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CONTROL SYSTEMS(FORMULA NOTES/SHORT NOTES)

INTRODUCTION
TYPES OF CONTROL SYSTEMS

1. Open loop control system:

An open loop control system also called a non-feedback control system.

• In open loop-controlled system output is controlled.

• Accuracy of open loop control system depends on the accuracy of input calibration.

Block Diagram Representation of Open Loop System:

C ( s)
G ( s) =
R ( s)

2. Closed Loop Control System:

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C (s) G(s)
=
R( s ) 1 G ( s ) H ( s )

Comparison Between Open Loop & Close Loop Control System

S.No. Open loop control system Close loop control system

The changes in output of system cannot The changes in output of system can be
1.
be corrected. corrected.
2. No sensor is available. Sensor is available.

3. It is non feedback control system. It is feedback control system.

The accuracy of an open-loop system The close loop system works more
depends on the calibration of the input. accurately since the error between the
4.
Any departure from pre- determined reference input and the output is
calibration affects the output. continuously measured through feedback.
Generally stable but cannot be stabilize Due to feedback, system can become
5.
if become unstable. stable and can be stabilized.
6. More sensitive for parameter variation. Less sensitive for parameter variation.

7. Simple & Economic Complex & Costly

Transfer Function
The transfer function of an LTI systems may be defined as the ratio of Laplace transform of output
to the Laplace transform of input under the assumption.

Y ( s)
G ( s) =
X ( s)

•The transfer function is completely specified in terms of its poles and zeros and the gain factor.

•The TF function of a system depends on its elements, assuming initial conditions as zero and is
independent of the input function.

•To find DC gain of the system, put s = 0.

Example:

s+4 4
G (s) = ; Gain =
2 9
s + 6s + 9

If a step, ramp or parabolic response of Transfer Function is given, then we can find impulse
response directly through differentiation of that Transfer Function.

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d
(Parabolic response) = Ramp response
dt

d
(Ramp response) = Step response
dt

d
(Step response) = Impulse response
dt

Rules of Block Diagram:

Rule Original diagram Equivalent diagram

1. Combining blocks in
cascade

2. Moving a summing point

after a block

3. Moving a summing point

ahead of a block

4. Moving a take off point

after a block

5. Moving a takeoff point

ahead of a block

6. Eliminating a feedback
loop

Signal Flow Graphs:

It is a graphical technique that deals with the relation between the variable of a system described in
the form of set of linear algebraic equation.

•Signal flow graph of Block diagram.

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Mason’s formula:

This is a technique for reducing signal flow graphs to single transfer functions that relate the output
of a system to its input. There is general gain formula, called Mason’s rule, that allow the
determination of the input-output relations of an SFG by inspection. The transfer function of a
system is given as,

C ( s) 
Pk  k
T .F = = k =1

R( s ) 

Where,

K= 1, 2, 3, ......

N = no of forward path

PK = Gain of Kth forward path

ΔK = 1 – [Sum of individual loop gain not touching to Kth forward path] + [Sum of product of
2 non touching loop gain that not touching to kth forward path]

Δ = Determinant of the graph or characteristics function

Δ = 1 – (Sum of all individual loop gain) + (Sum of gain products of all possible
combinations of two non-touching loops) – (Sum of the gain products of all possible
combinations of three non-touching loops) + ………

Time Response Analysis of Control System

The time response of a control system is divided in two parts:

1. Transient response
2. Steady state response

Transient response is dependent upon the system poles only and not on the type of input. It is
due to the non-zero initial conditions. It is therefore enough to analyze the transient response using
a step input.

The steady-state response depends on system dynamics and the input signal. It is then examined
using different test signals by final value theorem.

Total response of a system = Transient response + Steady state response

C(t) = Ctr(t) + Css(t)

Where, C(t) = overall response of the system,

Ctr(t) = transient response component of the system and

Css (t) = steady state response component of the system

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Different test signal and their transforms

Test signal Time domain Laplace Transform Wave form

Unit impulse δ (t) 1

Unit step function u(t) 1/s

Unit Ramp tu(t) 1/s2

t2
Unit parabolic u(t) 1/s3
2

t d
− Im pulse dt = step signal ; dt
Ramp = step ;

t d
− Ramp dt = parabolic ; dt
Parabolic = Ramp

t dt
− step dt = Ramp; dt
step = Impulse

INITIAL VALUE AND FINAL VALUE THEOREM

1. Initial value of the response:

c(0) = Lt c(t) = Lt sC(s)

t →0 s →

Initial value theorem is applied only when the number of poles of C(s) is more than the number of
zeros i.e. function C(s) must be strictly proper.

2. Final value of the Response:

c() = Lt c(t) = Lt sC(s)

t → s →0

Final value theorem is applied when all the poles of C(s) lie in the left half of the s-plane.

TIME RESPONSE OF SECOND ORDER CONTROL SYSTEM

A second order control system is one for which the highest power ‘s’ in the denominator of its
transfer function is equal to 2.

Consider a linear time-invariant system where input to the system is given by x(t) & its
corresponding output as y(t).

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The block diagram representation in Laplace domain is

or

Block diagram of second order control system

The characteristic equation of the second order system is

2 2
C.E. = s + 2ns + n = 0

–2n  42n2 – 4n2

s1, s2 =
2

s1, s2 = –n  2n2 – n2

s1, s2 = –n  n 2 – 1

1. Case 1: ξ = 0

In this case, the poles of the system lie on jω axis and hence the system is said to be undamped
system.

2. Case 2: ξ = 1

In this case, the roots or poles of the system is always real and equal and equals to –ωn i.e.

s1, s2 = – ωn

Therefore, the system is said to be critically damped system.

3. Case 3: 0 < ξ < 1

In this case, the poles of the system are complex conjugate to each other. i.e.

s1 , s2 = –n  jn 1 – 2

Hence, the system is called under damped system.

4. Case 4: ξ > 1

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In this case, the roots or poles of the system are real but unequal i.e.,

s1 , s2 = –n  n 2 – 1

Therefore, the system is said to be over damped system.

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For Step input:

  1 − 2  
e−nt
• C (t) = 1 − sin n 1 − 2 t  tan−1  
   
1 − 2   

  1 − 2  
e−nt
• e (t) = sin n 1 − 2 t  tan−1  
   
1 − 2   

  1 − 2  
e−nt
• ess = lim sin n 1 − 2 t  tan−1  
t →    
1 − 2   

→  → Damping ratio; n → Damping factor

1.   1 (Under Damped):

  1 − 2  
e−nt
C (t) = 1 − sin d t  tan−1  
   
1 − 2   

2.  = 0 (Undamped):

C(t) = (1 – cosωnt)

3.  = 1 (Critically Damped):

−n t
C (t ) = 1 − e (1 + nt )

4.   1 (overdamped):

 
−   − 2 −1  nt
e  
C (t) = 1 −
2 2 − 1   − 2 − 1 
 

Time constant of the response

1
T =
( − 2 − 1 n )
Tundamped>Toverdamped>Tunderdamped> Tcritical damp

Time Domain Specifications:

• Rise time (tr):

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Rise time is defined as the time at which the output reaches its final value for the first time.

−
tr = ;  = cos−1 
2
n 1 − 

• Peak time (tp):

Peak time is defined as the time at which the response of the system reaches its peak value
for the first time.

n
tp =
d

For first peak, n = 1 (maxima)


tp =
d

• Peak Overshoot (Mp):

Peak overshoot is defined as the deviation of the response of the system from its final value
at its first time. Mp can be positive or negative.

1 − 2
% MP = e−n /  100

• Settling time (ts):

Settling time is the time required sinusoidal amplitude settled to its final value.

ts = 3T for 5% tolerance,

ts = 4T for 2% tolerance

• Delay time (td):

Delay time is defined as the time required to reach half of its final value from zero instant.

1 + 0.7
td =
n

STEADY STATE ERROR (ESS)

Steady state error is defined as the amount of output deviated from its desired response during
steady state is known as steady state error. It is denoted by ess.

Now, consider a closed loop system,

C(s) = E(s)G(s)

Error signal is given as

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C(s)
E (s) =
G(s)

For closed loop system,

C ( s) G(s)
=
R ( s) 1 + G(s)H(s)

G(s).R(s)
C (s) =
1 + G(s)H(s)

Putting the value of C(s) in E(s)

1
E(s) = .R(s)
1 + G(s).H(s)

Where E(s) is error signal and R(s) is input signal.

G(s) H(s) is the open loop transfer function.

Using final value theorem of Laplace theorem,

ess = lim e ( t ) = lim sE ( s )

t → s →0

  1  
ess = lim  s   R ( s )
s →0
 1 + G ( s ) H ( s )  

Static Error Coefficients:

• Step input:

sR ( s )
ess = lim e ( t ) = lim E ( s ) = lim
t → s →0 s →0 1 + GH

1
ess = (Positional error)
1 + KP

KP = lim G ( s ) H ( s )
s→0

Where, KP is static position error constant.

• Ramp input:

1
ess =
Kv

Kv = lim s G ( s ) H ( s )
s →0

Where, KV is static velocity error constant.

• Parabolic input:

1
ess = , Ka = lim s2 G ( s ) H ( s )
Ka s →0

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Where, Ka is static acceleration error constant.

Type < input → ess = 

Type = input → ess (finite value)

Type > input → ess = 0

Steady state Error for Different types of system:

Type of System Unit Step Input Unit Ramp Input Unit Parabolic Input
K p =K
KV = 0 Ka = 0
1
Type – 0 System ess = ess =  ess = 
1+K
KV = K
Kp =  Ka = 0
1
Type – 1 System ess = 0 ess = ess = 
K
Ka = K
Kp =  KV = 
1
Type – 2 System ess = 0 ess = 0 ess =
K

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Routh Hurwitz Stability Criteria

C ( s) G (s)
CLTF = =
R ( s) 1 + G ( s) H (s)

1 + G(s)H(s)= 0 is called as a characteristic equation.

FORMATION OF ROUTH ARRAY

For an nth order system, the characteristic equation is

q(s) = A0 sn + A1sn−1 + .... + An−1s + An = 0

Routh Hurwitz Criterion is based on ordering the coefficient of the system’s characteristic equation
into an array called the Routh array.

The first two rows of the Routh array is filled by the coefficient of the characteristic equation.

If n is odd, then the first row is filled up by all the odd positioned coefficients and the second row is
filled up by all even positioned coefficient and vice versa for n even.

Considering n is even

sn A0 A2 A4
sn – 1 A1 A3 A5

The further rows are evaluated as

A1A2 − A0 A3
B1 =
A1

A1A4 − A0 A5
B2 =
A1

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B1A3 − A1B2
C1 =
B1

B1A5 − A1B3
C2 =
B1

The process continues till the last row of the array contains only the independent coefficient of the
characteristic equation.

STABILITY RULES WITH RESPECT TO ROUTH MATRIX

• The closed loop system is said to be stable if all the elements in the first column of the Routh
matrix/array have same sign(either positive or negative).
• A system is said to be unstable if there is at least one sign change in the first column of the
Routh array.
• Number of sign changes in the first column of the Routh’s array indicate the number of closed
loop poles in the right half of the s-plane.
• If a complete row in a Routh array becomes zero, then the system is said to be having
symmetric poles about the origin.
• Routh Hurwitz Criterion cannot be applied for the system with exponential trigonometric or
imaginary coefficient.

Note : Routh Hurwitz Criterion gives only information about the number of roots in the right half of
s-plane. It gives no information about location of the poles.

Example :

Find the stability of a system represented by the character equation.

A0s3 + A1s2 + A2s + A3 = 0

s3 A0 A2

s2 A1 A3
A1A2 − A0A3
s1
A1
s0 A3
Solution:

For stability,

A0  0, A1  0, A3  0

A1A2 − A0A3
0
A1

So, A1A2 − A0A3  0

 A1A2  A 0 A3

Internal External
  
Product Product 

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Root Locus
ANGLE & MAGNITUDE CONDITION FOR ROOT LOCUS

For studying the close loop transfer function stability, let us consider a system with open loop
transfer function as G(s).H(s)

For negative feedback close loop system, characteristics equation is given as,

1 + G(s) H(s) = 0

G(s) H(s) = -1

= -1 + j0

Magnitude:

|G(s) H(s) | = 1

Angle:

∠G(s) H(s) = tan-1 b/a

= tan-1 0/-1

= ±180°

RULES OF DRAWING THE ROOT LOCUS

1. Root locus start from open loop poles with k = 0 and terminates at open loop zeros
with k=  .

2. Root locus is symmetrical about real axis. It is because complex poles always exist in
conjugation.

3. The number of branches of root locus = P if P > Z; Z if Z > P

Where, P = number of open loop poles & Z = number of open loop zeros.

4. Root locus exist on real axis, if number of open loop poles and zeros to the right side of a
point on the real axis is an odd number.

Let,

s +1
G(s)H(s) =
(s + 2)(s + 3)(s + 4)

Here, Number of zeros = 1 (s = -1)

Number of poles = 3 (s = -2, -3, -4)

Number of root loci/ branches = 3

Number of loci/ branches ending at infinity = P - Z = 3 – 1 = 2

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5. Number of Asymptotes

It is the path along which the root locus moves towards infinity. The number of asymptotes is

= P - Z; if P > Z

= Z - P; if Z > P

Where, P = number of open loop poles

Z = number of open loop zeros

6. Centroid

It is the point of intersection of asymptotes to the negative real axis.

σ=
 (Real part of open loop poles) -  (Real part of open loop zeros)
P-Z

7. Angle of asymptotes

It is the angle made by the asymptotes with positive real axis in s-plane. Mathematically it is
given by,

A =
( 2q + 1)180
P−Z
Where, q = 0, 1, 2…………., (n-m-1)

Number of zeros at infinity = P - Z; only when P > Z

Number of poles at infinity = Z - P; only when Z > P,

Where n is the number of finite poles & m is the number of finite zeros.

8. Break-away and Break-in points

These are the points at which two loci/branches coming towards each other, meet and get diverted
in opposite direction.

• If there are two consecutive open loop poles on real axis and there exist a root locus between
them then there is always a break away point between them.
• If there are two consecutive open loop zeros on real axis and root locus exist between them
there has to be a break in point between them.

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Break away and break in point lie on real axis but sometimes they may lie on complex plane also.

Breakaway and break in point can be determined by putting,

dK
=0
ds

9. Angle of Departure & Angle of Arrival

9.1. Angle of Departure

It is the angle made by branch of root locus with real axis when the branch emerges from a complex
pole. Angle of departure from complex open pole at s= s 1 is given by,

D s = s1
= 180o + GH' s = s
1

Where, GH’= (s-s1) G(s)H(s)

9.2. Angle of Arrival

It is the angle made by root locus with real axis when the branches of the root locus arrive at a
complex zero.

Angle of arrival at a complex zero at s= s1 is given by,

A s = s1
= 180o − GH' s = s
1

Where, GH’= (s-s1) G(s)H(s)

10. Point of intersection of the RLD with respect to the imaginary axis:

It is the point of intersection of root locus with jω axis. jω cross over gives the critical value of gain
parameter K at which the system becomes oscillatory. It also gives the frequency of oscillation at
this critical value of K. jω cross over can be obtained by using Routh’s array.

Frequency Domain Analysis

FREQUENCY DOMAIN SPECIFICATIONS

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The performance and characteristics of a system in frequency domain are measured in terms of
frequency domain specifications. The requirements of a system to be designed are usually specified
in terms of these specifications.

The frequency domain specifications are:

1. Resonant Peak (Mr)

The maximum value of the magnitude of closed loop transfer function is called the resonant peak,
Mr. A large resonant peak corresponds to a large overshoot in transient response.

2. Resonant Frequency (ωr)

The frequency at which the resonant peak occurs is called resonant frequency, ωr This is related to
the frequency of oscillation in the step response and thus it is indicative of the speed of transient
response.

3. Bandwidth (ωb)

The Bandwidth is the range of frequencies for which normalized gain of the system is reduce by 3
db. The frequency at which the gain is reduce by 3 db is called cut-off frequency. Bandwidth is
usually defined for closed loop system and it transmits the signals whose frequencies are less than
the cut-off frequency.

