let us examine this polynomial:
P ( x ) = x 3 + 4 x 2 − 7 x − 10
• First, we search systematically for a factor. In question 8 of Exercise 17E, you will prove
that if x − α is a factor of a polynomial with integer coefficients, then the only integer
possibilities for α are the factors of the constant term −10. Thus, we only need to try substituting
1, − 1, 2, − 2, 5, − 5, 10 and −10 into P ( x ).
P(1) = 1 + 4 − 7 − 10 = −12 ≠ 0 x 2 + 3 x − 10
P( −1) = −1 + 4 + 7 − 10 = 0 , so x + 1 is a factor. )
x + 1 x 3 + 4 x 2 − 7 x − 10
x3 + x2
• Next, we use long division to divide P ( x ) by x + 1, and obtain:
3 x 2 − 7 x − 10
P ( x ) = ( x + 1)( x 2 + 3 x − 10) 3x 2 + 3x
• Now we factorise the quadratic x 2 + 3 x − 10. −10 x − 10
By inspection, x 2 + 3 x − 10 = ( x + 5)( x − 2), so we have factorised −10 x − 10
the cubic into 3 linear factors. That is: 0
P ( x ) = x 3 + 4 x 2 − 7 x − 10 = ( x + 1)( x + 5)( x − 2)

Example 13

Factorise the polynomial P( x ) = x 4 − 2 x 3 − 8 x + 16.

Solution

• We only need to test the positive and negative factors of 16.

P(1) = 1 − 2 − 8 + 16 ≠ 0, so x − 1 is not a factor of P ( x ).
P( −1) = 1 + 2 + 8 + 16 ≠ 0, so x + 1 is not a factor of P ( x ).
P(2) = 16 − 16 − 16 + 16 = 0, so x − 2 is a factor.
After long division of P ( x ) by x − 2, P ( x ) = ( x − 2)( x 3 − 8).
• Let Q( x ) = x 3 − 8.
x − 1 and x + 1 are not factors of Q( x ) since P ( x ) = ( x − 2)Q( x ), and they are not
factors of P( x ).
However, Q(2) = 8 − 8 = 0, so x − 2 is a factor of Q( x ) as well.
After long division of Q( x ) by x − 2, Q( x ) = ( x − 2)( x 2 + 2 x + 4) .
(continued over page)

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• The quadratic x 2 + 2 x + 4 cannot be factorised, because:

x 2 + 2 x + 4 = ( x 2 + 2 x + 1) + 3
= ( x + 1)2 + 3 (Alternatively, ∆ = (2)2 − 4(1)(4) = −12 < 0 )

Hence, P ( x ) = ( x − 2)2 ( x 2 + 2 x + 4) is the complete factorisation of P( x ).

Note:
• The first step in factorising this particular polynomial can also be done by grouping:
P ( x ) = x 3 ( x − 2) − 8( x − 2)
= ( x − 2)( x 3 − 8)
There can be many ways to solve a mathematical problem!
• It is easy to miss repeated factors of a polynomial.

Taking out a common factor

As with all methods of factorising, you should first do a quick check for common factors and deal
with these before doing anything else. The following example demonstrates this.

Example 14

Factorise the polynomial P ( x ) = 2 x 5 − 22 x 4 + 78 x 3 − 90 x 2.

Solution

• 2 x 2 is a common factor of all the terms, and we take this out first; thus,
P ( x ) = 2 x 2 ( x 3 − 11x 2 + 39 x − 45).
• Let Q( x ) = x 3 − 11x 2 + 39 x − 45. We now try to factorise Q( x ).
• We need only test the positive and negative factors of 45.
Q(1) = 1 − 11 + 39 − 45 = −16 ≠ 0
Q( −1) = −1 − 11 − 39 − 45 = −96 ≠ 0
Q(3) = 27 − 99 + 117 − 45 = 0, so x − 3 is a factor
• After long division, we obtain Q( x ) = ( x − 3)( x 2 − 8 x + 15).
• The quadratic factors as x 2 − 8 x + 15 = ( x − 3)( x − 5), and
so P ( x ) = 2 x 2 ( x − 3)2 ( x − 5).
Hence, we have a complete factorisation of the quintic (degree 5 polynomial) into a constant
times 5 linear factors.

