Introduction to the Science of Exercise

and Aviation Medicine

Theory and application to Fitness and
Performance
Contents

• Bioenergetics
• Exercise Metabolism
• Hormonal Response to Exercise
• Measurement of Work, Power and Energy Expenditure
• The Skeletal Muscle and the Nervous Systems
• Acid – base balance during Exercise
• Physiology of training
Exercise Physiology

• A discipline under the Field of Kinesiology which deals with

how the body reacts with Physical Activity over time

• Exercise - exercise is the performance, conditioning or

training undertaken in respect to a particular athletic or
sporting purpose.
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recreation-and-leisure-magazines/physiology-exercise
Exercise Physiology

• Is the Study of
• What Exercise
does to the
Body
• How the Body
Responds to
Exercise
• Humans are designed to move, run , climb, crawl, walk , lift
and swim.
• Sedentary lifestyle can produce chronic diseases
• Exercise is one of the best medicine that can prevent and
TREAT chronic diseases!
• But very few mainstream doctors prescribe exercise!
• Physical Activity- any bodily
movement produced by the
contraction of skeletal muscle,
resulting in substantial increase
over resting energy expenditure.
• Muscles are the prime organs of
movement
• Skeletal muscles make up the bulk of
the muscular system
• 50 to 60 percent of the human body is
made up of skeletal muscle
Classification of Skeletal
Muscle Fibers
• Skeletal muscles continuously produce ATP to provide the
energy that enables muscle contractions.
• Skeletal muscle fibers can be categorized as
• type I
• type IIA,
• type IIB based on differences in their contraction speed and
how they produce ATP, as well as physical differences
related to these factors.
• Most human muscles contain all three muscle fiber types,
albeit in varying proportions.
Types of Skeletal Muscle Fiber

• Type 1 – slow twitch Help enable long

endurance feats such as distance running
• Fatigue – resistant, focused postural control
muscle fiber size is small force
production is low resistance to fatigue is
slow contraction speed is slow
contains high concentration of mitochondria and
myoglobin
• Type II – Fast twitch muscles lower
concentration of mitochondria produce a
greater and quicker force important in Power
Activities
• Type II x also known as type II B produce the
most force low oxidative capacity and
relies on anaerobic metabolism
• Type II A Intermediate muscle
fiber mixture of Type 1 and type IIx
has comparable tension higher
oxidative capacity and fatigue more slowly than type Iix
Measurement of Physical
Activity
• How Physical Activity is measured
MET’s – Metabolic Equivalents
One MET is defined as the energy it
takes to sit
Quietly
Equivalent to one calorie per 2.2 pounds
of body
weight
• Light Activity <3
MET’s – walking slowly, sitting,
standing
• Moderate 3-6 Met’s –
walking briskly, cleaning, heavy
washing and vacuuming
• Vigorous > 6 MET’s
Jogging 6 miles per hour, shoveling,
soccer
• VO2 Max – Maximum amount of oxygen
the body uses during maximal physical
effort
• Measured together with the heart rate units
is Ml/ Kg/ Min
• Affected by three exercise factors
• Intensity
• Frequency
• Duration
VO2 Max

• There is no standard values for Vo2 Max

• Average Sedentary Males have 35 to 40 Ml/ Kg / Min, for
females it is 27 to 30 ml/kg/mim
• Elite Male Runners have 85 ml/ kg/ min
• Strength
• Muscle strength – the maximal force
that a muscle or group of muscle can
generate
• Referred to as Repetition Maximum
1 RM is the
maximal
amount of
weight
An individual
can lift at once
Muscle Strenght

• Muscle strength determines

whether an object can be
moved or lifted
Muscular Endurance

Muscular Endurance
• The Capacity to sustain
• Repeated muscular
contractions
• Holding a position for an
• Extended period of time
• Repeated bouts of strength to
accomplish a task
• Examples carrying a ladder
and climbing a ladder
respectively
Bioenergetics
energy sources of Exercise
• Energy is required by all cells
• Cells produce the capacity to convert foodstuffs into
biologically usable form of energy
• This is the energy used to contract skeletal muscles, the
major force in athletic performance
Bioenergetics

• To meet the demands during exercise a fourfold increase in

myocardial blood flow is needed
• During exercise Total Energy Expenditure may increase 15
to 25 times above resting values
• Most of this increase is used to provide energy for exercising
muscles
Bioenergetics

• Muscle fibers contain the metabolic energy to produce ATP

by three systems
• 1. Creatine Phosphate
• 2. Rapid Glycolysis
• 3. Aerobic Oxidation of Carbon Dioxide and Water
Exercise Metabolism