The Bandwidth is a measure of the ability of a feedback system to reproduce the input signal, noise
rejection characteristics and rise time. A large bandwidth corresponds to a small rise time or fast
response.

4. Cut-off Rate

The slope of the log-magnitude curve near the cut off frequency is called cut-off rate. The cut -off
rate indicates the ability of the system to distinguish the signal from noise.

5. Gain Margin, Kg

• The gain margin, Kg is defined as the value of gain, to be added to system, in order to bring
the system to the verge of instability.
• The gain margin, Kg is given by the reciprocal of the magnitude of gain of open loop transfer
function at phase cross over frequency.
• The frequency at which the phase of open loop transfer function is 180° is called the phase
cross-over frequency, ωpc.

1
Gain Margin,Kg =
(
| G jpc | )
The gain margin in dB can be expressed as,

1
Kgin dB = 20logKg = 20log
(
| G jpc | )

6. Phase Margin (  )

• The phase margin  is defined as the additional phase lag to be added at the gain cross over
frequency in order to bring the system to the verge of instability.
• The gain cross over frequency ωgc is the frequency at which the magnitude of the open loop
transfer function is unity (or it is the frequency at which the dB magnitude is zero).

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• The phase margin  , is obtained by adding 180° to the phase angle ф of the open loop
transfer function at the gain cross over frequency.

Phase margin,  = 180° + фgc

Where, фgc = ∠ G(jωgc)

FREQUENCY DOMAIN SPECIFICATIONS OF SECOND ORDER SYSTEM

• Resonant Peak (Mr)

1
Resonant peak, Mr =
2 1 − 2

• Resonant frequency (ωr)

The resonant frequency, r = n 1 − 22

• BANDWIDTH (ωb):
1

b = n 1 − 22 + 2 − 42 + 44  2

 

GAIN CROSSOVER FREQUENCY & PHASE CROSSOVER FREQUENCY

1. Gain Crossover frequency:

The gain cross-over frequency is the frequency at which the magnitude of G(jω)H(jω) is equal to
unity i.e.

G ( j ) H ( j ) = 1

2. Phase Crossover frequency:

The phase cross-over frequency is the frequency at which the phase angle of G(jω)H(jω) is -180⁰
i.e.

G ( j ) H ( j ) = −180

GAIN MARGIN (GM) & PHASE MARGIN (PM)

1. Gain Margin

Gain Margin is the amount of gain in dB that can be added to the loop before closed loop system
becomes unstable. The GM is given by

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1 1
GM = 20log10 = 20log10
a G ( j ) H ( j )
= −20log10 G ( j ) H ( j ) at phase cross-over frequency
= −20log10 G ( j pc ) H ( j pc )

2. Phase Margin

Phase Margin is the amount of pure phase delay that can be added before the system becomes
unstable. The PM is given by

PM = 180 + G ( j ) H ( j ) at gain cross-over frequency

= 180 + G ( jgc ) H ( jgc )

POLAR PLOT
Starting of polar plot of all minimum Phase system.

End of polar plot of all minimum Phase system.

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TABLE : Typical Sketches of Polar Plot

Type: 0, Order: 1
1
G ( s) =
1 + sT
1 1
G ( j ) = =
1 + j T 1 + 2 T 2  tan−1 T
1
=  − tan−1 T
2 2
1+  T
As  → 0, G ( j) → 10
As  → , G ( j) → 0 − 90

Type: 1, Order: 2
1
G ( s) =
s (1 + sT )
1 1
G ( j) = =
j (1 + jT ) 90 1 + 2 T 2  tan−1 T
1
=  − 90 − tan−1 T
 1 + 2 T 2
As  → 0, G ( j) →  − 90
As  → , G ( j) → 0 − 180

Type: 0, Order: 2
1
G ( s) =
(1 + sT2 ) (1 + s2 )
1
G ( j) =
(1 + jT2 ) (1 + jT2 )
1
=
2 2 −1
1 +  T  tan 1 T1 1 + 2 T22  tan−1 T2
1
= (
 − tan−1 T1 − tan−1 T2 )
(1 +  T )(1 +  T )
2 2
1
2 2
2

As  → 0, G(j  ) → 1 ∠0°
As  → ∞, G(j  ) → -180°
Type: 0, Order: 3
1
G ( s) =
(1 + sT1)(1 + sT2 ) (1 + sT3 )
1
G ( j) =
(1 + jT1)(1 + jT2 ) (1 + jT3 )
1
=
2 2
1
−1 2 2
1 +  T  tan T1 1 +  T  tan−1 T2 1 + 2 T32  tan−1 T3
2

1
=
2 2
(
 − tan−1 T1 − tan−1 T2 − tan−1 T3 )
1+  T 1 1 + 2 T22 1 + 2 T32
As  → 0, G ( j) → 10
As  → , G ( j) → 0 − 270

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Type: 1, Order: 3
1
G ( s) =
s (1 + sT1 ) (1 + sT2 )
1
G ( j) =
j (1 + jT1 ) (1 + jT2 )
1
=
90 1 + 2 T12  tan−1 T1 1 + 2 T22  tan−1 T2
1
= (
 −90 − tan−1 T1 − tan−1 T2 )
(
 1+  T 2 2
1 )(1 +  T ) 2 2
2

As  → 0, G ( j) →  − 90
As  → , G ( j) → 0 − 270
Type: 2 Order: 4
1
G (s) = 2
s (1 + sT1 ) (1 + sT2 )
1
G ( j) =
j (1 + jT1 ) (1 + jT2 )
2

1
=
2  − 180 1 + 2 T12  tan−1 T1 1 + 2 T22  tan−1 T2
1
= (
 −180 − tan−1 T1 − tan−1 T2 )
2
(1 +  T )(1 +  T )
2 2
1
2 2
2

As  → 0, G ( j) →  − 180
As  → , G ( j) → 0 − 360

Type: 2, Order: 5
1
G (s) =
s (1 + sT1 ) (1 + sT2 ) (1 + sT3 )
2

1
G ( j) =
( j) (1 + jT1 ) (1 + jT2 ) (1 + jT3 )
2

1
=
  − 180 1 +  T  tan T1 1 + 2 T22  tan−1 T2 1 + 2 T32  tan−1 T3
2 2 2
1
−1

1
= (
 −180 − tan−1 T1 − tan−1 T2 − tan−1 T3 )
2
(
1+  T 2 2
1 )(
1 + 2 T22 1 + 2 T32 )( )
As  → 0, G ( j) →  − 180
As  → , G ( j) → 0 − 450 = 0 − 90
Type: 1, Order : 1
1
G (s) =
s
1 1 1
G ( j) = = =  − 90
j 90 
As  → 0, G ( j) →  − 90
As  → , G ( j) → 0 − 90

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1 + sT
G ( s) =
sT
1 + jT 1 1 1
G ( j) = = +1 = +1 =  − 90 + 1
jT jT T90 T
As  → 0, G ( j) →  − 90 + 1
As  → , G ( j) → 0 − 90 + 1

G(s) = s
G(j  ) = j  =  ∠90°
As  → 0, G(j  ) → 0∠90°
As  → ∞, G(j  ) → ∞∠90°

G(s) = 1 + sT
G(j  ) = 1 + j  T = 1 +  T∠90°
As  → 0, G(j  ) →1 + 0∠90°
As  → ∞, G(j  ) → 1 + ∞∠90°

Nyquist Plot
It is the mapping of Nyquist contour into GH plane i.e. corresponding to the entire Nyquist contour,
the Nyquist plot G(s)H(s) is plotted.

Nyquist stability criterion (NSC):

Consider a closed loop control system as shown in figure below:

The closed loop transfer function T(s) of the above system is given by

G(s)
T (s) =
1 + G(s)H(s)

The poles of 1 + G(s) H(s) gives the same number of poles as of G(s)H(s) i.e. open-loop system and
the zeroes of 1 + G(s)H(s) gives the same number of poles of T(s) i.e. closed loop system. On
comparing the closed loop transfer function with

(s − z1)(s − z2 )(s − z3 )....

T(s) =
(z − p1)(s − p2 )(s − p3 )....

p1, p2, p3, ……………are the poles of closed loop system.

z1, z2, z3, …………...are the zeroes of the closed loop system.

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By drawing the polar plot and completing closed loop contour from –∞ to 0 to +∞.

Nyquist stability criteria states that the number of encirclements about the critical point (-1+j0)
should be equal to poles of open loop transfer function G(s)H(s), which are in the right half of s-
plane.

Mathematically, N = P – Z

If Z = 0 then N = P

Where,

N is equals to the number of anticlockwise encirclement

P is the number of open loop poles lie in Right half of s plane &

Z is the number of closed loop poles lie in Right half of s plane

NOTE:

open loop system must be stable if P=0

close loop system must be stable if Z=0

BODE PLOT
The step by step procedure for plotting the magnitude plot is given below:

Step 1 : Convert the transfer function into Bode form or time constant form. The Bode form of the
transfer function is

K (1 + sT1 )
G (s) = s = j
⎯⎯⎯⎯ → G ( j)
 s2 s 
s (1 + sT2 ) 1 + 2 + 2 
 n n 
K (1 + jT1 )
=
 2 
j (1 + jT2 ) 1 − 2 + j2 
 n n 

Step 2 : List the corner frequencies in the increasing order and prepare a table as shown below.

Term Corner frequency rad/sec Slope db/dec Change in slope db/dec

In the above table enter K or K / ( j) or K ( j) as the first term and the other terms in the
n n

increasing order of comer frequencies. Then enter the comer frequency, slope contributed by each
term and change in slope at every comer frequency.

Step 3: Choose an arbitrary frequency to, which is lesser than the lowest comer frequency.
Calculate the db magnitude of K or K / ( j) or K ( j) at  , and at the lowest comer frequency.
n n

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K (1 + jT1 )
2

G ( j) =
( j) (1 + jT2 ) (1 + jT3 )
2

Note: 6dB/octave = 20 dB/decade

Step 4 : Then calculate the gain (db magnitude) at every corner frequency one by one by using the
formula,

Gain at y = change in gain from x to y + Gain at x

 y 
= slope from x to y  log  + Gain at x
 x 

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Step 5 : Choose an arbitrary frequency h . which is greater than the highest corner frequency.
Calculate the gain at h by using the formula in step 4.

Step 6 : In a semi log graph sheet mark the required range of frequency on x-axis (log scale) and
the range of db magnitude on y-axis (ordinary scale) after choosing proper units.

Step 7: Mark all the points obtained in steps 3, 4, and 5 on the graph and join the points by straight
lines. Mark the slope at every part of the graph.

Note: The magnitude plot obtained above is an approximate plot. If an exact plot is needed, then
appropriate corrections should be made at every corner frequency.

PROCEDURE FOR PHASE PLOT OF BODE PLOT

The phase plot is an exact plot and no approximations are made while drawing the phase
plot. Hence the exact phase angles of G(j  ) are computed for various values of  and
tabulated. The choice of frequencies are preferably the frequencies chosen for magnitude
plot. Usually, the magnitude plot and phase plot are drawn in a single semi log - sheet on a
common frequency scale.

Take another y-axis in the graph where the magnitude plot is drawn and in this y-axis mark
the desired range of phase angles after choosing proper units. From the tabulated values of
 and phase angles, mark all the points on the graph. Join the points by a smooth curve.
MINIMUM & NON- MINIMUM PHASE SYSTEM

1. Minimum Phase System:

The transfer function with all poles and zeros in the left half of the s-plane are called minimum
phase transfer function.

2. Non-Minimum Phase System:

The transfer function which has one or more zeros in the right half of the s- plane is known as non-
minimum phase system.

3. All Pass System:

The transfer function having a pole-zero pattern which is antisymmetric about the imaginary axis,
i.e. for every pole in the left half plane, there is a zero in the mirror image position, is called as all-
pass system.

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Controllers and Compensators

1. CONTROLLERS

I. PROPORTIONAL CONTROLLER

Proportional Controller

Transfer function of a proportional controller is given as,

GC(s) = KP

Effects of Proportional Controller:

• Damping ratio decreases by factor KP

• Natural undamped frequency increases by factor KP
• Reduces the steady state error by increasing gain.

II. INTEGRAL CONTROLLER

Integral control adds a pole at the origin for the open-loop system.

Integral Controller

Transfer function of Integral controller is given as,

KI
GC ( s ) =
s

Effects of integral controllers:

• It adds an open loop pole at origin.

• It increases the type and order of the system by 1.
• It Decrease the steady state error.
• It reduced the stability of the system.
• It improves the steady state performance.
• It acts like a low pass filter.

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III. DERIVATIVE CONTROLLER

Derivative controller adds a zero at the origin for the open-loop system.

Derivative Controller

Transfer function of a derivative controller is given as,

GC(s) = KD. s

Effects of derivative controller:

• It adds an open loop zero at origin.

• It reduces the order and type of the system by 1.
• It is used to increase the stability of the system by adding zeros.
• Steady state error increases, as type of the system decreases.
• Transient response is improved.
• Differentiation makes the system sensitive to noise.

IV. PROPORTIONAL + DERIVATIVE (PD) CONTROLLER

Proportional Derivative Controller

Transfer function of a PD controller is given as,

GC(s) = KD. s + KP

Effects of PD Controller:

• PD controller adds an open loop zero on negative real axis.

• It is used to increase the stability without affecting the steady state error.
• Damping ratio increases.
• Peak overshoot decreases.
• Transient response is improved.
• Bandwidth increases, so noise in the system increases.
• Settling time reduced.
• Rise time decreases.
• Delay time increases.
• Improves gain margin and phase margin.

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V. PROPORTIONAL + INTEGRAL (PI) CONTROLLER

Transfer function of PI controller is given as,

KI
GC ( s ) = KP +
s

PI controller

Effects of PI Controller:

• It adds an open loop zero on negative real axis and open loop pole at origin.
• It increases type and order of the system by 1.
• As the type of the system is increases, therefore, steady state error is reduced, and hence
steady state response is improved.
• As the order of the system increases, therefore, the relative stability decreases.
• Bandwidth reduced.
• Noise in the output is reduced and thus signal to noise ratio is increased.

VI. PROPORTIONAL + INTEGRAL + DERIVATIVE (PID) CONTROLLER

PID controller

Transfer function of a PID controller is given as,

GC (S) = KP + KI / s + KD.s
KD.s2 + KP .s + KI
=
s
Effects of PID Controller:

• It adds two open loop zeros in left half of s-plane and one open loop pole at origin.
• One zero compensates the pole and other zero will increase the stability.
• It improves both transient as well as steady state response.
• It is used to decrease the steady state error.
• Response is faster and highly accurate.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF P, I, AND D CONTROLLERS

A proportional controller (KP) will have the effect of reducing the rise time but never eliminate the
steady-state error.

An integral control (KI) will have the effect of eliminating the steady-state error, but it may make
the transient response worse.

A derivative control (KD) will have the effect of increasing the stability of the system, reducing the
overshoot, and improving the transient response.

Effects of each of controllers KP, KD, and KI on a close-loop system are summarized in the table
shown below.

Closed Loop Response Rise Time Overshoot Setting Time Steady State Error

KP Decrease Increase Small Change Decrease

KI Decrease Increase Increase Eliminate

KD Small Change Decrease Decrease Small Change

2. COMPENSATORS

There are two types of compensators.

1. Lead compensator

2. Lag compensator

LEAD COMPENSATOR

The lead compensator has the transfer function of the form:

1
s + Zc s+
Gc ( s ) = = T
s + Pc 1
s+
aT

Zc
Where, a =  1 or Zc  Pc
Pc

And T > 0

Hence, we have the pole-zero plot as shown below:

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Pole-Zero Plot of Lead Compensator

Maximum Phase Lead for Lead Compensator:

For lead compensator, the maximum phase angle is given by

1 −  
m = sin−1  ;   1
1 +  

EFFECTS OF LEAD COMPENSATOR:

• The general effect is to add more damping to the closed loop system.
• Rise time and settling time are reduced.
• Phase margin improves.
• Improvement in relative stability.
• The bandwidth of the closed-loop system is increased; this corresponds to faster time
response.
• Steady state error of the system is not affected.

