Fluids part2

Surface Tension
According to the definition of surface tension, it is the phenomenon that occurs when the
surface of a liquid is in contact with another phase (it can be a liquid as well). Liquids tend to
acquire the least surface area possible. The surface of the liquid behaves like an elastic sheet.

"Surface tension is the tension of the surface film of a liquid caused by the attraction of the
particles in the surface layer by the bulk of the liquid, which tends to minimise surface area”.

Surface tension not only depends upon the forces of attraction between the particles within the
given liquid but also on the forces of attraction of solid, liquid or gas in contact with it. The
energy responsible for the phenomenon of surface tension may be thought of as approximately
equivalent to the work or energy required to remove the surface layer of molecules in a unit
area.

Surface tension is typically measured in dynes/cm, the force in dynes is required to break a film
of length 1 cm.

What Causes Surface Tension?

Intermolecular forces such as Van der Waals force, draw the liquid particles together. Along the
surface, the particles are pulled toward the rest of the liquid. Surface tension is defined as,

The ratio of the surface force F to the length L along which the force acts.

Surface Tension= F/L

The SI unit of Surface Tension is Newton per Meter or N/m.

the dimensional formula of surface tension is MT-2.

Some examples of surface tension :

● Insects walking on water

● Floating a needle on the surface of the water.
● Rainproof tent materials where the surface tension of water will bridge the pores in the
tent material
● Clinical test for jaundice
● Surface tension disinfectants (disinfectants are solutions of low surface tension).
● Cleaning of clothes by soaps and detergents which lowers the surface tension of the
water
● Washing with cold water
● Round bubbles where the surface tension of water provides the wall tension for the
formation of water bubbles.
● This phenomenon is also responsible for the shape of liquid droplets.
 What Is Surface Energy?
Have you ever tried drowning an ant? Doesn’t work, does it? They seem to be bodies sliding
across the water’s surface till they safely reach solid ground. But that doesn’t make sense
because their breathing mechanism is kind of located in the underbelly!

They aren’t body sliding. They are just walking across just like how they would do on land
except with a different manoeuvring technique. They are able to do this because of the
phenomenon known as surface tension. Because of cohesive forces across liquid molecules,
surface tension causes the existence of a thin film (layer) across the surface. Surface energy is
the work done per unit area to produce this new surface. And if the insect is light enough, to not
damage (cause brittle failure to) the layer, it can use the thin layer as support to walk across.

surface energy is defined as the amount of work done against the force of surface tension in forming the liquid surface of
a unit area at a constant temperature.
Angle of contact
● It is defined as the angle subtended between the tangents drawn at the liquid surface
and the solid surface inside the liquid at the point of contact .
● The angle of contact is determined by the nature of the liquid, the solid with which it
comes into contact, and the medium that exists above the liquid's free surface.
● The angle of contact increases as the temperature of the liquid rises.
● When soluble impurities are added to a liquid, the angle of contact decreases.
Importance of Angle of Contact
The angle of contact plays a significant role in several important aspects and applications. Here
are some key reasons highlighting the importance of the angle of contact:

Wetting and Adhesion: The angle of contact determines the wetting behavior of a liquid on a
solid surface. It indicates the degree of contact and adhesion between the liquid and the
surface. Understanding the wetting properties is crucial in processes such as coating, printing,
painting, and surface treatment, where the adhesion and spreading of liquids on solid substrates
are essential for desired performance and quality.

Surface Energy and Surface Tension: The angle of contact is closely related to the surface
energy and surface tension of both the liquid and the solid surface. It provides insights into the
intermolecular forces and interactions between the two phases. Measurements and control of
the angle of contact are valuable in studying surface properties, surface modification
techniques, and the behavior of liquids in confined spaces or porous materials.

Surface Roughness and Topography: The angle of contact is affected by the surface
roughness and topography of the solid surface. It influences the contact area and the resulting
wetting behavior. By studying the angle of contact, scientists and engineers can gain insights
into the effect of surface roughness on liquid-solid interactions, which is crucial in fields such as
tribology, microfluidics, and surface engineering.