• Fuels for Exercise

• Carbohydrates – 4 kcal per gram
• Fats- 9 kcal per gram
• Proteins- 4 kcal per gram
• High Energy Phosphates Immediate Energy for Muscular
Contraction
• Basic Energy Systems
• ATP-PCr System- 3-15Seconds duration only
• Glycolytic System
• 3mol from Glycogen breakdown
• The ATP –PCr and Glycolytic System predominates during
the early minutes of high intensity exercise
• Oxidative System
• The process by which the body breaks down substrates with
the aid of oxygen
• Also called cellular respiration
• Carbohydrates CHO
• Aerobic Glycolysis
The Krebs Cycle Electron Transport Chain
• Energy yield is 3-39 molecules of ATP
• 2,500 Kcal of Energy
• Fat Oxidation- Energy Yield is 70,000 to 75,000kcal
• Although Triglycerides are the major energy sources, the
human body favors glucose as the immediate energy source
• Protein Oxidation
• Gluconeogenesis
• Pyruvate or Acetyl CoA Pathway
Effects of Exercise on the Body

• Aerobic Capacity – Increase in VO2 Max

• Aerobic Exercise performed regularly over a period of three
months or more lowers the heart rate
• Smaller rise in blood pressure
• Effects on Body Composition- reduces the amount of body
fat, fat loss is more evident in the central area of the body.
Beneficial Effects of Exercise

• Effects on bone health- positive effect on bone mineral

density
• Can delay the onset of osteoporosis
• Effects on balance and muscle tone- improves flexibility,
muscle strength and walking skill
• Psychological well- being and mood
may reduce the onset of depression
Bioenergetics

• Muscle Cells store limited amounts of ATP

• Cells should have the capacity to produce ATP rapidly
• Sources of ATP
• Formation of ATP by Phosphocreatine breakdown
• Formation of Creatine by degradation of glucose glycolysis
• Anaerobic and aerobic ATP Production
Exercise Metabolism

• Exercise imposes a great challenge to muscle physiology

• In heavy exercise the demand for ATP increases by 15-25
times the energy expenditure at rest
Exercise transitions

• Intransition from rest to light or moderate exercise, oxygen

uptake increases rapidly within one to four minute
• Oxygen deficit is the lag in oxygen uptake at the beginning
of exercise
• EPOC- Excess post –exercise oxygen consumption
oxygen consumption above rest following exercise
• EPOC can result in improvement of body composition in
athletes
Endocrine Response to
Exercise
• Metabolic Rate
• Exercise increases the secretion of Leutenizing Hormone from
the Anterior Pituitary triggering Testosterone Production
• Thyroxine is also released contributing to energy and fat
burning
• Increases metabolic capacity to generate ATP
• Increase Fat Catabolism
• Enhanced Carbohydrate catabolism
• Improved buffering capacity
• Individuals who trained on anaerobic
exercise can tolerate high blood lactate
levels making them less prone to fatigue
Endocrine Response to
Exercise
• Insulin
• Exercise increases sensitivity to
insulin Blood glucose enters cells
independent of insulin during
exercise
• Epinephrine Exercise increases
epinephrine levels thereby increasing
blood flow
• Psychological Effects
• Boosts endorphins
• The increase testosterone increases confidence and libido
Physiology of Muscle
Hypertrophy
• Thru exercise the muscular work done against a
progressivelly challenging overload leads to increase in
muscle mass and cross sectional area referred to as
MUSCLE HYPERTROPHY
• The Function of Satellite Cells
• The role of macrophage and other immune cells
• Growth Factors
Physiology of Muscle
Hypertrophy
• Basic Structure of skeletal muscle fiber
• Fast twitch or type II muscle fibers
Rapidly contracting, high capacity for
glycolytic energy production utilized in
sports where anaerobic metabolism is
dominant
• examples Basketball, Soccer, Cycling and
running
Predominant in Elite Athletes
General Training Principles

• Overload Principle
• Regular application of a specific exercise
overload enhances physiologic function to
produce a training response
• The principle applies to Elite Athletes,
Sedentary, Disabled and even cardiac
rehab patients
• Specificity Principle
• Adaptations in metabolic and physiologic systems that
depend on the type of overload imposed and muscle
mass activated
• Swimming increases the power of latisimus dorsi
• Boxing increases the power of serratus anterior
muscles
SAID Principle – Specific Adaptations to imposed
demands
• Individual Differences Principle
• Humans do not respond similarly to a training stimulus
• Reversibility Principle Detraining occurs rapidly when a
person quits his or her exercise
• Detraining and loss of muscle gains occur 2-3 weeks but
gains come back quickly once training is resumed
• At this time endurance performance also decreases by 4-25
% after 3-4 weeks of no training
• Lockdown is detrimental for muscle and training gain
Satellite Cells in Muscle
Hypertrophy and Regeneration

• Myogenic Satellite cells

become activated when micro
injuries occur
• They donate part of their
nucleus to each muscle fiber
• Some Satellite Cells become
part of the muscle cells
Analogy of Muscle Satellite
Cells
How fitness is measured

• Body composition
• Body composition is the proportion of fat and non-fat mass
in your body.
• A healthy body composition is one that includes a lower
percentage of body fat and a higher percentage of non-fat
mass, which includes muscle, bones, and organs
• Body fat percent is a measurement of
body composition telling how much of
the weight of your body is fat.
• The percentage of your body that is not
fat is fat-free mass. There are normal
ranges for body fat, which differ for
men and women.
Body fat values for different
body types
Body Mass Index

• Body mass index (BMI) is a measure of body fat based

on height and weight that applies to adult men and
women
• The BMI is defined as the body mass divided by the square
of the body height, and is universally expressed in units of
kg/m2, resulting from mass in kilograms and height in
metres.
Waist Hip Ratio