LAG COMPENSATOR

The lag compensator having a transfer function of the form:

1
s + Zc s+
Gc ( s ) = = T
s + Zp 
s+
T

Zc
Where,  =  1 or Zc  Pc
Pc

and T > 0

Hence, we have the pole-zero plot as shown below:

Pole-Zero Plot of Lag Compensator

Maximum Phase Angle for Lag Compensator:

For lag compensator, the maximum phase angle is given by

1 −  
m = sin−1  ;   1
1 +  

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EFFECTS OF LAG COMPENSATOR:

• Gain crossover frequency is decreased and thus the Bandwidth of the system is reduced.
• Magnitude of the forward path transfer function is attenuated near above the gain crossover
frequency, thus improving the relative stability.
• The rise time and settling time of the system are usually longer.
• The system is more sensitive to parameter variations because the sensitivity function is
greater than unity for all frequency (approximately greater the bandwidth).

State Space Analysis

Important Definitions:

1) State: The state of a dynamic system is defined as a minimal set of variables such that the
knowledge of input for t ≥ t0, completely determines the behaviour of the system for t > t 0.

2) State Variables: The variables involved in determining the state of a dynamic system X(t), are
called the state variables. X 1(t), X2(t)....Xn(t) are nothing but the state variables. These are normally
the energy storing elements contained in the system.

3) State Vector: The 'n' state variables necessary to describe the complete behaviour of the
system can be considered as 'n' components of a vector X(t) called the state vector at time ‘t’. The
state vector X(t) is the vector sum of all the state variables.

4) State Space: The space whose co-ordinate axes are nothing but the ‘n’ state variables with time
as the implicit variable is called the state space.

5) State Trajectory: It is the locus of the tips of the state vectors, with time as the implicit
variable.

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State Equation:

.
X ( t ) = AX ( t ) + BU ( t )

where , X(t) = State vector matrix of order n × 1

U(t) = Input vector matrix of order m × 1

A = System matrix or Evolution matrix of order n × n

B = Input matrix or control matrix of order n × m

Output equations:

Y (t) = C X (t ) + D U (t )

Where, Y(t) = Output vector matrix of order p × 1

C = Output matrix or observation matrix of order p × n

D = Direct transmission matrix of order p × m

Transfer Function Matrix:

−1
C sI − A  B + D = H (s)

Transfer Matrix Description:

Y(s) = H(s)U(s)

State Space Methods:

1. General State Equation Solution:

t A ( t − )
x ( t ) = eAt − to x ( to ) + to e Bu (  ) d

−1 −1
X ( s ) = sI − A  X 0 + sI − A  BU(s)
zero input response zero state response

n−1
x n = Anx 0 +  An−1−mBu n
m= 0

2. General Output Equation Solution:

t A ( t −)
y ( t ) = CeAt − to x ( to ) + C e Bu (  ) d + Du ( t )
to

n −1
y n = CAnx 0 +  CAn−1−mBu n + Du n
m= 0

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X 0 + C sI − A  B + D U(s)

−1 −1
Y ( s ) = C sI − A 
 
zero input response zero state response

STATE-TRANSITION MATRIX

eAt = (t) = L  sI − A  

−1 −1

 

Properties of the State-Transition Matrix

The state-transition matrix STM possesses the following properties:

1.  (0) = I (the identity matrix)

2.  –1(t) =  (–t)

3.  (t2 – t1 )  (t1 – t0) =  (t2 – t0) for any t0, t1, t2

4. (t)k=  (kt) for k = positive integer

.
5. (t) = A (t)

Controllability

Qc = [B : AB : A2B :………….An-1B]

Where, Qc = controllability test matrix (n x nm)

Condition for state controllability,

|Qc|≠ 0 (Matrix should be non-singular)

Observability

Qo = [CT : ATCT : (AT)2CT :………….(AT)n-1CT]

Where, Qo = observability test matrix (n x np)

Condition for state observability,

|Q0|≠ 0(Matrix should be non-singular)

NOTE:

If A is a diagonal matrix then

(i) System is observable if matrix C has any non zero element.

(ii) System is controllable if matrix B has any non zero element.

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IMPORTANT FORMULAS ON DIGITAL CIRCUITS

Number System and Codes

Fig. 1
Types of Number System:
The number can be represented in various ways to show the data and process it on the processing
devices.

Decimal Number Hexadecimal Number Octal Number

Binary Number System
System System System

0 0 0 0000
1 1 1 0001
2 2 2 0010
3 3 3 0011
4 4 4 0100
5 5 5 0101
6 6 6 0110
7 7 7 0111
8 8 10 1000
9 9 11 1001
10 A 12 1010
11 B 13 1011
12 C 14 1100
13 D 15 1101
14 E 16 1110
15 F 17 1111
Table 1: Counting in different number system
A number system with base ‘r’, contains ‘r’ different digits and they are from 0 to r –1.
Decimal to other codes conversions:
To convert decimal number into other system with base ‘r’, divide integer part by r and multiply
fractional part with r.
Other codes to Decimal Conversions:

( x2x1x0.y1y2 )r → ( A )10 , A = x 2 r 2 + x1r + x 0 + y1r –1 + y2r –2

Hexadecimal to Binary:
Convert each Hexadecimal digit into 4 bits binary.

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(0101 1010 1111)2

(5AF )16 →
5 A F
Binary to Hexadecimal:
Grouping of 4 bits into one hex digit.

(110101.11)2 → 00110101.1100 → (35.C )16

Octal Binary and Binary to Octal:

Same procedure as discussed above but here group of 3 bits is made.
Codes:
Binary coded decimal (BCD):
• In BCD code each decimal digit is represented with 4 bit binary format.
 
Eg : ( 943)10 1001 0100 0011 
 
 9 4 3 BCD

• It is also known as 8421 code.

• Invalid BCD codes are the codes whose decimal equivalent is more than 9. i.e. Valid BCD codes
ranges from 0 to 9.

Total number of codes possible → 24  16

Valid BCD codes → 10
Invalid BCD codes 16 − 10  6
There 1010, 1011, 1100, 1110 and 1111

Excess-3 codes: (BCD + 0011)

• It can be derived from BCD by adding ‘3’ to each coded number.
• It is unweighted and self-complementing code.

Gray Code:
It is also known as minimum change codes or unit distance code or reflected code.

Binary code to Gray code:

In order to find Gray code from Binary code, XOR Gate is applied between the present binary bit and
the next binary bit starting from the MSB side(keeping MSB of Binary and Gray as same) e.g.

Fig. 2
Gray code to Binary code:

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In order to find Binary code from Gray code, XOR Gate is applied between the present binary bit and
the next gray bit starting from the MSB side (keeping MSB of Gray and Binary as same) e.g.

Fig. 3
Alpha Numeric code:
EBCDIC (Extended BCD interchange code)
It is an 8-bit code. It can represent 128 possible characters.
• Parity method is most widely used schemes for error detection.
• Hamming code is most useful error correcting code.
• BCD code is used in calculators, counters.
Complements:
Its base is r then we can have two complements.
(i) (r – 1)’s complement
(ii) r’s complement
To determine(r – 1)’s complement: First write maximum possible number in the given system and
subtract the given number.
To determine r’s complements: (r – 1)’s complement + 1
i.e. First write (r – 1)’s complement and then add 1 to LSB
Example:
Q. Find 7’s and 8’s complement of 2456
7777
Sol. 7’s Complement −2456
5321

5321
8’s Complement +1
5322
Q. Find 2’s complement of 101.110
Sol. 1’s complements 010.001
For 2’s complement add 1 to the LSB
010.001
2’s complement +1
010.010

Data Representation:

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Fig. 4
Unsigned Magnitude:
Range with n bit

→ 0 to 2n−1 +5  101

−5  Not possible

Signed Magnitude:
Range with n bit
−6  1 110 1 0000110
sign bit sign bit
with 4 bits with 8 bits

1’s complements:
Range with n bit

( )
→ − 2n−1 − 1 to + 2n−1 − 1 ( )
+6  0110 −6  1001

2’s complements:
With n bit range –2n-1 to (2n-1 –1)
+6  0110 −6  1010
In any representation +ve numbers are represented similarly to +ve number in sign
magnitude.
Logic Gates

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Fig.5
Note:- NAND and NOR are Universal Gates.
XOR gate:
Symbol of two input XOR gate

Fig.6
X-NOR gate:
Symbol for two input X-NOR gate

Fig.7

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Table 2: Logic Gates representation

Minimization
Boolean Laws:
Commutati xy =yx xy =yx

ve

Associative x  ( y  z) = ( x  y )  z x  ( y  z) = ( x  y  z)

Distributiv x  ( y  z) = ( x  y)  ( x  z) x  ( y  z) = ( x  y)  ( x  z)
e
Idempoten xx = x xx = x
ce

Absorption x  ( x  y) = x x  ( x  y) = x

Consensus (x  y)  (x  z)  (y  z) (x  y)  (x  z)  (y  z)
theorem = (x  y)  (x  z) = (x  y) (
 xz )
Combining ( x  y)  ( x  y) = x ( x  y)  ( x  y) = x
DeMorgan’ (x  y) = x  y (x  y) = x  y
s
Table 3: Boolean law expressions
Dual of a function:

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The dual of logic function, f, is the function fD derived from f by substituting a  for each , and  for

each  . 1 for each 0, and 0 for each 1.

f (a,b) = (a  b)  (b  c) fD (a,b) = (a  b)  (b  c)

Boolean Functions:
Any Boolean expression can be expressed in two forms
• Sum of Product form (SOP)
• Product of Sum form (POS)
SOP form:
The SOP expression usually takes the forms of two or more variables ORed together.

Y = ABC + AB + AC

Y = AB + BC
SOP forms are used to write logical expression for the output becoming logic '1'.
POS form:
The POS expression usually takes the form of two or more OR variables within parentheses, ANDed
with two or more such terms.
Karnaugh Map (K-MAP):
The K-map is a graphical method which provides a systematic method for simplifying the Boolean
expressions. In n variable K-map, there are 2n cells.
Simplification Rules:
1. Construct the K-map and place 1's in those cells corresponding to the 1's in the truth
table. Place the 0's in the other cells.
2. Examine the map for adjacent 1's and loop those 1's which are not adjacent to any other 1's.
These are called isolated 1's.
3. Next, look for those 1's which are adjacent to only one other 1. Loop any pair containing such a
1.
4. Loop any octet even if it contains some 1's that have already been looped.
5. Loop any quad that contains one or more 1's which have not already been looped, making sure
to use the minimum number of loops.
6. Form the OR sum of all the terms generated by each loop.
Implicants:
Implicants is a product term on the given function, and for that combination, the function output must
be 1.
Prime Implicant (PI)
Prime implicant is a smallest possible product term of the given function.

Essential Prime Implicants (EPI)

EPI is a prime implicant and it must cover at least one minterm, which is not covered by other PI.
Combinational Circuits

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The combinational circuit has ‘n’ input variables and ‘m’ output variables. Since, the number of input
variables is n, there are 2n possible combinations of bits at the input.
Adders:

Fig. 8
Binary parallel adder:
An n-bit parallel adder can be constructed using n number of full adders which are connected in
parallel, and hence; it is also known as parallel adder such that the previous carry or carry input for
adder 0 is set to zero. The carry output of each adder is connected to the carry input of the next higher
order adder. Hence, it is also known as carry propagate adder.
Carry look ahead adder:
The look ahead carry adder speeds up the operation by eliminating this ripple carry delay. It examines
all the input bits simultaneously, and also generates the carry in bits for all the stages simultaneously.
The method of speeding up the addition process is based on the two additional functions of the full
adder called the carry generate and carry propagate functions.
Multiplexer:
• 2n inputs; 1 output and ‘n’ select lines.
• It can be used to implement Boolean function by selecting select lines as Boolean variables.
• For implementing ‘n’ variables Boolean function, 2n × 1 MUX is enough.
• For implementing “n+1” variables Boolean function, 2n × 1 MUX + NOT gate is required.

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• For implementing “n+2” variables Boolean function, 2n × 1 MUX + Combinational Circuit is

required.
• If you want to design 2m×1 MUX using 2n × 1 MUX. You need two 2n × 1 MUXes.
Demultiplexer:
• 1 input; 2n outputs and ‘n’ select lines.
• It can be used to implement Boolean function by selecting select lines as Boolean variables.
• For implementing ‘n’ variables Boolean function, 1×2n DeMUX is enough.
• For implementing “n+1” variables Boolean function, 1×2n DeMUX + NOT gate is required.
• For implementing “n+2” variables Boolean function 1×2 n DeMUX + Combinational Circuit is
required.
• If you want to design 1×2m DeMUX using 1×2n DeMUX. You need two 2n × 1 DeMUXes.

Comparison between Multiplexer and Demultiplexer:

S.No. Parameter of comparison Multiplexer Demultiplexer

1. Type of logic circuit Combinational Combinational

2. Number of data inputs M 1

3. Number of select inputs N N

4. Number of data output 1 M

Relation between input/output lines

5. M = 2N M = 2N
and select lines
Many to 1 or data 1 to many or data
6. Operation principle
selector distributor
Table 4: Comparison between Multiplexer and Demultiplexer
Decoder:
• n input and 2n output.
• Used to implement the Boolean function. It will generate required min terms at the output and
those terms should be “OR” ed to get the results.
• Suppose it consists of more min terms then connect the max terms to NOR gate then it will
give the same output with less no. of gates.
• For carry look ahead adder, delay = 2  t pd .

Encoder:
An encoder is a combinational logic circuit that performs the inverse operation of a decoder. An
encoder has 2n (or fewer) input lines and n output lines.

Octal to Binary Encoder:

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Fig. 9
The logical expression for the outputs are as follows:

A = D 4 + D5 + D 6 + D 7
B = D 2 + D3 + D 6 + D 7
C = D1 + D3 + D5 + D7
Realization of a Octal to Binary Encoder using Logic Gates:

Fig. 10
Subtractors:
Half subtractor:
A half subtractor is a combinational logic circuit, which performs the subtraction of two 1-bit
numbers. It subtracts one binary digit from another to produce a DIFFERENCE output & a BORROW
output.

The truth table of half – subtractor, where A, B are the inputs, and difference (D) and borrow (B) are
the outputs.

Inputs Outputs

A B D Bout

0 0 0 0

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0 1 1 1

1 0 1 0

1 1 0 0

Table 6: Truth table of Half – Subtractor.

Difference, D = AB + AB = A  B
Borrow, Bout = AB
Logic Diagram:

Fig. 11
Full Subtractor:
A full subtractor performs subtraction operation on two bits, a minuend and a subtrahend.

Inputs Outputs

A B Bin D Bout

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 1 1 1

0 1 0 1 1

0 1 1 0 1

1 0 0 1 0

1 0 1 0 0

1 1 0 0 0

1 1 1 1 1

Table 7: Truth table of Full subtractor.

Difference, D = A  B  Bin
Borrow, Bin = AB + ABin + BBin
Logic Diagram:

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Fig. 12
Comparator:
The comparator has three outputs namely A>B, A=B and A<B. Depending upon the result of
comparison, one of these outputs will go high.

2-bit Magnitude Comparator:

Let the two 2-bit numbers be A = A1A 0 and B = B1B0

Inputs Outputs

A1 A0 B1 B0 X(A<B) Y(A=B) Z(A > B)

0 0 0 0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1 1 0 0

0 0 1 0 1 0 0

0 0 1 1 1 0 0

0 1 0 0 0 0 1

0 1 0 1 0 1 0

0 1 1 0 1 0 0

0 1 1 1 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 1

1 0 0 1 0 0 1

1 0 1 0 0 1 0

1 0 1 1 1 0 0

1 1 0 0 0 0 1

1 1 0 1 0 0 1

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1 1 1 0 0 0 1

1 1 1 1 0 1 0

Table 9: Truth Table for a 2-bit Comparator.