Capillary Action and Fluid Flow: The angle of contact is involved in capillary action and fluid
flow in narrow channels or porous materials. It determines the rise or fall of liquids in capillary
tubes and affects the flow rates and dynamics of fluids in microfluidic devices and porous media.
Understanding the angle of contact is vital in optimizing fluid flow and controlling capillary
phenomena in various scientific, industrial, and biomedical applications.

Excess pressure inside a liquid drop and a bubble:

Consider a small water drop. The drop doesn’t collapse because of the surface tension which is
given by:

If the drop doesn’t collapse, it implies that the pressure within the drop is greater than that
outside. The extra pressure (p) is given by subtracting the outside pressure (po) from the inside
pressure (pi);

Outside Force= p × surface area of the drop

= (pi – po) x 4πr2

Where,

r is the radius of the drop

To satisfy the usual tendency for increasing surface area;

Work done by the excess pressure is stored in the form of potential energy.

Increase in P.E. = surface tension × increase in surface area

= σ x [4π (r+dr2) – 4πr2

= σ x 8πr.dr (after neglecting tiny terms)

dW = Increase in P.E.

This implies that,

⇒ (pi – po) x 4πr2.dr = σ x 8πr.dr

⇒ (pi – po) = 2σ/r

⇒ p = 2σ/r

For a bubble has two free surfaces, like soap bubbles,

Capillary action

We can define capillary action as a phenomenon where the ascension of liquids through a tube
or cylinder takes place. This primarily occurs due to adhesive and cohesive forces.

The liquid is drawn upward due to this interaction between the phenomena. The narrower the
tube, the higher will the liquid rise. If any of the two phenomena, i.e., that of surface tension and
a ratio between cohesion to adhesion, increase, the rise will also increase. Although, if the
density of the liquid increases, the rise of the liquid in the capillary will lessen.

The amount of water that is held in the capillary also determines the force with which it will rise.
The material that surrounds the pores fills the pores and also forms a film over them. The solid
materials that are nearest to the molecules of water have the greatest adhesion property. The
thickness of the film increases as water is added to the pore, and the magnitude of capillary
force gets reduced.

The film that was formed on the outer surface of the soil molecules also may begin to flow. The
capillary action is what causes the movement of groundwater through the different zones of soil.
How the fluids are transported inside the xylem vessels of plants is also by the capillary action.
As the water evaporates from the surface of the leaves, water from the lower levels, that is, the
roots, is drawn up by this phenomenon.
In essence, liquids have the property of being drawn into minute openings, such as in between
the granules of sand and rising into thin tubes. Solid substances and liquids have an
intermolecular force of attraction in between them, and due to the result of that, capillarity or
capillary action takes place. The same thing happens when a sheet of paper is placed on a
puddle of water, i.e., absorbs it. This happens because the water gets absorbed into the thin
openings between the fibres of the paper.

the surface of water in the capillary is concave. This means that there is a pressure difference
between the two sides
of the top surface. This is given by

(Pi – Po) =(2S/r) = 2S/(a sec θ )

= (2S/a) cos θ

Thus the pressure of the water inside the

tube, just at the meniscus (air-water interface) is less than the atmospheric pressure.
Consider the two points A and B in . They
must be at the same pressure, namely

P0 + h ρ g = Pi = PA

where ρ is the density of water and h is called the capillary rise.

h ρ g = (Pi– P0) = (2S cos θ )/a

This make it clear that the capillary rise is due to surface tension. It is larger, for a smaller a.
Typically it is of the order of a few cm for fine capillaries. For example, if a = 0.05 cm, using the
value of surface tension for water ,

we find that
h = 2S/(ρ g a)
= 2.98 cm

Notice that if the liquid meniscus is convex,as for mercury, i.e., if cos θ is negative then from for
example, it is clear that the liquid will be lower in the capillary !