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Factorising a polynomial
Suppose that P( x ) is a polynomial with integer coefficients.
• Take out any common factor, including powers of x.
• Try to find a factor x − α of P( x ) by testing whether P(α ) = 0. The only integer
possibilities for α are the positive and negative factors of the constant term.
• Having found a factor, use long division to factorise the polynomial as ( x − α )Q( x ), where
Q( x ) has degree 1 less than the degree of P( x ).
• Repeat this process on Q( x ) to try to complete the factorisation of P( x ).

We should admit at this point that most polynomials are extremely difficult to factorise.
Nevertheless, polynomials that can be factorised occur in many important situations and, in any case,
all mathematics begins by first dealing with the simplest cases.
For example, the polynomial x 4 − 3 x 3 + 4 x 2 − 14 x + 48 factorises as ( x 2 + 2 x + 6)( x 2 − 5 x + 8)
and has no linear factors at all. So the techniques described in this section will not provide a pathway
to factorisation in this case.

Exercise 17E

1 a Write down, in factored form, the monic quadratic polynomial P ( x ) with factors x − 12
and x + 9.
b Expand P ( x ), then show that P(12) and P ( −9) are both zero.
2 Write down, in factored form, the monic quartic polynomial P ( x ) with factors x − 1, x + 1,
x − 2 and x + 2 .
3 a For the cubic polynomial P( x ) = x 3 − 6 x 2 + 11x − 6, show that P(1) = 0.
b Divide P ( x ) by x − 1.
c Hence, factor P( x ) into linear factors.
Example 13 4 Use the method given in this section to factorise these cubic polynomials.
a P( x ) = x 3 + 6 x 2 + 11x + 6 b P( x ) = x 3 − 7 x 2 − x + 7
c P( x ) = x 3 + 3 x 2 − 13 x − 15 d P( x ) = x 3 + x 2 − 21x − 45
e P( x ) = x 3 + x 2 − 5x + 3 f P( x ) = x 3 + 3x 2 − 4
5 Factorise these polynomials into linear factors.
a P( x ) = x 4 − 5x 3 + 5x 2 + 5x − 6 b P( x ) = x 4 + 12 x 3 + 46 x 2 + 60 x + 25
Example 14 6 By first taking out a common factor, write each polynomial as a constant times a product of
linear factors.
a P( x ) = 3 x 3 + 6 x 2 − 39 x + 30 b P( x ) = 5 x 3 − 5 x 2 − 20 x + 20
c P( x ) = x 4 + x 3 − 4 x 2 − 4 x d P( x ) = x 5 + 4 x 4 − 2 x 3 − 12 x 2 + 9 x

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 7 Factorise each polynomial as a product of linear factors and one quadratic factor.
a P( x ) = x 3 + 2 x 2 + 2 x − 5 b P( x ) = x 3 + 4 x 2 + 4 x + 3
c P( x ) = x 5 + 4 x 4 − 15 x 3 + 6 x 2 d P( x ) = x 4 + 4 x 3 − 2 x 2 − 17 x − 6
8 Suppose that P( x ) = an x n + an −1 x n −1 + ··· + a1 x + a0 is a polynomial with integer
coefficients, and suppose that P(α ) = 0 , where α is an integer. Show that α is a factor of
the constant term a0 . This justifies the second dot-point on page 507.

17F Polynomial equations

If a polynomial P( x ) can be completely factorised, we can then easily find the solutions of the
polynomial equation P( x ) = 0 .

Example 15

Solve x 3 + 4 x 2 − 7 x − 10 = 0.

Solution

At the beginning of the last section, we found the factorisation:

x 3 + 4 x 2 − 7 x − 10 = ( x + 1)( x − 2)( x + 5)
Hence, the equation becomes:
( x + 1)( x − 2)( x + 5) = 0
so x + 1 = 0 or x − 2 = 0 or x + 5 = 0
Thus, the solutions are x = −1, x = 2 and x = −5.