Logic Diagram of 2-bit Comparator:

Fig. 13
CODE CONVERTERS:
A code converter is a combinational logic circuit which accepts the input information in one binary
code, converts it and produces an output into another binary code.
The truth table for 4-bit Binary and its Equivalent BCD:
Binary Input BCD Output
Decimal A B C D B4 B3 B2 B1 B0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

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1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1

2 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0

3 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1

4 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0

5 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1

6 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0

7 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1

8 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0

9 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1

10 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0

11 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0

12 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0

13 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1

14 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0

15 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1

Table 11: Truth table for 4-bit Binary and its Equivalent BCD

The minimized expression of outputs are as follows:

B1 = AC + ABC

B2 = AB + BC

B3 = ABC

B4 = AB + AC
B0 = D

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Fig. 14
Parity Generator:
Parity generators are circuits that accept an (n-1) bit data stream and generate an extra bit that is
transmitted with the bit stream. This extra bit is referred to as the parity bit. The parity added in
binary message is such that the total number of 1’s in the message can be either odd or even according
to the type of parity used.
Even Parity Generator:
The parity bit is ‘1’ if there are odd number of 1’s in the data stream and the parity bit is ‘0’ if there
are even number of 1’s in the data stream.
The minimized expression for even parity generator is
P=A⨁B⨁C⨁D
The logic diagram for the even parity generator is given as

Fig. 15
Odd Parity Generator:
The parity bit is ‘0’ for odd number of 1’s and ‘1’ for even number of 1’s in the bit stream.
The minimized expression for odd parity generator is
P = (A  C) (B  D)
The logic diagram of odd parity generator is given as

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Fig. 16
Sequential Circuits
Sequential circuit include memory elements to store past data.
The flip-flop is a basic element of sequential logic circuits.

Fig. 17
There are two types of sequential circuits:
1. Synchronous Sequential Circuits
2. Asynchronous Sequential Circuits

Difference between Synchronous and Asynchronous Sequential Circuits:

S.No. Synchronous Sequential Circuits Asynchronous Sequential Circuits

In synchronous circuits, the change in In asynchronous circuits, change in input

1. input signals can affect memory elements signals can affect memory elements at any
upon activation of clock signal. instant of time.
In asynchronous circuits, memory elements
In synchronous circuits, memory elements
2. are either unclocked FF’s or time delay
are clocked FF’s.
elements.
Since the clock is not present, asynchronous
The maximum operating speed of the clock
3. circuits can operate faster than synchronous
depends on time delays involved.
circuits.

4. They are easier to design. More difficult to design.

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5.

Table 12: Asynchronous and Synchronous Circuit

Difference between Latches and Flip-flops:
S.No. Latch Flip-flop
A flip-flop is an electronic sequential logic
A latch is an electronic sequential logic circuit used to store information in a
1. circuit used to store information in an synchronous arrangement. It has two stable
asynchronous arrangement. states and maintains its states for an indefinite
period until a clock pulse is applied.
One latch can store one-bit information,
One flip-flop can store one-bit data, but output
2. but output state changes only in
state changes with clock pulse only.
response to data input.
Latch is an asynchronous device and it Flip-flop has clock input and its output is
3.
has no clock input. synchronised with clock pulse.
Latch holds a bit value and it remains
Flip-flop holds a bit value and it remains
4. constant until new inputs force it to
constant until a clock pulse is received.
change.
Latches are level-sensitive, and the
output tracks the input when the level is Flip-flops are edge sensitive. They can store
5. high. Therefore, as long as the level is the input only when there is either a rising or
logic level 1, the output can change if falling edge of the clock.
the input changes.
Table 13: Latches and Flip Flops
RS Latch:

Fig. 18
SR Q Q Comment

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00 QQ Hold

01 01 Reset
10 10 Set
11 Illegal
Truth Table
Where Q is the next state and Q is the current state.

JK Flip Flop:

Fig. 19
JK Q Q Comment

00 QQ Hold

01 01 Reset
10 10 Set
11 QQ Toggle

Truth Table
T – Flip Flop:

Fig. 20
T Q Q Comment

0 QQ Hold

1 QQ Reset

Truth Table

D – Flip Flop:

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Fig. 21
Excitation tables:
QQ’ SR QQ’ JK QQ’ D QQ’ T
00 0X 00 0X 00 0 00 0
01 10 01 1X 01 1 01 1
10 01 10 X1 10 0 10 1
11 X0 X0 X0 11 1 11 0

• Q(n + 1) = S + RQ = D = JQ + KQ = TQ + TQ

• For ring counter total no. of states = n

• For twisted ring counter, total no. of states = “2n” (Johnson counter/switch tail ring counter).
• Master-slave circuit is used to counter the Race-around condition in JK flip flop. In Master slave Flip
Flop, master is level triggered and slave is edge triggered.
Propagation Delay Time:
Propagation delay time is the time interval required after an input signal has been applied for the
resulting output change to occur.
Set-up time (ts):
It is the minimum time interval required for the logic levels (0 or 1) to be maintained constantly on
the inputs (J, K or D) prior to the triggering edge of the clock pulse for the levels to be reliably clocked
into the flip-flop.

Fig. 22
Hold time (th):
It is the time for which the data must remain stable after the triggering edge of the clock.

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Clock-pulse width:
The minimum time duration for which the clock pulse must remain HIGH and LOW which are designed
by manufacturers. Failure to clock pulse width results in unreliable triggering.
Maximum clock frequency:
The maximum clock frequency (fmax) is the highest rate at which flip-flop can be reliably operated.
Designing of one Flip Flop by other flip flop
The steps for designing of one flip flop or new flip flop using existing or same existing flip flop.
Step 1: Write the characteristic table for the designed flip flop.
Step 2: Write the excitation table for the available flip flop.
Step 3: Write the logical expression.
Step 4: Minimize the logical expression.
Step 5: Circuit Implementation.
Shift Registers:
SISO (serial-in, serial-out) Shift Register
• It is the slowest shift register among all the shift registers.
• To store n-bits in a n-bit SISO register, then minimum “n” clock pulses are required.
• To retrieve n-bits from a n-bit SISO register, then minimum “(n-1)” clock pulses are
required.
SIPO (serial-in, parallel-out) Shift Register
• To store n-bits in a n-bit SIPO register, minimum “n” clock pulses are required.
• To retrieve n-bits from a n-bit SIPO register, no clock pulse is required.
PISO (parallel-in, serial-out) Shift Register
• To store n-bit in a n-bit PISO register, a single clock pulse is required.
• To retrieve n-bit from n-bit PISO register, minimum “(n-1)” clock pulses are required.
PIPO (parallel-in, parallel-out) Shift Register
• To store n-bit in n-bit PIPO register, only a single clock pulse is required.
• To retrieve n-bits from n-bit PIPO register, no clock pulse is required.
Universal shift register

Fig. 23
The function for the Universal Shift Register is as follows:
Mode Control Register
S1 S0 Operation

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0 0 No change
0 1 Shift right
1 0 Shift left
1 1 Parallel load
Table 14: Truth Table of Universal Shift Register

Applications of shift registers

(a) Delay line: A shift register can be used to introduce a delay (Δt) in signals

1
t = N 
fc

Where N is number of stages & fc is the clock frequency.

(b) Serial-to-parallel converter
(c) Parallel-to-serial converter
(d) Ring counter
(e) Twisted ring counter
(f) Sequence counter

Counters:
S.N Asynchronous Counter Synchronous Counter
o.
1. Clock input is applied to LSB FF. The Clock input is common to all FF.
output of first FF is connected as clock to
next FF.
2. All Flip-Flop are toggle FF. Any FF can be used.
3. Speed depends on number of FF used for Speed is independent of number of FF used.
n bit. fmax = 1/(n*tn) fmax = 1/tp
4. No extra logic Gates are required. Logic Gates required based on design.
5. Cost is less. Cost is more.
Table 15: Difference between Asynchronous(ripple) and Synchronous Counter
ADC & DAC

Analog to Digital converter (ADC):

FSV
• Resolution = where FSV means Full Scale Value
2n − 1
VR
• Quantization error = %
2n

• Flash type ADC: 2n−1 → comparators

2n → resistors

2n  n → Encoder

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2n 1 1
TC =  = 2n −1 
2 f clock f clock
Fastest ADC:
• Successive approximation ADC: n clock pulses.
• Counter type ADC: 2n – 1 clock pulses
• Dual slope integrating type: 2n+1 clock pulses.

Digital to Analog Converter (DAC):

 1 
• FSV = V R 1 − 
 2n 

Step size V R / 2n 1
• Resolution = = =  100%
FSV  1  2n − 1
VR 1 − n 
 2 
1 1
• Accuracy =  LSB =  n+1
2 2
• Analog output = K. digital output

FSM & Memory

Finite State Machines (FSM):
A general block diagram of clocked sequential circuit is also known as finite stable machine (FSM).
Depending upon the external outputs, there are two types of models of sequential circuits.
1. Mealy Model
2. Moore Model
Mealy model:
In mealy model, the next state of the function depends on present state as well as present inputs.
Moore Model:
In moore model, the next state depends on the present state and present inputs but also on the
outputs of more model.
The block diagram of a Moore model is given as

Fig. 24
MEMORY:

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Fig. 25

RAM:
Below table lists some of the differences between SRAM and DRAM:
SRAM DRAM
1. SRAM has lower access time, so it is faster 1. DRAM has higher access time, so it is
compared to DRAM. slower than SRAM.
2. SRAM is costlier than DRAM, 2. DRAM costs less compared to SRAM.
3. SRAM requires constant power supply, 3. DRAM offers reduced power
which means this type of memory consumes consumption, due to the fact that the
more power. information is stored in the capacitor.
4. Due to complex internal circuitry, less 4. Due to the small internal circuitry in the
storage capacity is available compared to the one-bit memory cell of DRAM, the large
same physical size of DRAM memory chip. storage capacity is available.
5. SRAM has low packaging density. 5. DRAM has high packaging density.
Table 16: Difference between SRAM and DRAM
ROM:
The required paths in a ROM may be programmed in four different ways.
Mask programming: fabrication process
Read-only memory or ROM: blown fuse/fuse intact
Erasable PROM or EPROM: placed under a special ultraviolet light for a given period will erase the
pattern in ROM.
Electrically erasable PROM(EEPROM): erased with an electrical signal instead of ultraviolet light.
PROM, PAL & PLA:

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Fig. 26
AND OR
Fixed Programmable PROM
Programmable Fixed PAL
Programmable Programmable PLA
Table 17: AND & OR Gates in PROM, PAL and PLA
Logic Family

• Figure of Merit, FOM = TPD  PD

where, TPD is the average transition delay time for the signal to propagate from input to output
of logic gate.
and, PD is the power drawn from power supply.
IOH I
• Fan out of a logic gate = or OL
IIH IIL

• Noise margin: NM H = VOH – VIH or NM L = VOL – VIL

VOH  VIH  VIL  VOL

Noise-Margin = min(NMH , NML )

• Logic swing: VOH - VOL

• Power Dissipation,

1 + _ I 
PD = VCC ICC = Vcc  
 2 
I → Ic when output low.
I → Ic when output high.

• TTL , ECL & CMOS are used for MSI or SSI.

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• I2L has best FOM.

• RTL , DTL , TTL → saturated logic
ECL → Unsaturated logic
• Advantages of Active pullup; increased speed of operation, less power consumption.
• For TTL floating input is considered as logic “1” & for ECL it is logic “0”.
• “MOS” mainly used for LSI & VLSI. Fan out is too high.
• ECL is the fastest gate & consumes more power.
• CMOS is the slowest gate & less power consumption.
• NMOS is faster than CMOS.
• Gates with open collector output can be used for wired AND operation (TTL).
• Gates with open emitter output can be used for wired OR operation (ECL).
• 1024 × 8 memory can be obtained by using 1024 × 2 memories.
• Number of memory ICs of capacity 1k × 4 required to construct memory of capacity 8k × 8 are
“16”
*****

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IMPORTANT FORMULAS TO REMEMBER

CHAPTER 1 - SEMICONDUCTOR BASICS

1. Types of materials:
a. Insulators
• At room temperature, an insulator does not conduct. However, it may conduct if its
temperature is very high or if a high voltage is applied across it. This phenomenon is termed
the breakdown of the insulator.
Example: diamond.
b. Semiconductors
• At 0°K, semiconductor materials have the same structure as insulators except for the
difference in the size of the bandgap EG, which is much smaller in semiconductors (EG ~ 1 eV)
than in insulators.
Example: Ge and Si.
c. Metals
• Without supplying any additional energy such as heat or light, a metal already contains many
free electrons, which is why it works as a good conductor.
Example: Al. Cu etc.
2. Thermal Voltage VT OR VTH
"Volt-equivalent of temperature"

kT
VT =
q

T
or VT = volts
11600

where T = Temperature in kelvin

VT ~ 26 mV
1.For silicon, EG(T) = 1.21 – 3.60 × 10–4 T
and at room temperature (300°K), EG = 1.1 eV
2.Similarly, for germanium, EG(T) = 0.785 – 2.23 × 10–4 T
and at room temperature, EG = 0.72 eV
• Free electrons and holes are always get generated in pairs. Therefore, the concentration of free
electrons and holes will always be equal in an intrinsic semiconductor
n = p = ղi
Where ղi is called the intrinsic concentration.

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4. Effect of Temperature on Conductivity of Intrinsic Semiconductor
 EG 
− 0 
 kT 
n2i = A0 T3 e  

Where EG0: Energy gap at 0K in eVs

k: Boltzmann's constant in eV/K
A0: Material constant independent of temperature
5. The Mass-Action Law
The law of mass action states that the product of the number of electrons in the conduction band
and the number of holes in the valence band is constant at a fixed temperature and is

independent of the amount of donor and acceptor impurity added .

np = 2i

For a p-type semiconductor,

2i
np =
pp

For an n-type semiconductor,

2i
pn =
nn

6. Transport Phenomena In Semiconductors:

6.1 Mobility:
V = μE

 qt 
⇒ V = E
m

qt
∴ =
m

drift velocity
=
fieldintencity

vd m2 cm2
= → unit or
E V− s V− s
• In a semiconductor, mobility of charge carriers depends on:
i. Temperature
ii. Doping concentration
  T −m  decrease as a non-linear variation.

Where m= material constant

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6.2. Mobility versus E graph:

Figure: Mobility versus E graph

  T −m

Where, for Ge: m =1.66 for e and 2.33 for hole

for Si: m = 2.5 for e– and 2.7 for hole
Table 2:

Parameter Ge Si GaAs

Electron mobility (μn) 3800 cm2/V-s 1300 cm2/V-s 5800 cm2/V-s

Hole mobility (μp) 1800 cm2/V-s 500 cm2/V-s 400 cm2/V-s

 
Ratio  n  2.1: 1 2.6: 1 14.5: 1
 p 
 

• If n p is greater then, the material will offer minimum switching time.

• In a semiconductor, the mobility of charge carriers depends on various types of SCATTERING

such as:
1. LATTICE scattering
2. IMPURITY scattering
3. SURFACE scattering
• Due to this, the resultant mobility of charge carriers is given by μ, and the mathematical
formula is given by:
1 1 1 1
= + + ,
 1 2 3

Taken one at a time, keeping others as constant.

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7. Current Density

Therefore,
Nq Nqv  L
l= =  v=
T L  T 

l Nqv
∴ Current density = =
A LA

 N 
⇒ J = qv   [Unit of J = amp/m2]
 LA 
N
since, = n(electron concentration in electrons per cubic meter).
LA
∴ J = nqv = ρv
8. Conductivity
From the above discussion
J = nqv = nqμE = σE
i. For semiconductors conductivity
σ = nqμn + pqμp
ii. For intrinsic semiconductor

( )
i =  i n + p q

iii. For n-type semiconductor

n >> p
∴ n n q n

but, n ~ ND

so, n NDqn

iv. For p-type semiconductor

p >> n
p pq p

but, p ~ NA

so, p NA qp

8.1 Conductivity Vs Temperature

• As we know that in metals, the resistivity of metal increases with an increase in temperature.
So, the conductivity of metals decreases with an increase in temperature.

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• In pure semiconductors, conductivity mainly depends upon the number of charge carriers.
So, in a semiconductor, conductivity increases with temperature.
• For a 1°C increase in temperature, the conductivity of Ge increases by 6%, while in Si, it
increases by 8%.
• The conductivity of extrinsic semiconductors decreases above normal temperature with
temperature.
9. Diffusion and Drift of Carriers

dn ( x )
Jn ( x ) = qnn ( x ) E(x) + q Dn
dx

Drift Diffusion

dp ( x )
Jp ( x ) = qpp ( x ) E ( x ) − qDp
dx
The total current density is the sum of the contributions due to electrons holes
J(x) = Jn(x) + Jp(x)

10. Length of Diffusion

Figure 22
Length of diffusion is given as below,

L = D  cm

D = Diffusion constant for charge carrier (cm 2/s)

 = Carrier life-time or mean life time of minority carriers (s).
11. Einstein Relationship:

Dp Dn
= = VT
p n

where VT is the "volt-equivalent of temperature."