• Is the ratio of the circumference of the

waist to that of the hips. This is calculated
as waist measurement divided by hip
measurement (W ÷ H).
WHR

• the waist circumference should be measured at the midpoint

between the lower margin of the last palpable ribs and the
top of the iliac crest, using a stretch-resistant tape that .
• Hip circumference should be measured around the widest
portion of the buttocks, with the tape parallel to the floor
WHR
Special Topics

• Exercise on Hot Temperatures- High Humidity and Dry

Heat Body Reaction
• Exercise in Cold Weather
• Exercise in High Altitudes
• Exercise Recovery
• The Concept of Muscle Memory
Aeropspace Physiology

• The study of effects of high altitudes on the body

• Factors include Pressure
Oxygen Level
Impact on Mental Health
• How to deal with stress, anxiety and other health issues that
people experience in flying
Impact of High Altitudes on
Human Health
• Changes is Barometric Pressure
• Variations in Temperature
• Movement of High Speed in Three Dimensions
Pressure Changes Adjustments

• Drop in Air Pressure as one moves above sea levels

• Expansion of Gas molecules as they move apart
• Drop in pressure may cause dizziness, headaches, shortness
of breath and fatigue
• Hypoxia
• Hyperventilation
High Altitude Exercise

• Hemoglobin plays a crucial role in the transportation of

oxygen.
• The pressure of oxygen in blood determines how much O2
is bound to hemoglobin.
• Two of the biggest factors affecting blood oxygen pressure
are
• exercise intensity
• geographic altitude.
• At sea level, resting O2 saturation is normally between 97%
– 99%
• At elevations of 9800 ft. (3000m), O2 sat can drop to 89%.
• At the peak of Mt. Everest, it can drop down to 40%!
• The partial pressure of oxygen decreases as altitude
increases PaO2
• Acute exposure to altitudes 2500 m or greater most
noticeably induces hyperventilation.
• Aerobic activity longer than 2.5 minutes will result in poor
performance in the non-acclimatized individual.
• Altitude-induced decompression sickness is another
common side effect of high altitude exposure in
unpressurized or inadequately pressurized aircraft
• Although the percentage of oxygen in the atmosphere
remains about 21% (the other 79% of the atmosphere
is composed of nitrogen and a small amount of trace
gases)
• there is a rapid decline in atmospheric pressure with
increasing altitude.
• Essentially, the decline in pressure reflects the
decrease in the absolute number of molecules present
in any given volume of air.
• Pressure changes can adversely affect the middle ear,
sinuses, teeth, and gastrointestinal tract.
• Any sinus block (barosinusitis) or occlusions that inhibit
equalization of external pressure with pressure within
the ear usually results in severe pain
• In severe cases, rupture of the tympanic membrane
may occur. Maxillary sinusitis may produce pain that is
improperly perceived as a toothache.
• This is an example of referred pain. Pain related to
trapped gas in the tooth itself (barondontalgia) may
also occur.
• Ear block (barotitis media) also causes loss of hearing
acuity (the ability to hear sounds across a broad range
of pitch and volume).
• Pilots and passengers may use the Valsalva maneuver
(closing the mouth and pinching the nose while
attempting to exhale) to counteract the effects
of water pressure on the Eustachian tubes and to
eliminate pressure problems associated with the
middle ear.
• When subjected to pressure, the tubes may collapse or
fail to open unless pressurized.
• Eustachian tubes connect the corresponding left and
right middle ears to the back of the nose and throat,
and function to allow the equalization of pressure in
the middle ear air cavity with the outside (ambient) air
pressure.
• The degree of Eustachian tube pressurization can be
roughly regulated by the intensity of abdominal,
thoracic, neck, and mouth muscular contractions used
to increase pressure in the closed airway.
• Spatial disorientation trainers demonstrate the
disorientation and loss of balance (vestibular
disorientation) that can be associated with flight at
night—or in clouds—where the pilot losses the horizon
as a visual reference frame.
• Balance and the sense of turning depend upon the
ability to discriminate changes in the motion of fluids
within the semicircular canals of the ear
• In fighter jet pilots experience severe dives in pressure
• This severe dives in pressure can destroy the circulation in
the Circle of Willis
• Pilots are trained to perform Abdominal Exercises, and are
equipped with G suits in order to counter act this sudden
changes in Barometric Pressure
Deep sea Diving
Decompression Sickness

• Decompression sickness, also called generalized barotrauma

or the bends, refers to injuries caused by a rapid decrease in
the pressure that surrounds you, of either air or water.
• It occurs most commonly in scuba or deep-sea divers,
although it also can occur during high-altitude or
unpressurized air travel
• Compressed air used by divers contain oxygen and nitrogen
• Both gases are dissolved in the blood
• Only Oxygen is used by the body
• As one swim to the surface water pressure decreases
• If rising to the surface occur quickly Nitrogen forms bubbles
in the tissues and cause Bends
• Nitrogen formed can cause embolization
• Air Embolism can cause a stroke
Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy
Chamber
Thank you