Example 16

Solve 2 x 5 − 22 x 4 + 78 x 3 − 90 x 2 = 0

Solution

In Example 14 of the last section, we found the factorisation:

2 x 5 − 22 x 4 + 78 x 3 − 90 x 2 = 2 x 2 ( x − 3)2 ( x − 5)
Hence, the equation becomes:
2 x 2 ( x − 3)2 ( x − 5) = 0
so x 2 = 0 or ( x − 3)2 = 0 or x − 5 = 0
Thus, the solutions are x = 0, 3 and 5.

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This quintic equation in Example 16 has only three solutions. The polynomial has repeated factors x
and x − 3. We can think of the solutions x = 0 and x = 3 as occurring twice because they arise from
the square factors x 2 and ( x − 3)2. We therefore say that the solutions 0 and 3 have multiplicity 2.
There are now five solutions to the quintic equation, counted by multiplicity.

Example 17

Solve x 4 + 16 = 2 x 3 + 8 x.

Solution

Moving all terms to the left: x 4 − 2 x 3 − 8 x + 16 = 0.

In Example 13 of the last section, we found the factorisation:
x 4 − 2 x 3 − 8 x + 16 = ( x − 2)2 ( x 2 + 2 x + 4)
Hence, the equation becomes ( x − 2)2 ( x 2 + 2 x + 4) = 0
so x − 2 = 0 or x 2 + 2 x + 4 = 0
The quadratic equation has no solution, as x 2 + 2 x + 4 = ( x + 1)2 + 3 (or ∆ < 0 )
Thus, the only solution is x = 2.

In previous examples the solutions were integers. In some cases, the solutions may be surds.
We recall the formula for solving a quadratic equation. If ax 2 + bx + c = 0 , then

−b + b 2 − 4 ac −b − b 2 − 4 ac
x = or x =
2a 2a

Example 18

Solve x 4 + 7 x 3 − 2 x 2 − 7 x + 1 = 0.

Solution

The polynomial x 4 + 7 x 3 − 2 x 2 − 7 x + 1 has factorisation ( x − 1)( x + 1)( x 2 + 7 x − 1)

Hence, the equation becomes ( x − 1)( x + 1)( x 2 + 7 x − 1) = 0
Thus, the solutions are x = 1, x = −1 and the solutions to x 2 + 7 x − 1 = 0
Using the quadratic formula, ∆ = b 2 − 4 ac = 49 + 4
= 53,
−7 + 53 −7 − 53
so the quadratic has solutions x = and x =
2 2
−7 + 53 −7 − 53
Hence, the quartic equation has four solutions: x = 1, −1, and
2 2

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Solving polynomial equations

• Move all terms to the left-hand side, with zero on the right.
• Factorise the polynomial on the left as far as possible.
• Hence, write down all solutions, using the quadratic formula if necessary.

It should be noted that a polynomial equation of degree n cannot have more than n solutions. For
example, a quartic has at most four solutions. This follows from the factor theorem.

Exercise 17F

1 Solve these polynomial equations.

a ( x + 7)( x − 5)( x + 6) = 0
b ( x − 3)2 ( x + 1) = 0
c 5( x − 2)( x − 4)( x − 6)( x − 8) = 0
d 4 x ( x − 7)2 ( x + 8)2 = 0
2 Solve these polynomial equations.
a ( x − 3)( x 2 + 6 x − 8) = 0
b ( x + 5)2 (3 x 2 − 2 x − 2) = 0
c 5 x 3 ( x − 7)( x + 6)( x 2 + 2 x + 5) = 0
d −2( x − 2)2 ( x − 5)4 ( x 2 − 10) = 0
Example
15, 16
3 Use the factor theorem to factorise the left-hand side of each equation, then solve it.
a x 3 − 2 x 2 − 13 x − 10 = 0
b x 3 − 3 x 2 − 4 x + 12 = 0
c x 5 + 3 x 4 − 25 x 3 + 21x 2 = 0
d x 4 − 5 x 3 − 15 x 2 + 5 x + 14 = 0
Example
17, 18
4 Solve:
a x 3 − 7 x 2 + 11x − 5 = 0
b x 3 − x 2 − 8 x + 12 = 0
c x 4 − 12 x 3 + 46 x 2 − 60 x + 25 = 0
d x 4 + x 3 − 2 x 2 + 4 x − 24 = 0
e x 5 + 9 x 4 + 21x 3 + 19 x 2 + 6 x = 0
f x 5 − 4 x 3 − 2 x 2 + 3x + 2 = 0
5 Solve:
a x 3 − 7 x 2 + 11x + 3 = 0
b x 3 + 4 x 2 + 10 x + 7 = 0
c x 5 − 2 x 4 − 10 x 3 + 23 x 2 − 6 x = 0
d x 5 − 3x 3 − 4 x 2 + 2 x + 4 = 0