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12. The Hall Effect:

qE = Bvq

VH I
E= and J= vρ =
d wd
Combining these relationships, we find

BJd BI
VH = Ed = Bvd = =
 w

It is customary to introduce the Hall coefficient RH defined by

1
RH =


VHw
RH =
BI

⇒ Hall coefficient, RH  Temperature coefficient of resistance of given specimen.

⇒ For metals, σ is larger, VH is small.
⇒For semiconductors, σ is small, VH is large.
Applications:
Hall effect is used in many applications as following:
• measurement of magnetic flux density.
• measurement of displacement.
• measurement of current.
• measurement of power in Electro-magnetic waves.
• determination of mobility of semiconductor material.

13. COMPENSATED SEMICONDUCTOR

13.1 N-type compensated semiconductor:
Let ND>NA
By the law of electrical neutrality:

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2
(ND − NA )  N − NA  2
n= +  D  + ni  nn
2  2 

ni2
So, pn= (minority carrier concentration in N-type compensated semiconductor)
nn

13.2 P-type compensated semiconductor:

Let, NA > ND
By the law of electrical neutrality:
2
(NA − ND )  N − ND  2
p= +  A  + ni
2  2 

14. Minimum Conductivity In Semiconductors

P
1. n = ni
n

n
2. p = ni
P

3.  n = 2nq
i n P

14.1 Equation for donor concentration for N-type semiconductor when  is MINIMUM:

P 
ND = ni − ni n
n P
  n 
ND = ni  P − 
 n P 

14.2 Equation for acceptor concentration for P-type semiconductor when  is

MINIMUM:

n 
NA = ni − np P
P n
  P 
NA = ni  n − 
 P n 

15. The Fermi Level

1
f (E ) =
1+e(E −EF ) /kT

• The function f(E), the Fermi-Dirac distribution function, gives the probability that an electron
will occupy an available energy state of E at absolute temperature T. The quantity E F is called
the Fermi level.
1
• If E = EF then f (E ) = = 0.5 or 50%
2
If E > EF then f(E) < ½
If E > EF then f(E) > ½

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•

Figure: The Fermi Dirac distribution function

Figure: Schematic band diagram, the density of states, Fermi-Dirac distribution and
the carrier concentrations for (a) Intrinsic, (b) n-type and (c) p-type semiconductors
at thermal equilibrium
15.1 Fermi Level in Intrinsic Semiconductor
In an intrinsic semiconductor, Fermi level EF is given by
Ec + Ev 1 N 
EF = − kT ln  c 
2 2  Nv 
Where NC = density of states in the conduction band
Nv = density of states in the valence band
In pure Semiconductor at T = 0K, Fermi level lies in the middle of the bandgap.
15.2 Fermi Level in the n-type semiconductor
Fermi level in an n-type semiconductor is given by
N 
EF = Ec – kT ln  c 
N 
 D
Where ND = doping concentration.

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• Fermi level in n-type semiconductors depends on temperature as well as on doping
concentration.
• At 0K, the Fermi level coincides with that of the lowest energy level of the conduction band.
• As doping increases, the Fermi level moves towards the conduction band.
• A shift in Fermi level in an n-type semiconductor with respect to the Fermi level of an intrinsic
semiconductor is
n
shift = kT ln  
 ni 
 
N 
shift ≅ kT ln  D 
 ni 
 
15.3 Fermi Level in the p-type semiconductor
Fermi level in the p-type semiconductor is given by
N 
EF = EV + kT ln  V 
NA 
 
• In a p-type semiconductor, the Fermi level depends on both temperature and doping
concentration NA.
• As temperature increases, the Fermi level moves away from EV, i.e. towards the middle of the
bandgap.
• As 0K Fermi level coincides with the highest energy level EV of the valence band.
• As doping concentration increases, Fermi level moves toward EV or away from the middle of
the bandgap
• Shift in Fermi level in a p-type semiconductor with respect to Fermi level of intrinsic
semiconductor as
p 
shift = kT ln  
 ni 
 
N 
shift ≅ kT ln  A 
 ni 
 
16. Optical Absorption
• A photon with energy less than Eg cannot excite an electron from the valence band to the
conduction band. Thus, in a pure semiconductor, there is negligible absorption of photons with
h  < Eg.
• If a beam of photons with h  > Eg falls on a semiconductor, there will be some predictable
amount of absorption, determined by the properties of the material
16.1 The intensity of light transmitted through the sample thickness l is

l ( x ) = l0e− x

lt = l0e− l

• The coefficient 𝛼 is called the absorption coefficient and has units of cm–1. This coefficient
will, of course, vary with the photon wavelength and with the material.

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17. Continuity Equations
n 1 n n
=  JN + +
t q t Therman
R −G
t Other
processes

p 1 p p
= −  Jp + +
t q t Therman
R −G
t Other
processes

Also

dp p − po 2 p  ( pE )
= + Dh 2 − h
dt h x x

dn n − no 2n  ( nE )
=− + Dn 2 − h
dt e x x

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CHAPTER 2 - PN JUNCTION DIODE

1. Equation for contact potential:

Let the PN junction is kept either open-circuit condition or unbiased condition.
Mathematically,
1.1. Contact potential :
V0 = Vbi
N N 
V0 = Vbi = VT In  A 2 D  ← Unit in Volts
 ni 
Also with temperature

N N 
 V0 = VTIn  A2 D 
 ni  

NOTE:
• Contact Potential, V0 is a function of temperature.
• Contact Potential, V0 decreases with the temperature.
• For 10C rise in temperature, V0 decreases by 2.5 mV.

1.2. Electric Field:

 ( x ) = −qNA ; − x  x  0

 ( x ) = qND ; 0 < x < xn

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Maximum electric field will be at x = 0, we have
−qNA −qND
Emax = xp = xn
 
1.3.1 Equation for width of depletion layer W:
NAxp = NDxn

2   N D  1 
xP =    V0
q  N A  N A +N D 

2   N A  1 
xn =    V0
q  N D  N A +N D 

W = xn + xp
Therefore, from the above equations, we get

2ε  1 1 
W=  +  V0 (Unit is metres)
q  NA ND 

Where,
ϵ = Permittivity in F/m
ϵ = ϵ0 ϵr
ϵ0 = Absolute Permittivity of free space = 8.854 × 10-12 F/m = 8.854 × 10-14 F/cm
And,
ϵr = Relative permittivity of a medium
The dielectric constant of the material used
ϵr = 11.7 (Si)
NOTE:
• The maximum electric field in the junction
2V0
Emax = − , for the case of zero applied voltage
W
−2 ( V0 + VR )
Emax = , for the case of applied reverse-biased voltage VR
W
where W is the total width of the depletion region.

1.3.2 Reverse bias configuration:

2  1 1 
W=  +  (|V0 |+|VRB |)
q  NA ND 

2  1 1 
W=  +  Vi
q  NA ND 

Vi = |V0| + |VRB|

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Figure 2
• Cut-in voltage decreases with a rise in temperature. For 1°C rise in temperature, the cut-in
dV o
voltage decreases by 2.5 mV, i.e. = − 2.5 mV C.
dT
• I0 approximately increases by 7% for every 1°C increase in temperature.
• I0 doubles for every 10°C rise in temperature.
T2 − T1
I0 ( T ) = I0 ( T ) (2) 10
2 1

1. Forward bias configuration:

 AqDpPn0 AqDnnp0   nVT 

VD

If =  +  e − 1
 LP Ln   
Also,
n i2
p n0 =
ND

ni2
np0 =
NA

 AqDp AqDn  2 V / n
If =  +
NALn 
ni e D VT − 1 ( )
 LpND

AqDp
= If due to flow of holes from P side to N side
LpND

AqDn
= If due to flow of electrons from N side to the P side
NALn

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Also,

Lp = Dp  p
Ln = Dn n

Hence,

 Aq  2 V / V
 ni ( e D T − 1)
Dp Aq Dn
I = +
f
 ND p NA n 
 
The reverse saturation current in the Forward bias diode is:
 AqDpPn0 AqDnnp0 
Is =  + 
 Lp Ln 

 AqDp AqDn  2
Is =  +
LnNA 
ni
 LpND

 Aq Dp Aq Dn  2
Is =  +  ni
 ND p NA n 
 
A = Cross-Sectional Area of Junction

2. Volt-Ampere Characteristics of a p-n Junction Diode

Figure 1: PN Junction Characteristics

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3. Diode Resistance

 VT
r
I

4. Capacitive Effects in the p-n Junction

Transition or depletion layer capacitance:
A
CT = CJ = = Unit is Farads.
W
A = Cross Sectional Area Of junction
W = Width of Depletion Region
CT ∝ A
CT ∝ 1/W
For better performance of diode or BJT, the value of C T must be as small as possible.
In a reverse-biased PN junction, the transition capacitance, CT
CT ∝ V-n
n = grading coefficient
n = 1/2; for Step graded diode (abrupt PN Junction diode)
= 1/3; for Linear graded diode
5. Diffusion Capacitance
I
CD =
 VT

Where η is a constant dependent upon semiconductor, VT is volt equivalent temperature, and 𝜏

is the mean lifetime of minority carriers.
NOTE
• For a reverse bias junction, CD may be neglected compared with CT (transition capacitance).
• For a forward bias junction, the CD is usually much larger than CT
• Diffusion capacitance CD is proportional to the current I.
6. ZENER DIODES
• Basically, a p-n junction with little increase in doping level (1:105) aria is fabricated only with
Si.
• Generally designed with normal junction and popularly known as constant voltage device.

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• It can be used as a reference voltage device.
• Major application is as a voltage regulator circuit and can be used as a clipper.
• Always operated under reverse bias.
• When forward bias, it will be working as a normal diode with cut-in voltage 0.6 V or 0.7 V.
• Zener diode is specified in terms of breakdown voltage and maximum power dissipation.
• Zener diodes are commercially available with breakdown voltages in the range of 2.5 V – 300
V.

Figure 2: Circuit symbol of Zener diode

6.1Resistance of Zener Diode

V Z
RZ = 
IZ

For the ideal Zener diode, dynamic resistance is zero.

6.2 Equivalent Circuit of Zener Diode

Case-I: When Zener diode is in forward bias

Figure3 : (a) Zener diode in forward bias and (b) Equivalent circuit
Forward bias Zener diode can be replaced by a cut-in voltage
Case-II: When Zener diode is in reverse bias

Figure 4 : (a) Zener diode in reverse bias (b) & (c) Equivalent circuit

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CHAPTER 3 - BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR

1. Introduction:
Generally, the sequence of the length of the three regions is WB < WE < WC.

Figure1: (a) Simplified block diagram of n-p-n (b) Simplified block diagram of p-n-p and
(c) circuit symbol of n-p-n and (d) circuit symbol of p-n-p bipolar transistors

(a) Emitter Region

• A region that supplies or emits majority carriers, for example, a p-n-p transistor emitter,
will supply holes, and in an n-p-n transistor, it supplies electrons.
• Emitter is heavily doped so that it can emit a large number of carriers.
• Impurities are added in the ratio 1:103.

(b) Collector Region

• A region that receives or collects majority carriers coming from emitter
• It is moderately doped and largest.
• Large collector will help in rapid transfer of heat to the surroundings.
• In a transistor, collector junction develops a large amount of heat because it operates at
higher current and higher voltage
• If the collector is lightly doped, its conductivity will decrease, which is undesired,
• If the collector is heavily doped, the breakdown voltage of the collector junction will
decrease, which is undesired. Therefore, the collector is moderately doped so that it has
better conductivity and the collector junction has a higher breakdown voltage.

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(c) Base Region

• A region through which majority carriers travel from emitter to collector.
• Base is lightly doped and small in size, i.e. it has a narrow width.
• The number of electron-hole recombination inside the base will be reduced by keeping it
narrow and lightly doping it.
• Impurities are added in ratio 1:108.
• The depletion layer around the emitter junction penetrates more into the base region and
less into the emitter region. This is because the emitter is heavily doped as compared to
the base.
• The depletion layer around the collector junction penetrates more into the base region
and less into the collector region. This is because the collector is heavily doped, whereas
the base is lightly doped.
• The depletion layer penetrates more into the collector region and less into the emitter
region. Therefore, the depletion layer formed at the collector junction is larger than that
formed at the emitter junction.
2. Transistor Biasing
2.1. Modes of Operation
Emitter Base Collector Base
S. No. Mode Properties Application
Junction Junction
Very high
1. Cut-off Reverse bias Reverse bias internal OFF switch
resistance
Excellent
2. Active Forward bias Reverse bias transistor Amplifier
action
Very low
3. Saturation Forward bias Forward bias internal ON switch
resistance
Very poor Attenuator
Reverse
4. Reverse bias Forward bias transistor (Practically
active
action not used)

Table-1: BJT modes of operation

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2.1.1. Emitter Efficiency (γ)
The emitter or injection, efficiency γ is defined as
Currentof injected carriers at JE due to carriers of emitter
=
Total emitter current
In the case of the p-n-p transistor, we have
IpE IpE
= =
IpE + InE IE

IpE is injected hole diffusion current at emitter junction, and InE is injected electron diffusion
current at emitter Junction.
2.1.2 Transport Factor (β*)
Injected carrier current reaching JC
Transport factor β* is defined as, * =
Injected carrier current at JE

In the case of the p-n-p transistor, we have

IpC
* =
IpE

2.1.3 Large Signal Current Gain (𝜶)

The large signal current gain of a common base transistor is defined as the ratio of the negative
of the collector-current increment to the emitter-current change from zero (cut-off) to IE.
IC − ICO
=−
IE

Since IC and IE have opposite signs, then  , as defined, it is always positive.

• Typical numerical value of 𝛼 lies in the range of 0.90 to 0.995.
• From the above equations,
IpC IpC IpE
= =
IE IpE IE

⇒  = β*𝛾
• In the figure below, the arrow indicates the direction of current flow through the emitter
junction when it is forward bias.
• ICBO: It is the current flowing from collector to base when the emitter is open-circuited
ICBO = ICO
• ICEO: It is the current flowing from collector to emitter when the base is open-circuited.

ICO ICBO
ICEO = (1 +  ) ICO = ICEO = (1 +  ) ICBO =
1− 1−

• A BJT will behave like a diode if the collector is shorted to the base (i.e. V CB = 0). Such a BJT
s called a diode-connected transistor.

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Figure 2
• When collector and base are shorted together, BJT behaves like a single junction device
because the voltage VBE across JE will decide current passing through BJT. In this case, the
current through diode-connected transistor will be equal to the current passing through JE i.e.
VBE / V T
I = I EO e

Where IEO = Reverse saturation current of JE.

Minority Carrier Distribution in an n-p-n Bipolar Transistor Operating in the Forward-

Active Mode

υ 
i C =Is exp  BE 
 vT 
iC

iE
iC
=
iB
Where β is called the common-emitter current gain.

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3. Early Voltage
3.1 Base Width Modulation:
When BJT is biased in the active region, the Emitter Junction (JE) is forward-biased, but the
collector junction is reverse-biased, then in Fig (19), the barrier width at JE is negligible as
compared to space-charge width W at JC
The transition region at the junction is a region of uncovered charges on both sides of the
junction at positions occupied by impurity atoms. As the voltage applied across the junction
increases, the transition region penetrates deeper into the collector and base. As neutrality of
charges must be maintained, so the number of uncovered charges on each side remains equal.
Since the doping in the base is substantially smaller than that of the collector, the penetration
of the transition region into the base is much larger than that in the collector. Hence, the collector
depletion region is neglected in the figure below, and all immobile charges are indicated in the
base region.

Figure-3: The potential variation through p-n-p transistor

If metallurgical base width is WB, then the effective electrical base width is W'B = WB – W. This
modulation of effective base width by collector voltage is known as the Early effect or Base
width modulation.