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 17G Sketching polynomials
In this section, we will sketch the graphs of polynomial functions given in factorised form. We begin
by looking at the graphs of polynomials that do not have any repeated factors.
Consider the polynomial function y = x ( x − 2)( x + 3). When we substitute x = 0, x = 2 or x = −3
into this polynomial, we get zero.
These values are called the zeros of the polynomial. No other value of x will make the polynomial
zero.
We saw earlier how to sketch the graph of a quadratic function. The graph of a quadratic function is
a smooth curve. Among the key features we looked for were the points at which the curve cuts the
coordinate axes.
In the example above, the graph of y = x ( x − 2)( x + 3) cuts the x-axis at the zeros; that is, at x = 0,
x = 2, and x = −3.
The graph cuts the y-axis when x = 0, so the y-intercept is 0.
To get a picture of the overall shape of the curve, we can substitute some test points.

x −4 −3 −1 0 1 2 3
y −24 0 6 0 −4 0 18
Sign of y − 0 + 0 − 0 +

We can represent the sign of y using a sign diagram:

Sign of y − 0 + 0 − 0 +

x values −3 0 2

With this information, we can begin to give a

sketch of the graph of y = x ( x − 2)( x + 3). y
y = x(x − 2)(x + 3)
The sign diagram tells us that the graph cuts the
x-axis at the points x = −3, 0 and 2, and also whether
the graph is above or below the x-axis on each side
of these points. It does not tell us the maximum and
minimum values of y between the zeros. −3 0 2 x
It is important to note that unlike a parabola, the
x-value of a turning point will not always lie midway
between successive zeros.
Moreover, notice that if x is a large positive number, then P ( x ) is also large and positive.
For example, if x = 10, then y = 1040.
If x is a large negative number, then P ( x ) is also a large negative number. For example, if x = −10,
then y = −840.

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Example 19

Sketch the graph of y = ( x + 2)( x + 1)( x − 1)( x − 2).

Solution

The zeros are at x = −2, −1, 1 and 2. These are the x-intercepts of the polynomial.
When x = 0, the y-intercept is 4.
We make up a sign diagram (use your own test points):
Sign of y + 0 − 0 + 0 − 0 +

x values −2 −1 1 2

The graph is:

y y = (x + 2)(x + 1)(x − 1)(x − 2)

−2 −1 0 1 2 x

Graphs of polynomials with repeated factors

We know from Chapter 7 in ICE-EM Mathematics Year 10 that the graph of the y
y = (x − 3)2
parabola y = ( x − 3)2 is as shown to the right.
So what does the graph of y = ( x − 3)3 look like?
9
In this section, we will examine the graphs of polynomials such as y = ( x − 2)3 and
y = ( x + 3)4, which have repeated factors.
0 3 x
Odd powers
Let us begin with y = x 3.
At x = 0, y = 0, so the graph cuts the axes at (0, 0).
We look at the sign of y near x = 0. Since the cube of a negative number is negative, the y-values
are negative for x < 0 and positive for x > 0 .
We can represent the signs using the following diagram.
Sign of y − 0 +

x values −1 0 1

The change in sign near 0 tells us that the curve cuts the x-axis there. It moves from below the
x-axis to above the x-axis.