3.2 Consequences of Early Effect

The decrease in W'B with an increase in reverse collector voltage has three consequences:
• When |VCB| is increased, the effective base width of the transistor decreases, so there are
fewer chances of recombination of charge carriers within the base region. As a result, 
increases with increasing |VCB|.
• With the decrease in base width, the concentration gradient of minority carriers is increased
within the base. As we have,
IE ~ IpE
where IpE is diffusion current and is given by

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dp p
IpE 
dx WB

here W'B is an effective base-width

p
With the increase in VCB , increases due to decrease in base-width. As a result, IpE increases
WB

and consequently, IE also increases. Hence, we see that IE increases due to an increase in the
gradient of concentration of holes.
Also, in BJT, the voltage applied across one junction affects current passing through other
junctions. Therefore, junctions JE and JC are called interactive junctions.
• At the large value of |VCB| depletion region can fully occupy the base region or, in other words,
for extremely large voltages, W'B may be reduced to zero. This phenomenon is known as punch-
through or reach through.
When punch-through occurs, effective base width becomes zero arid collector region gets
electrically shorted to the emitter. Due to this shorting, the negative voltage applied at the
collector reaches the emitter also. This results in heavy current flow, which can damage the
transistor.
Avalanche Breakdown
The condition for avalanche breakdown is given as
M = 2
Where M is the multiplication factor, usually written as

1
M= n
 V 
1 −  CB 
 BVCBO 
Where n is an empirical constant, usually between 3 and 6, and BV CBO is the B-C breakdown
voltage with the emitter left open. Now, if we assume

VCB  VCE
Applying it to the above equation, we get the required condition for avalanche breakdown as


n
=1
 BV 
1 −  CEO 
 BVCBO 
Where BVCEO is the C-E voltage at the breakdown in the open base configuration. Solving for
BVCEO, we get

BVCEO = BVCBOn 1 − 
Where  is the common-base current gain. Since the common-emitter and common-base


current gains are related by =
1− 
Normally   1, so we have

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1
1−  

Hence, the above equation can also be written as

BVCBO
BVCEO = n

n
i.e. the breakdown voltage in the open-base configuration is smaller, by the factor  , than
the actual avalanche junction breakdown voltage.
Alpha (α)
• In the dc mode, the levels of IC and IE due to the majority carries are related by a quantity
called alpha and defined by the following equation:

IC
oc =
IE


=
1−

or  =
 +1

IC

IB

The average time a carrier takes to travel from emitter junction to collector, i.e. to travel through
the base region, is called transits time '𝜏t', which is given as

WB2
t =
2DB

where 𝜏t = Transit time

WB = Base width and
DB = Diffusion constant

IE I + IB
= = C =1+
IB IB

1
 = 1+ =
1− 

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CHAPTER 4 - MOS CAPACITOR

1. Introduction To MOS Capacitor:

Figure 1
1.1 MOS-CAP with P-Type substrate: -
A. Accumulation Mode: -
Gate is negatively biased with respect to the substrate.
Accumulation charges are positive
B. Depletion Mode:-
GATE is positively biased with respect to the substrate with smaller V.
A region of negative IMMOBILE IONS is created near the surface or interface.
Width of space charge region, mathematically given as:-

2  s
XdT = 
q NA
where Φs = Surface Potential
Φs = 2Φf

2  s 4  f
or XdT =  =
q NA qNA
C. Inversion Mode:-
GATE is positively biased with respect to a substrate with a larger V.
The inversion charge is negative due to electrons.
1.2 MOS-CAP with N-Type Substrate: -
A. Accumulation Mode:
GATE is positively biased with respect to the substrate.
The accumulation charge is negative.
B. Depletion Mode: -
GATE is negatively biased with respect to the substrate by smaller voltage.
A region of positive immobile ions is created near the interface.

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Width of Depletion Region:-

2 s
XdT =
qND

s = 2f

4  f
XdT =
qND
C. Inversion Mode:-
GATE is negatively biased with respect to the substrate by larger voltage.
Inversion charge of positive charges, i.e. holes are created.

2. Energy Band Diagram & Fermi Level In MOS Capacitor: -

The Basic structure of MOS CAPACITOR with P-type substrate is given below:

Figure 3

The Energy Band diagram of the given MOS Capacitor under the UNBIASED CONDITION, i.e.
V = 0 given below:

Figure 4

EFP = Fermi level of P TYPE substrate

EFS = Fermi level of substrate
The Energy Band diagram for different modes of operation is given below for MOS CAPACITOR
with P-type substrate.

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A. Under Accumulation Mode:-
GATE is negatively biased with respect to the P TYPE Substrate.

Figure 5
NOTE:
Valence Band edge is closer to the Fermi level, E F at the oxide semiconductor Interface, and this
indicates there is an ACCUMULATION OF HOLES OR positive charges.
The semiconductor surface appears to be more P TYPE near the interface when compared to the
BULK.

B. Under Depletion-Mode:-
The GATE must be positive with respect to the substrate by a smaller voltage.

Figure 6

NOTE:
• The conduction band and valence bend near the OXIDE SC INTERFACE, indicating a space
charge region similar to a PN JUNCTION MODE.
• A Potential difference is generated within the space charge region and is called SURFACE
POTENTIAL, Fs

C. Under Inversion Mode:

GATE is positive with respect to the substrate by larger voltage.

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Figure 7
3. Flat Band Voltage (VFB):
• The Flat Band Voltage (VFB) is mathematically given as:-

QOX
VFM = MS −  Volts
COX

Where MS = metal-semiconductor work function difference expressed in volts.

Also, MS = M − S  Volts

M = work function of metal(in volts).

S = work function of semiconductor (in volts).

Cox =Oxide capacitance per unit cross-sectional area ( F/m2).

OX
COX =  F / m2
tOX
The equation for threshold voltage in terms of Flat band voltage for MOS Capacitor:
VT = VFB + 2f
Also,

QOX
VT = MS − + 2 f
COX
qQ 'SS  tOX
VT = MS − + 2 f
OX

4. General Equations OF MOS Capacitor

Surface Potential:-

S = 2f where, f = Fermi potential

N 
FN = − VT ln  D  
 ni  
Also,   in Volts
 NA  
FP = + VT ln  
 ni  

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5. Width Of Depletion Layer:-
• For P-TYPE Substrate ( N Channel)

2  s
XdT = 
q NA

4 FP
= 
q NA
• For N-TYPE Substrate (P Channel)

2  s
XdT = 
q ND

4 FN
= 
q ND

6. Characteristic Curve Of MOS Capacitor:-

Figure (For P-type substrate)

Figure 9 (For N-type substrate)

• In MOS capacitor, the maximum capacitance is given by SiO2 and is given as Ci (CSiO2)
• The maximum capacitance is obtained when the MOS capacitor is operated either in:
1) Accumulation Mode,
2) Inversion Mode

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• The maximum capacitance in the MOS capacitor is obtained under STRONG ACCUMULATION
and STRONG INVERSION.
• The minimum capacitance is obtained under Depletion Mode.
• The point where the minimum capacitance is obtained is called THRESHOLD POINT.
• The threshold voltage of MOSFET is defined as the value of GATE voltage where the
capacitance is minimum.
• The maximum capacitance or the insulating capacitance is given as:-

i
Ci or Cmax =
d
SiO 2
Ci or Cmax =  F / cm2
tOX
• The diffusion capacitance,

sub
CD =
W

CD = sub  F / cm2
XdT
• CD is also called Depletion layer capacitance.
• The minimum capacitance in the MOS capacitor is the series combination of Ci and CD

Ci  CD
Cmin =
Ci + Cd
• In MOS capacitor, the ratio of maximum capacitance to the minimum capacitance is given
as:-
Cmax X 
= 1 + dT . OX
Cmin tOX sub

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CHAPTER 5 - MOSFET

1. Comparison Between DMOSFET And EMOSFET

D-MOSFET E-MOSFET
(i) It can operate in depletion and
It can operate in enhancement mode only.
enhancement mode.
(ii) There is pre-existing There is no pre-existing channel
(iii) Depletion gate is always reverse
Gate is forward biased with the drain.
biased with drain.
(iv) ID < IDSS ID > IDSS

1.1. Basic construction of MOSFET:

Fig1: n-channel enhancement type MOSFET

1.2 Basic Operation and Characteristics

Figure 2:- Channel formation in the n-channel enhancement type MOSFET.

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(i) At VDS < VGS – VT
• An increase in VDS causes the ID to increase linearly, and the MOSFET behaves as a resistance.
• This region is called linear region or resistive region, or non-saturated region.
(ii) At VDS = VGS – VT
• This result in a slow increase of ID with an increase in VDS.
(iii) At VDS > VGS –VT
• Further increase in VDS produces no change in current, and the current saturation occurs.
• This region is also called the saturation region
• In this region, the drain current flow is ideally independent of the V DS.

1.3 Drain and transfer characteristics of E-MOSFET

Figure 3:- Drain characteristics of enhancement type

n-channel MOSFET.

Figure4:- Transfer characteristics of EMOSFET

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2. Comparison Of NMOS & PMOS:
NMOS PMOS
Linear region
(i) Linear region
VSG > |VTP|
VGS > VTN and VDS < VGS – VTN
VSD < VSG – |VTP|
W V2 
ID = nCox ( VGS − VTN ) VDS − DS  W V2 
L  2  ID = pCox ( VSG − | VTP |) VSD − SD 
L  2 

(ii) Saturation region Saturation region

VGS > VTN VSG > |VTP|
VDS > VGS – VT VSD > VSG – |VTP|
1 W 2 1 W 2
ID =
2
nCox
L
( VGS − VTN ) ID =
2
nCox
L
( VSG − | VTP |)

(iii) Transition point Transition point

VDS(sat) = VGS – VTN VSD(sat) = VSG – |VTP|
(iv) Enhancement mode Enhancement mode
VTN > 0 VTP < 0
(V) Depletion mode Depletion mode
VTN < 0 VTP > 0

Where, L = technology dependent parameter (1 to 10 µm)

W = technology dependent parameter (2 to 500 µm)
r (SiO ) = 3.9  oxide permitivily
2

= 3.9 × 8.85 × 10–12 F/m

W µr ( siO2 )
µncox = =
2 tox

tox = oxide thickness (2 to 50 nm)

2.1. RON Resistance of MOSFET
When the voltage applied between VDS is kept small, the device operates as a linear resistor
whose value is controlled by
1
R ON =
W
µnCox ( V – VT )
L GS
W
& gm = µnCox ( V – VT )
L GS
3. Threshold Voltage
The threshold voltage depends upon the number of parameters
• Gate conducting material
• Gate insulation material

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• Gate insulator thickness-Channel doping
• Impurities at the silicon-insulator interface
• The voltage between the source and substrate
(Note: In addition, the absolute value of the threshold voltage decreases with an increase in
temperature. This variation is approx. –4mV/°C for high substrate doping levels and
–2mV/°C for low doping levels.)

Where,
VT(mos) = Ideal threshold voltage of MOS capacitor
Vfb = Flat band voltage
QfC = Fixed charge due to surfaces infected because of imperfection in the silicon dioxide
interface and doping.
ϕmS = ϕgate – ϕsi = work function difference between gate material and the silicon substrate

Note:
• VT(MOS) is the threshold voltage with no work function difference between the gate and
substrate materials.
• Bulk potential accounts for the doping of the substrate. It represents the difference between
the Fermi energy level of the doped semiconductor and the Fermi energy level of the intrinsic
semiconductor.
• The energy required for an electron to move from the Fermi level into free space is called
work function = qϕs.)

ID
Transconductance, gm =
VGS VDS = const

W
gives, gm = [VGS – VT ] = nCox [V – VT ]
L GS
(in the linear region, refer to figure 10)

W 2ID
gm = 2nCox ID =
L VGS – VT

(Note: For a given MOSFET, gm is proportional to the square root of the dc bias current. At a

W
given bias, current gm is proportional to ).
L

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W W
= constant = constant
L L
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 5
1
gm
VGS – VT

W W
= var iable → gm
L L
• gm is the figure of merit of MOSFET
• Indicates how well a device convert a voltage to a current or in other words, gm is the
property by which a MOSFET convert an input voltage to an output current
• gds is the property by which a MOSFET convert an input voltage to an output drain current
4. Transconductance.
If we consider an n-channel MOSFET operating in the non-saturation region, then we have
ID WnCox
gmL = = .VDS
VGS L

The transconductance in the saturation region of operation is given by

ID (sat) WnCox
gms = = (VGS – VT )
VGS L

5. Body Effect

VT = VtO +   2f + Vsb – 2f 

 

2qNA s
Where,  = called body effect parameter
Cox

Where, q = 1.6 × 10–19 C

NA = doping concentration of p-type substrate
ϵS = permittivity of silicon
ϕf = physical parameter (typically 0.3V)
5.1 Impacts of Body Effect
• As Vsb increases, threshold voltage VT increases.
• Can cause degradation in circuit performance

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5.2 Methods of Reducing Threshold voltage (VT)
• The silicon nitride approach uses a layer Si3N4 and SiO2, whose dielectric constant is about
twice that of SiO2.
• Polycrystalline silicon doped with boron is used as a gate electrode instead of aluminium.
6. CMOS Inverter
The complementary MOS using P-MOS and N-MOS is shown below

Figure 6: CMOS Inverter

PMOS – Called load transistor or Pull – up device

NMOS – Called Driver transistor or Pull-down device

Figure 7

6.1 Summary of CMOS Inverter operation

Region Condition P-MOS N-MOS o/p equation

A 0 < Vin < VTN Linear Cut-off Vo = VDD

VDD
B VTN  Vin  Linear Saturation Eqn.(A)
2

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VDD
C Vin = Saturation Saturation Vo≠ f (Vin)
2
VDD
D  Vin  VDD – | VTP | Saturation Linear Eqn (B)
2
Vo=VSS or
E Vin > VDD –|VTP| cut-off Linear
0V

Equation (A):

 V  
Vo = Vin – | VTP | + (Vin – VTP )2 – 2  Vin − DD – VTP  – n (Vin – VTN )2
 2  p

Equation (B):

p
Vo = Vin – | VTP | + (Vin – | VTP |)2 – (Vin – VDD – VTN )2
n

7. Comparison Of JFET And MOSFET

• JFETs can only be operated in the depletion mode, whereas MOSFETs can be operated in
either depletion or enhancement mode. In a JFET, if the gate is forward biased excess carrier
junction occurs, and the gate current is substantial. Thus, channel conductance is enhanced
to some degree due to excess carriers, but the device is never operated with gate forward-
biased because gate current is undesirable.
• MOSFETs have input impedance much higher than that of FET. This is due to negligible
leakage current (typically 10–15 A).

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CHAPTER 6 - SPECIAL DIODES

1. Tunnel Diode
A tunnel diode is a high conductivity two terminal p-n junction diode doped heavily about 1000
times higher than a conventional junction diode.
1.1Current-Voltage characteristic
Figure 1 shows the current-voltage characteristic of a tunnel diode. If the tunnel diode is reversed
biased, then it acts like a good conductor, i.e. the reverse current increases with increasing
reverse voltage.

Figure 1: Current-Voltage characteristic of Tunnel Diode

2. PIN Diode
The PIN diode has a fast response time at high frequencies.

Figure2: Schematic Construction of PIN Diode

2.1. Characteristic of PIN Diode
Some important characteristics of PIN diodes are:
i. When a PIN diode is forward biased, it offers a variable resistance.
ii. When a PIN diode is reversed biased, it offers infinite resistance in the reverse direction.
iii. PIN diode has highly improved switching time in comparison with a PN diode.
2.2. Applications of Pin diodes
Some important applications of PIN diodes are:
i. PIN diodes can be used in the construction of phase modulators and amplitude modulators.
ii. It can be used as an alternator.
iii. It is used as a constant impedance device.
iv. It can be used as a phase shifter.
v. It can be used as a T-R switch in radar applications.

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3. Varactor Diode:
A varactor diode is a specially manufactured pn junction with a suitable impurity concentration
profile and operated under reverse-biased conditions to yield a variable junction capacitance.
The expression approximates the transition capacitance of a varactor diode,
CT (0)
CT =
[1 + (V / Vk )]n

where,
Vk is the volt equivalent temperature;
V is the reverse bias applied in volts;
n = 1/2 for alloyed junctions;
n = 1/3 for diffused junctions
3.1 Applications of Varactor Diode
Following are some important applications of varactor diode:
i. Used in a parametric amplifier.
ii. Varactor diode is used in automatic frequency control.
iii. It is used in tuning circuits.
iv. Used in adjustable bandpass filter.
4. Schottky Diode
Schottky diode is an extension of a point-contact diode. It is also known as a hot-carrier diode,
a hot electron diode or epitaxial Schottky barrier (ESBAR) diode. It is mainly used as a rectifier
at signal frequencies exceeding 300 MHz.

4.1 Current-Voltage Characteristic of Schottky Diode

Figure 5: illustrates the current-voltage characteristic of the Schottky diode.

4.2 Advantages of SCHOTTKY Diode

Following are the advantages of varactor diode over an ordinary p-n junction diode:
i. It is a unipolar device because there are no minority carriers in the reverse direction (i.e., no
significant current from metal to semiconductor when the diode is reverse-biased). Hence, the
delay due to the hole-electron recombination present in junction diodes is absent in varactor
diodes.

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ii. The junction contact area between semiconductor and metal is larger than in point contact
diode, and hence the forward resistance is lower (i.e., noise is comparatively lower).
iii. Since no holes are available in metal, and there is no depletion layer or stored charges to
worry about. So, the Schottky diode can switch OFF faster than a bipolar diode.
(NOTE: An ordinary junction diode is a bipolar device because it has electrons and holes as
majority carriers.)
5. Light-Emitting Diode (LED)
• LED will emit the light when properly forward biased.
• PRINCIPLE: ELECTRO-LUMINESCENCE (conversion of electrical energy into light energy).
• In LED, light is emitted due to a large number of recombination in the depletion region.
• LED, i.e. generally fabricated with Direct bandgap semiconductors(DBGSC).
• A popularly used material is GaAs.
• LED can emit the light either in the VISIBLE SPECTRUM or INVISIBLE SPECTRUM OF LIGHT,
depending on DOPENTS.
• In the invisible spectrum of light, LED emits INFRARED LIGHT.
• IR LED is widely used as a remote-control transmitter.
• The colour of light given by LED depends on
i. Wavelength and frequency of emitted light.
ii. Type and concentration of dopants.
• LED fabricated with GaAs emits infrared light.
• LED materials are
i. GaAs
ii. GaAsP
iii. GaP←Highly unstable material (unreliable, unpredictable). Belongs to indirect bandgap
semiconductors(IBGSC). Also, since the material is unstable but then also under controlled
doping, it is made to work as LED. Material is forced to emit light; under controlled doping.
• Modern LED's are fabricated with some of the DBGSC and also some of the IBGSC under
"controlled doping".
• Always operated under forward bias.
• When Reverse Biased, the LED will be working as a normal diode & it cannot emit any light.
• The function of limiting resistance in the LED
i. To limit the forward current.
ii. To limit the light output.
• The efficiency of LED
  If

1

Temp
1
n
Junction Temp

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• Cut in voltage, V = 1.3 V to1.5 V depending on dopant.

• Power dissipation in mW.

• When compared to LCD, the disadvantage of LED is higher power dissipation.
• LED has longer operating life.
• LED is relatively faster in operation when compared to LCD because of the smaller response
time (in 𝜇s).

Figure 6: Symbol of LED

5.1 Applications:
i. As Remote-Control Transmitter.
ii. As a display device.
iii. In designing of Opto Couplers.
NOTE
i. GaAs → IR LIGHT
ii. GaAsP → (YELLOW/ORANGE} depending on doping concentration.
iii. GaP → (GREEN/RED)

1.24
C = m
Eg

6. Solar Cell:
• When light falls on the space charge Region, electrons and holes are generated. They are
quickly separated and swept out of the Depletion layer by the Electric field so that a
photocurrent is generated.
• This generated Photocurrent will produce a voltage drop across the load, indicating that the
solar cell has delivered the power to the load.
Light or Solar Energy

– – + +

P – – + +
Ei N
– – + +
– – + +

Photo Photo Current

Current
RL

+ VL –
Terminal Voltage
Taken Across Solar Cell
(taken across load)

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Important point
• Photocurrent is a drift current
• The solar cell is generally fabricated with Si (most popular) or GaAs or the 3RD & 2ND group
compound semiconductors.
• The terminal voltage of the solar cell is very small and is in the range of 0.1V to 0.5V.
• The maximum terminal voltage of the solar cell is 0.5V.
• Solar cells are widely used in satellites
• The open-circuit voltage of Solar cells is

 I 
VOC = VT ln 1 + L 
 IS 
 J 
VOC = VT ln 1 + L 
 JS 

Where,
IL = Solar current
JL = Solar Intensity (light intensity)
IS = Reverse Saturation current
Js = reverse saturation current density.
 I   JL 
VOC = VT ln 1 + L  = VT ln 1 + 
 IS   JS 

Also,
 AqDP AqDn  2
IS =  +  n Amp
 LPND LnNA  i
 qDP qDn  2 IS 3
JS =  +  ni =  Ampere / cm
L N
 P D L N
n A  A

Max Power obtained(max )

FillFactor =
VOC .ISC

Where,
VOC = Open circuit voltage of a solar cell
ISC = short circuit current of a solar cell.

Max obtained Power (max )

Efficiency () =
G. A

Where,
G = Input light in watts/m2
A = surface Area in m2
IP
q
Quantum efficiency ( ) =
Po
f

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Where
Ip=Photocurrent
Po=incident power
f and q have usual meanings
q
Re sponsivity ( R ) =
hf
Where h=planks constant

****

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IMPORTANT FORMULAS TO REMEMBER

CHAPTER 1: BASICS OF SIGNALS

1. Continuous-time Signal
A signal x(t) is continuous-time (CT) signal, if t is a continuous variable. A continuous time signal
is defined continuously with respect to time.

2. Discrete-time signal
If t is a discrete variable, then it is a discrete-time (DT) signal. A discrete time signal is often
identified as a sequence of numbers, denoted by x[n], where n is an integer.

3. BASIC OPERATIONS ON CONTINUOUS TIME SIGNAL

3.1. Addition/Subtraction of signals
The sum of two continuous-time signals can be obtained by adding their values at every
instant of time. Similarly, the subtraction of two continuous-time signals can be obtained
by subtracting their values at every instant of time.
Example:

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(i) Addition

From –10 < t < –3, amplitude of y(t) = x1(t) + x2(t) = 0 + 2 = 2

From –3 < t < –3, amplitude of y(t) = x1(t) + x2(t) = 1 + 2 = 3
From 3 < t < 10 amplitude of y(t) = x1(t) + x2(t) = 0 + 2 = 2
(ii) Subtraction

From –10 < t < –3, amplitude of y(t) = x1(t) – x2(t) = 0 – 2 = – 2

From –3 < t < –3, amplitude of y(t) = x1(t) – x2(t) = 1 – 2 = – 1
From 3 < t < 10, amplitude of y(t) = x1(t) – x2(t) = 0 – 2 = – 2

3.2. Multiplication of signals

The multiplication of two continuous signals can be obtained by multiplying their values
at every instant.

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Example:

From -10 < t < -3, amplitude of y(t) = x1(t) × x2(t) = 0 × 2 = 0

From -3 < t < 3, amplitude of y(t) = x1(t) × x2(t) = 1 × 2 = 2
From 3 < t < 10, amplitude of y(t) = x1(t) × x2(t) = 0 × 2 = 0

3.3. Amplitude scaling of signals

The amplitude of a signal can be changed by amplitude scaling. If a signal x(t) is
multiplied by a factor A, it is expressed as A x(t) which means that, at every instant t,
the amplitude of x(t) is multiplied by A.
Example:

Note:
Amplitude scaling signal A x(t) is identical in shape to the original signal x(t) but its
amplitude is multiplied by A everywhere.

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3.4. Transformation of signal

i. Time-Shifting

Signal x(t – t0) represents a time shifted version of x(t) by t 0 seconds. If t0 > 0, then the signal
is delayed by t0 seconds. If t0 < 0, then x(t + t0) represents an advanced version of x(t). The
time shifting operation is shown in figure.

The waveform of x(t – t0) is identical to that of x(t), except for a shift of t 0 time units towards
the right-hand side.

Figure: Time shifting operation (a) Original signal x(t) (b) Time delayed version of x(t)
(c) Time advanced version of x(t)

ii. Time scaling

If the independent variable t is scaled by a parameter a, then x(at) is time scaled version of x(t).
It is important to note that time scaling is performed on t-axis such that the values x(t) and
x(at) at t = 0 are the name for both waveforms.

Figure: Time scaling operations, (a) Original signal x(t), (b) Time expanded version,
(c) Time compressed version of x(t)

iii. Time-Reversal/Folding

The signal x(–t) is called folded version of signal x(t) and is obtained by taking reflection of x(t)
about vertical axis t = 0 as shown in figure.

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(a) Signal x(t) (b) Reflection of x(t)

4. MULTIPLE OPERATIONS ON CONTINEOUS-TIME SIGNALS

Consider a signal x(t) with multiple transformation given as
x(t) → A x(bt ± t0)
where, a and b are assumed to be real numbers. The operations should be performed in the
following order
METHODOLOGY 1
Step 1: First multiply signal by a constant A to obtained amplitude scaled version of x(t) that
is A x(t).
Step 2: Shift the signal A x(t) to the left or to right by t0 time units. This will produced shifted
signal A x(t ± t0).
Step 3: Scale the signal A x(t ± t0) by b, the resulting signal represents Ax(bt ± t0).
Step 4: If b is negative, reflect the scaled signal Ax(bt ± t0) about the vertical axis.
The correct sequence for the above transformation is
amplitude time time
A t→t−t0 shifting t→btscaling
scaling
x(t) → Ax(t) → x(t − t 0 ) → Ax(bt − t 0 )
If time scaling is done before time shifting it will produce incorrect results.
amplitude time time
A t→btscaling t→t−t0 shifting
scaling
x(t) → Ax(t) → Ax(bt) → Ax[b(t − t 0 )] ≠ Ax(bt − t 0 )
For a different multiple transformation, different order of sequence is performed. Consider a
signal x(t) with multiple transformation given as
t−t0
x(t) → Ax ( )
a

For this sequence the simplest sequence of operation is given as follows.

METHODOLOGY 2
Step 1: First multiply signal by a constant A to obtained amplitude scaled version of x(t) that
is Ax(t).
Step 2: Scale the signal Ax(t) by 1/a, the resulting signal represents x(t/a).
Step 3: If a is negative, reflect the scaled signal x(t/a) about the vertical axis.
Step 4: Shift the scaled signal Ax(t/a) by t0 units to the left or to right by t0 time units. This
will produced signal Ax[(t – t0) /a].
The correct sequence for the above transformation is

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amplitude time time
A t→t/ascaling t t→t−t0shifting t − t0
scaling
x(t) → Ax(t) → Ax ( ) → Ax ( )
a a
If we change the order of sequence (time scaling is done after time shifting), then we would
not get correct results.
amplitude time time
A t→t−t0shifting t→t/ascaling t t − t0
scaling
x(t) → Ax(t) → Ax(t − t 0 ) → Ax ( − t 0 ) ≠ Ax ( )
a a
It must be noted that the operation of reflecting and time scaling is commutative, whereas the
operation of shifting and reflecting or shifting and time scaling is not.

5. Some Important Signals

Name Continuous Discrete

1, 𝑡≥0 1, 𝑛 ≥ 0
Unit Step function 𝑢(𝑡) = { 𝑢[𝑛] = {
0, 𝑡<0 0, 𝑡 < 0

𝑡, 𝑡≥0 𝑛, 𝑛≥0
Ramp signal 𝑟[𝑡] = { 𝑟[𝑛] = 𝑛𝑢(𝑛) = {
0, 𝑡<0 0, 𝑛<0

1, 𝑛=0
Impulse function δ(t) = 0, t ≠ 0 𝛿[𝑛] = {
0, 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒

𝑡 1, |𝑡| ≤ 𝜏/2 𝑛 1, |𝑛| ≤ 𝑁

Rectangular pulse function 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 ( ) = { 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 [ ] = {
𝜏 0, |𝑡| > 𝜏/2 2𝑁 0, |𝑛| > 𝑁

𝑡 |𝑛|
𝑡 1 − | | , 𝑡 ≤ |𝜏| 𝑛 |𝑛| ≤ 𝑁
Triangular pulse 𝑡𝑟𝑖 ( ) = { 𝜏 𝑡𝑟𝑖 [ ] = {1 − 𝑁 ,
𝜏 𝑁
0, 𝑡 > |𝜏| 0, 𝑒𝑙𝑠𝑒𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒

1, 𝑡>0 1, 𝑛>0
Signum signal 𝑠𝑔𝑛( 𝑡) = { 𝑠𝑔𝑛[ 𝑛] = {
−1, 𝑡<0 −1, 𝑛<0

Sinusoidal signal x(t) = sin(2π f0t + θ) X[n] = sin(2π f0n +θ)

𝑠𝑖𝑛( 𝜋𝜔0 𝑡) 𝑠𝑖𝑛( 𝜋𝜔0 𝑛)

Sinc function 𝑠𝑖𝑛( 𝜔0 𝑡) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛( 𝜔0 𝑛) =
𝜋𝜔0 𝑡 𝜋𝜔0 𝑛

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6. Important Properties of Signals

r(t) = tu(t)
𝑑 ∞
𝑢(𝑡) = 𝑟(𝑡) ∫ 𝛿(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = 1
𝑑𝑡
−∞
𝑑
𝛿(𝑡) = 𝑢(𝑡) 1
𝑑𝑡 𝛿(𝛼𝑡) = 𝛿(𝑡)
|𝛼|
Signals in term of 𝑡
Impulse
unit step and vice 𝑢(𝑡) = ∫ 𝛿(𝜏)𝑑𝜏 1 𝑏
−∞ properties 𝛿(𝛼𝑡 + 𝑏) = 𝛿 (𝑡 + )
versa |𝛼| 𝛼
sgn = u(t) – u(–t) ∞
sgn = 2u(t) – 1 ∫ 𝑓 (𝑡)𝛿(𝑡 − 𝜆)𝑑𝑡 = 𝑓(𝜆)
−∞
𝑡 𝑡
∏ ( ) = 𝑢 (𝑡 + ) 𝑓(𝑡)𝛿(𝑡 − 𝜆) = 𝑓(𝜆)𝛿(𝑡 − 𝜆)
𝜏 𝜏
𝑡
− 𝑢 (𝑡 − )
𝜏

Sum of signals is
periodic if
𝑇1 𝑚
= = xe(t) = xe(–t)
𝑇2 𝑛
rational number x0(t) = –x0(–t)

The fundamental period x(t) = xe(t) +x0(t)

Time period of linear odd and
of g(t) is given by nT1 = 1
combination of two even &
mT2 provided that the 𝑥𝑒 (𝑡) = [𝑥(𝑡) + 𝑥(−𝑡)]
signals symmetry 2
values of m and n are
chosen such that the 1
𝑥0 (𝑡) = [𝑥(𝑡) − 𝑥(−𝑡)]
greastest common 2
divisor (gcd) between m
and n is 1

x(t) ⇒ Kx(t) + C
𝑑
𝛿(𝑡) = 𝛿 ′ (𝑡)
Scale by K then shift by 𝑑𝑡
C …. 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑, 𝑡=0
={
0, 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
x(t) ⇒ x(αt – β)
1 ′
Shift by β : [x(t – β)] Derivative 𝛿′(𝛼𝑡) = 𝛿 (𝑡)
𝛼|𝛼|
Combined operation Then compress by a:[x of impulse
∞
(t – β) ⇒ x(αt – β)] (doublet)
∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝛿 ′ (𝑡 − 𝜆)𝑑𝑡
−∞
Or, compress by α: = −𝑥 ′ (𝜆)
[x(t)⇒x(at)] then shift
𝛽 𝛽
by :𝑥 {𝛼 (𝑡 − )}= x (αt – x(t)δ′(t) = x(0)δ′(t) –
𝛼 𝛼 x′(0)δ(t)
β)}]

Periodic signals have

Energy and power infinite energy hence
power type signals.