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But, what happens near the origin? The point (1, 1) lies on the curve y = x 3. Cubing a number
between 0 and 1 makes it smaller.
So for an x-value between 0 and 1, x 3 < x and the point on y = x 3 is below the corresponding point
on the line y = x .
Similarly, if x > 1 then x 3 > x , so the point on y = x 3 is above the corresponding point on the
line y = x .
y

−1 0 1 x

−1

Similarly, if −1 < x < 0 then x 3 > x and if x < −1 then x 3 < x . y

Thus, near zero, the graph is quite ‘flat’ and then starts to increase
sharply for x > 1, and similarly on the other side.
Whenever we are dealing with polynomials that have repeated 0 x
factors, the graph will be ‘flat’ near zero, which comes from the
repeated factor.

To sketch the graph of y = ( x − 3)3, we observe that it is obtained by y

translating the graph of y = x 3 three units to the right. The curve cuts
the x-axis at 3. It cuts the y-axis at −27 when x = 0, and is flat near
x = 3.

0 3 x

−27

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Even powers
The next example shows how to deal with even powers.

Example 20

Sketch the graphs of y = x 4 and y = ( x + 3)4.

Solution

The function y = x 4 has a repeated factor, x. It cuts the coordinate axes at (0, 0). Since the
fourth power of any number is always positive, the sign diagram is:
Sign of y + 0 +

x value 0

Since the sign of y is the same either side of 0, the graph y

touches the x-axis at 0.
The diagram shows the graphs of y = x 2 and y = x 4
y = x2
for comparison. Notice that y = x 4 is below y = x 2 for
x-values between −1 and 1 but above it for x > 1 and (−1, 1) (1, 1)
x < −1.

y = x4
0 x

y
y = (x + 3)4
Since y = x2 is flat near the origin, so is y = x 4.
To draw the graph of y = ( x + 3)4, we simply translate
81
the graph of y = x 4 three units to the left, so the graph
touches the x-axis at x = −3.

−3 0 x

Graphs of polynomials with repeated factors

• The graph of y = ( x − a )n, where n is

> a1 whole number greater than 1
– touches the x-axis if n is even
– cuts the x-axis if n is odd.
• The graph of a polynomial with a repeated factor x − a is flat near x = a .

It is a good idea to draw a sign diagram each time. We will see in the next section that the sign
diagram is very helpful in sketching more complicated polynomials.

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Exercise 17G

Example 19 1 Identify the zeros of each polynomial. Draw sign diagrams and sketch the curves.
a y = ( x − 2)( x − 4)
b y = x ( x − 2)( x − 4)
c y = ( x + 3)( x − 1)( x − 3)
d y = ( x + 2)( x + 1)( x − 3)

Example 20 2 Identify the zeros of each polynomial. Draw sign diagrams and sketch the curves.
a y = ( x − 1)2
b y = ( x − 1)3
c y = ( x − 1)4

3 Sketch:
a y = ( x + 2)2
b y = ( x + 2)3
c y = ( x + 2)4

4 Consider the polynomial y = ( x + 2)( x − 1)( x + 4).

a Sketch the graph.
b For what values of x is the graph above the x-axis?
c For what values of x is the graph below the x-axis?

5 The factorisation of each polynomial is not complete. Complete the factorisation, find the
zeros of the polynomials and sketch the graphs.
a y = 3 x ( x 2 − 16)
b y = ( x 2 − 36)( x 2 − 4)

6 a A monic cubic polynomial, P ( x ), has zeros at x = 2 , x = 4 and x = 6 . Write down the

equation of the polynomial. Draw the graph of y = P( x ).
b A monic cubic polynomial, P ( x ), has one zero of multiplicity 3 at x = −3. Write down
the equation of the polynomial. Draw the graph of y = P( x ).
c A monic cubic polynomial, P ( x ), has one zero of multiplicity 3 at x = 2 . Write down
the equation of the polynomial. Draw the graph of y = P( x ).

7 a Draw the graph of y = x ( x − 1)( x + 1).

b Draw the graph of y = − x ( x − 1)( x + 1).

8 a Draw the graph of y = ( x − 1)3.

b Draw the graph of y = − ( x − 1)3.

9 a Draw the graph of y = ( x + 3)4.

b Draw the graph of y = −( x + 3)4.

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 17H Further sketching of
polynomials
We shall now sketch polynomials in factored form.
Let us begin with y = 2 x ( x − 2)2, which has one repeated factor. The graph cuts the x-axis at x = 0
and x = 2. The y-intercept is 0.
We now draw a sign diagram for this function.
Sign of y − + +

x values 0 2

We obtain the signs by substituting x-values less than zero, between 0 y y = 2x(x − 2)2
and 2, and greater than 2, into the equation and noting the sign of the
answer.
There is a change of sign at x = 0, so the graph cuts the x-axis at 0.
0 2 x
There is no change of sign at x = 2, so the graph touches the x-axis
at x = 2.
As we saw in the previous section, the graph is flat near x = 2, since
( x − 2) is a repeated factor.

Example 21

Sketch y = ( x + 3)3 ( x − 1)3.

Solution

The zeros are at x = −3 and x = 1. The y-intercept is −27.

The sign diagram is:
Sign of y + − +

x values −3 1 y
y = (x + 3)3(x − 1)3
The changes in sign tell us that the graph cuts
the x-axis at the two zeros. The curve is flat near
both zeros.
The graph is:
−3 0 1 x
−27

Note: As in the previous examples, we do not know the minimum value of y for the x-values
between −3 and 1. To find this, we need techniques from a branch of mathematics known as
calculus or we can use the symmetry of the graph about x = −1.

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 Exercise 17H

Example 21 1 Identify the zeros of each polynomial. Draw sign diagrams and sketch the curves.
a y = x ( x − 2)2 b y = ( x − 2)2 ( x − 4)2
c y = x 2 ( x + 3) d y = ( x + 2)2 ( x + 1)3
2 Identify the zeros of each polynomial. Draw sign diagrams and sketch the curves.
a y = ( x − 4)2 ( x + 4)2 b y = ( x − 4)3 ( x + 1)3
c y = x 3 ( x − 4)4 d y = x 4 ( x + 2)4
3 Sketch:
a y = ( x + 2)2 ( x − 1)2 b y = ( x + 2)3 ( x − 2)3
4 Consider the polynomial y = ( x + 3)3 ( x − 1)2 .
a Sketch the graph.
b For what values of x is the graph above the x-axis?
c For what values of x is the graph below the x-axis?
5 The factorisation of each polynomial is not complete. Complete the factorisation, find the
zeros of the polynomials and sketch the graphs.
a y = (3 x 2 − 3)( x 2 − 9)4 b y = x 2 (20 − 5 x 2 )
6 a A monic polynomial, P ( x ), of degree 6 has triple zeros at x = 2 and x = 4 . Write down
the equation of the polynomial. Draw the graph of y = P( x ).
b A monic polynomial, P ( x ), of degree 5 has a triple zero at x = −3 and a double zero at
x = 1. Write down the equation of the polynomial. Draw the graph of y = P( x ).
7 a Draw the graph of y = x 2 ( x − 1)2.
b Draw the graph of y = − x 2 ( x − 1)2.
8 a Draw the graph of y = ( x − 1)3 ( x + 1)3.
b Draw the graph of y = −( x − 1)3 ( x + 1)3.

Review exercise
1 State whether or not each expression is a polynomial.
x−3
a 5x 2 + 3x − 4 b 3 − 2x c
8
x2 x+2
d 2
e f 2( x − 1)3 − 2 x + 1
x −2 x

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 REVIEW EXERCISE

2 State the degree of each polynomial.

a x 2 + 3x b x 3 − 5x + 7
c 2 x 4 − 5x 2 + 7 d 3 − 5x − 6 x 2
e 9 − x − x3

3 Let P( x ) = x 3 + 2 x − 1 . Find:
a P(1) b P (− 1) c P(2)
d P(−2) e P (a) f P(2a)

4 Find a if P( x ) = x 3 + 2 x − a and P (1) = 6.

5 Find a if P( x ) = x 3 + 2ax − a and P (1) = 0 .

6 Find the sum P ( x ) + Q( x ), the difference P ( x ) − Q( x ) and the product P( x )Q( x ).

a P( x ) = x + 3, Q( x ) = x 2 + 2 x + 3
b P( x ) = x 2 + 1 , Q( x ) = x 2 + 3
c P( x ) = 2 x + 1, Q( x ) = x 2 − 2 x + 1

7 Use the division algorithm to divide P ( x ) by D( x ). Find the quotient and the remainder.
a P( x ) = 6 x 3 + 7 x 2 − 15 x + 4, D( x ) = x − 1
b P( x ) = 2 x 3 − 3 x 2 + 5 x + 3, D( x ) = x + 1
c P( x ) = x 3 − 7 x 2 + 6 x + 1, D( x ) = x − 3
d P( x ) = x 3 − 2 x 2 + 3 x + 1, D( x ) = x − 2

8 Factorise each polynomial.

a P( x ) = x 3 − 2 x 2 − 5x + 6
b P( x ) = 2 x 3 + 7 x 2 − 7 x − 12
c P( x ) = 2 x 3 + 3 x 2 − 17 x + 12
d P( x ) = 6 x 3 − 5 x 2 − 17 x + 6

9 If x 3 + ax 2 + bx − 4 is exactly divisible by x + 4 and x − 1, find the values of a and b.

10 When the polynomial P( x ) = x 3 + 2 x 2 − 5 x + d is divided by x − 2, the remainder

is 10. Find the value of a.

11 If 3 x 3 + ax 2 + bx − 6 is exactly divisible by x + 2 and x − 3, find the values of a and b.

12 Consider the polynomial P( x ) = x 3 + ax 2 + b.

a Find P ( w) − P(− w) in terms of w.
b Find the values of a and b if the graph of y = P ( x ) passes through the point with
coordinates (1, 3) and (2, 4).

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 13 Find the x-intercepts and y-intercepts of the graphs of each of the following.
a y = x3 − x 2 − 2x b y = x 3 − 2 x 2 − 5x + 6
c y = x3 + 2x 2 − x − 2 d y = 3 x 3 − 4 x 2 − 13 x − 6
e y = 5 x 3 + 12 x 2 − 36 x − 16 f y = 6 x 3 − 5x 2 − 2 x + 1
14 Sketch the graphs of:
a y = 2 x ( x 2 − 4) b y = ( x + 2)3
c y = ( x − 2)4 d y = x 2 ( x + 3)2
e y = x ( x + 2)2 f y = ( x − 3)2 ( x + 1)2

Challenge exercise

2 a3 =that
1 Find the value of a1,agiven − d x 2 + 1 is a factor of x 4 − 3 x 3 + 3 x 2 + ax + 2.

2 Express x 4 + 4 as the product of two quadratic polynomials with integer coefficients.

3 The remainder when x 5 − 3 x 2 + ax + b is divided by ( x − 1)( x − 2) is 11x − 10 .

Find a and b.

4 a If ( x − a1 )( x − a2 )( x − a3 ) = x 3 + bx 2 + cx + d then show a1 + a2 + a3 = − b, a1a2 + a2 a3 + a1a3 =

a1 + a2 + a3 = − b, a1a2 + a2 a3 + a1a3 = c and a1a2 a3 = − d.

b Hence, find the monic cubic equation with roots, x = 1, x = 2 and x = 3.

5 P( x ) is a polynomial of degree 5 such that P ( x ) − 1 is divisible by ( x − 1)3 and P ( x )

itself is divisible by x 3. Find P ( x ).

6 x 5 + 2 x 3 + ax 2 + b is divisible by x 3 + 1. Find the values of a and b.

7 Without long division, find the remainder when x 49 + x 25 + x 9 + x is divided by x 3 − x .

8 a Show that (a 2 + b 2 )(c 2 + d 2 ) = (ac + bd )2 + (ad − bc)2.

b Show that ( x 2 + 1)( x 2 + 4)( x 2 − 2 x + 2)( x 2 + 2 x + 2) = (( x 2 + 2)2 + x 2 )( x 4 + 4) .

c Hence, express ( x 2 + 1)( x 2 + 4)( x 2 − 2 x + 2)( x 2 + 2 x + 2) as the sum of the squares
of two polynomials having integer coefficients.

9 Let P( x ) be a polynomial leaving remainder A when divided by ( x − a), and remainder

B when divided by ( x − b), where a ≠ b. Find the remainder when P ( x ) is divided by
( x − a)( x − b).

10 Find all ordered pairs such that x + y 2 = 2 and y + x 2 = 2.

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