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Properties
1. x(t) × δ(t) = x(t) 2. x(t – α) × δ(t – β) = x(t – α – β)
3. δ(t) × δ(t) = δ(t) 4. [δ(t) × δ(t) × δ(t) × -------] = δ(t)
5. δ(t – α) × δ(t – β) = δ(t – α – β)

A. u(t) × u(t) = r(t) B. u(t – α) × u(t – β) = r(t - α – β)

t2 (𝑡 – 𝛼 – 𝛽)2
C. u(t) × u(t) = ρ(t) = 2
u(t) D. r(t – α) × u(t – β) = ρ(t - α – β) = 2
𝑢(𝑡 – 𝛼 – 𝛽)

7. Gaussian function
The Gaussian function is defined by the expression
2
𝑔𝑎 (𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 − ∞ < 𝑡 < ∞
The function is extremely useful in probability theory.

Figure: Gaussian function

8. Sinusoidal signal
A continuous-time sinusoidal signal is given by
x(t) = A sin (Ωt + ϕ)
where A is the amplitude, Ω is the frequency in radians per second and ϕ is the phase angle in
radians.

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Figure: Sinusoidal signal

9. Real exponential signal
A real exponential signal is defined as

x(t) = Aeat

where both A and a are real. Depending on the value of ‘a’ we get different signals.

Figure: (a) A dc signal (b) exponentially growing signal (c) exponentially

decaying signal.

10. Complex exponential signal

The most general form of complex exponential is given by

x(t) = est

Where, s is a complex variable defined as

s = σ + jΩ
Depending on the values of σ and Ω, we get different signals.

A. If σ = 0 and Ω = 0 then x(t) = 1; that is the signal x(t) is a pure DC signal.

B. If Ω = 0, then s = σ and x(t) = eσt, which decays exponentially for σ < 0 and grows

exponentially for σ > 0.

C. If σ = 0 then s = ±jΩ gives x(t) = ejΩt a sinusoidal signal with ϕ = 0.

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D. If σ < 0 with finite Ω, then x(t) is a exponentially decaying sinusoidal signal.

E. If σ > 0 with finite Ω, then x(t) is a exponentially growing sinusoidal signal.

11. BASIC OPERATION ON DISCRETE TIME SIGNAL:

11.1. Addition of discrete-time signals

Addition of discrete time sequence is done by adding the signals at every instant of time
[n].
11.2. Multiplication of discrete time signal
The multiplication of two discrete time signals x 1[n] and x2[n] is obtained by multiplying
the signal values at each instant of time n.
11.3. Amplitude scaling of discrete time Signals
Amplitude scaling is obtained by multiplying the signal x[n] with a constant A at each
instant of time n. The amplitude-scaled is represented as A x[n].
11.4. Time-Scaling of discrete time Signals
Consider a discrete-time signal x[n], if the independent variable n is scaled by a factor
of n then x[an] is the time-scaled version of x[n]. There are two types of time scaling
Note: Time-scaling of discrete time signals is different from continuous time signals, since
discrete time signals are defined only for integer values of time variable n.
Time Compression: Decimation or Down-sampling
Compression of discrete time signals is also referred to as decimation. If a sequence x[n]
is compressed by a factor a, some data samples of x[n] are lost. For example, if we
compress x[n] by a factor of 2, the compressed signal y[n] = x[2n] contains only the
alternate samples x[0], x[2], x[4] and so on. This operation losses data, and that is why
time compression is called decimation or down-sampling.
Time Expansion: Interpolation or Up-sampling
In the discrete time domain, expansion is also referred to as interpolation. Let x[n] is
expanded by a factor of 2 and the expanded signal is given as y[n] = x[n/2]. It is known
that x[n] is defined only for integer value of n and zero for all non-integer values of n.
Therefore, y[n] contains samples y[0] = x[0], y[2] = x[1], y[4] = x[2] and so on. The
odd numbered samples y[1], y[3], y[5] all are zero.

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Figure: Time scaling of DT signal, (a) Original DT sequence x[n], (b)

Compressed (decimated) version of x[n], (c) Expanded (interpolated)
version of x[n]

11.5. Time-Shifting of discrete time Signals

The steps to obtain a time shifted signal from the original signal is given below.
(i) If x[n] is given, then x[n + n0] is plotted by shifting x[n] to the left by n0.
(ii) If x[n] is given, then x[n – n0] is plotted by shifting x[n] to the right by n0.
(iii) If x[–n] is given, then x[– n –n0] is plotted by shifting x[– n] to the left by n0.
(iv) If x[– n] is given, then x[– n + n0] is plotted by shifting x[– n] to the right by n0.
Note: The waveform of x[n + n 0] is identical to that of x[n] except for a shift of n 0 time
units towards the left-hand side.
11.6. Time-Reversal (folding) of discrete time signals
The folding operation produces a signal x[–n] which is the mirror image of x[n] about the
vertical axis.

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Figure: Time folding of DT Signal, (a) Original DT Sequence x[n],

(b) Folded Version of x[n].

12. MULTIPLE OPERATIONS ON DISCRETE TIME SIGNALS

Consider a discrete time signal x[n] with multiple transformation given as

x[n] → A x[bn ± n0]
Where a and b are assumed to be real numbers. The operations should be performed in the
following order.
Methodology
Step 1: First multiply signal by a constant A to obtained amplitude scaled version of x[n] that
is A x[n].
Step 2: Shift the signal A x[x] to the left or to right by n 0 time units. This will be produced
shifted signal A x[n ± n0].
Step 3: Scale the signal A x[n ± n0] by b, the resulting signal represents A x[bn ± n 0].
Step 4: If b is negative, reflect the scaled signal A x[bn ± n 0] about the vertical axis.
The correct sequence for the above transformation is
amplitude time time
A n→n–n0 shifting n→bscaling
scaling
x[n] → Ax[n] → Ax[n– n0 ] → Ax[bn– n0 ]
If time scaling is done before time shifting it will produce incorrect results.
amplitude time time
A n→bnshifting n→n–n0 scaling
scaling
x[n] → Ax[n] → Ax[bn] → Ax[b(n– n0 )] ≠ Ax[bn– n0 ]

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13. BASIC DISCRETE TIME SIGNALS
13.1. Discrete Impulse Function
The unit-impulse function in discrete time is defined as
1, 𝑛=0
𝛿[𝑛] = { 0, 𝑛≠0

𝛿[𝑛] = {. . .0,0,0, 1 , 0,0,0. . . }

↑

So, δ [n] is referred as the unit sample occurring at n = 0.

Similarly, for the shifted function δ [n – k] the unit sample occurring at n = k
That is,
1, 𝑛=𝑘
𝛿[𝑛– 𝑘] = { 0, 𝑛≠𝑘

Figure: (a) DT Unit Impulse Function (b) DT Shifted Unit Impulse Function
Properties

Following are some of the important properties of unit impulse function.

(i) Product property

x[n] δ[n – n0] = x[n0] δ[n – n0]

(ii) Shifting property

𝑛=–∞
∞
∑ 𝑥[𝑛]𝛿[𝑛– 𝑛0 ] = 𝑥[𝑛0 ]

(iii) Scaling Property

The discrete-time unit impulse does not have a property corresponding to the scaling

property of continuous-time unit impulse. Therefore, δ [n] = δ [an] for any nonzero

integer value of n.

13.2. Discrete Unit Step Function

The unit-step sequence shown in figure 29 (a) is defined as,

1, 𝑛 ≥ 0
𝑢[𝑛] = {
0, 𝑛 < 0

Or, 𝑢[𝑛] = {. . .0,0,0, 1 , 1,1,1. . . }

↑

Similarly, the shifted unit-step sequence is defined as follows

1, 𝑛– 𝑘 ≥ 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑛 ≥ 𝑘
𝑢[𝑛– 𝑘] = {
0, 𝑛– 𝑘 < 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑛 < 𝑘

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Figure: (a) DT Unit Impulse Function,(b) Shifted DT Unit Impulse Function

Properties

Following are some of the important properties of unit step function.

(i) δ[n] = u[n] – u[n – 1]

𝑘=–∞
∞
(ii) ∑ 𝛿[𝑘] = 𝑢[𝑛]
𝑘=–∞
∞
(iii) ∑ 𝛿[𝑛– 𝑘] = 𝑢[𝑛]

13.3. Discrete Unit-ramp Function

The unit ramp sequence is defined as
𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 ≥ 0
𝑟[𝑛] = {
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 < 0
Or, 𝑟[𝑛] = 𝑛𝑢[𝑛] = {0, 1,2,3,4,5, . . . }
↑
The graphical representation of r(n) is shown in figure 30.

Figure: DT unit Ramp Function

13.4. Unit-Rectangular Function

The discrete-time unit rectangular sequence is shown in figure 31. It is defined as
1, |𝑛| ≤ 𝑁
𝑛
𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 [ ] = {
2𝑁
0, |𝑛| > 𝑁

Figure: DT unit rectangular function

The signal rect [n/2N] has (2N + 1) unit samples over the interval – N ≤ n ≤ N.
13.5. Unit-Triangular Function
The discrete-time unit triangular sequence shown in figure 32 is defined as

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|𝑛|
𝑛 1– |𝑛| ≤ 𝑁
𝑡𝑟𝑖 ( ) = { 𝑁
𝑁
0, |𝑛| > 𝑁

Figure 1: DT unit Triangular Function

The signal tri[n/N] has (2N + 1) unit samples over the interval – N ≤ n ≤ N.
13.6. Unit-Signum Function
The discrete-time function corresponding to the continuous time signum function is
defined in figure 33.
1, 𝑛 > 0
𝑠𝑔𝑛[ 𝑛] = { 0, 𝑛 = 0
– 1, 𝑛 < 0

Figure: DT unit Signum Function

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CHAPTER 2: CLASSIFICATION OF SIGNALS

1. Periodic and Aperiodic signal

1.1 Condition for continuous-time periodic signal
x(t + T) = x(t), –∞ < t < ∞ …(i)
Where T is the fundamental period of a signal.
Frequency of the periodic signal is given by
1
𝑓=
𝑇
Angular frequency, measured in radian per second, is defined as
2𝜋
𝜔=
𝑇
1.2 Condition for discrete-time periodic signal
x(n + N) = x(n), –∞ < n < ∞ …(ii)
Where N is called the fundamental period of a signal.
The fundamental angular frequency or simply fundamental frequency of x[n] is given by,
2𝜋
𝛺= 𝑚
𝑁
where, N = fundamental period
m = Smallest integer.
Important point
• The sum of two or more periodic discrete-time sequence is always periodic.
• A constant signal is periodic and its fundamental period is undefined.
• The sum of two or more periodic continuous-time signals need not be periodic. They will be
periodic if and only if the ratio of their fundamental periods is rational.
1.3. Steps to determine whether the sum of two or more periodic signals is periodic or
not.
Step 1: Determine the fundamental period of the individual signals in the sum signal, say T 1, T2
……
Step 2: Find the ratio of the fundamental period of the first signal with the fundamental periods
of every other signals.
Step 3: If all the ratios are rational, then the sum signal is also periodic, and its fundamental
period is
LCM of Numerator of T1 , 𝑇2 . . . . . .
𝐻𝐶𝐹 of Denominator of T1 , 𝑇2 . . . . . .
1.4. Steps to determine whether the sum of two or more sequence periodic or not
Step 1: Determine the fundamental period of individual sequence in the sum sequence, say N 1,
N2 ….
Step 2: If all the individual sequences are periodic then fundamental period is
N = LCM of N1, N2, …..

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Step 3: If any one or more sequence in sum is aperiodic then the resultant sequences are also
aperiodic.
2. Even and odd signals
Even signals are symmetric about origin whereas odd signals are antisymmetric about origin.

An arbitrary signal x(t) can always be expressed as a sum of even and odd signals as
x(t) = xe(t) + xo(t)
Where, xe(t) is called the even part of x(t) and is given by
1
𝑥𝑒 (𝑡) = [𝑥(𝑡) + 𝑥(−𝑡)]
2

and xo(t) is called the odd part of x(t) and is given by

1
𝑥0 (𝑡) = [𝑥(𝑡) − 𝑥(−𝑡)]
2
Basic properties
• The sum of two even function is even and any constant multiple of an even function is even.
• The sum of two odd function is odd, and any constant multiple of an odd function is odd.
• The product of two even functions is an even function
• The product of two odd function is an even function.
• The product of an even function and an odd function is an odd function.
• Due to anti symmetry property, odd signal is always zero at t = 0
therefore, xo(0) = yo(0) = 0
or, xo[0] = yo[0] = 0
• Integration of a continuous-time odd signal within the limits [–T, T] results in a zero value ie.
𝑇 𝑇
∫ 𝑥0 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑦0 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = 0
−𝑇 −𝑇

• The integral of a continuous-time even signal within the limits [–T, T] can be simplified as
follow:
𝑇 𝑇
∫ 𝑥𝑒 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = 2 ∫ 𝑥𝑒 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡
−𝑇 0

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• Adding the samples of discrete-time odd sequence xo[n] within the range [–N, N] is 0 ie,
𝑁 𝑁

∑ 𝑥𝑜 [𝑛] = 0 = ∑ 𝑦0 [𝑛]
𝑛=−𝑁 𝑛=−𝑁

• Adding the samples of discrete-time even sequence xe[n] within the range [–N, N] simplifies
to
𝑁 𝑁

∑ 𝑥𝑒 [𝑛] = 𝑥𝑒 [0] + 2 ∑ 𝑥𝑒 [𝑛]

𝑛=−𝑁 𝑛=1

Note: Even and odd signals are mutually exclusive. That is, if a signal is an even signal, it
cannot be odd and vice versa. however, there could be certain class of signals that could
neither be termed odd nor even signal.

3. Energy and power signal

Signals which are classified on the basis of finite energy or finite average power are known as
energy or power signal.
Power signal
Periodic signal is called power signal and for power signal, P ∞ = finite & E∞ = ∞.
Signal is referred to as power signal, if and only if the average power of the signal satisfies the
condition
0<P<∞

Energy signal
For energy signal, P∞ = 0 & E∞ = finite
Signal is referred as energy signal, if and only if the total energy of the signal satisfies the
condition,
0<E<∞

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In case of Continuous-time signal
Total energy is given by
𝑇/2
𝑙𝑖𝑚 ∫ |𝑥(𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑡
𝑇→∞ −𝑇/2
𝐸= ∞
∫ |𝑥(𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑡
{ −∞

Average power is given by,

1 𝑇/2
𝑃 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 ∫ |𝑥(𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑡
𝑇→∞ 𝑇 −𝑇/2

Average power of a periodic signal x(t) of fundamental period T is given by,

1 𝑇/2
𝑝= ∫ |𝑥(𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 −𝑇/2

In the case of discrete time signal

Energy of signal is given as
∞

𝐸 = ∑ |𝑥[𝑛]|2
𝑛=−∞

Average power is defined by,

𝑛=𝑁
1
𝑃 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 ∑ |𝑥[𝑛]|2
𝑁→∞ 2𝑁 + 1
𝑛=−𝑁

Average power in a periodic signal x(n) with fundamental period N is given by

𝑁−1
1
𝑝 = ∑|𝑥[𝑛]|2
𝑁
𝑛=0

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4. Energy and Power Continuous time Signals

Energy Signal Power Signal

The total energy is obtained using The average power is obtained using 𝑃 =
1. 𝑇
𝐸 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 ∫−𝑇 |𝑥(𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑡 1. 1 𝑇
𝑙𝑖𝑚 ∫−𝑇 |𝑥(𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑡
𝑇→ ∞ 𝑇→ ∞
2𝑇

For the energy signal For the power signal

2. 0 < E < ∞, and the average power 2. 0 < P < ∞, and the energy
P = 0. E = ∞.
Non-periodic signals are energy Periodic signals are power signals. However, all
3. 3.
signals. power signals need not be periodic.

4. Energy signals are not time limited. 4. Power signals exist over infinite time.

Properties of Power signal:

1) Power signal has infinite energy
𝐴2
𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡 → 2
𝑥(𝑡) → 𝑃
𝐴2
2) 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (2𝑡) → 2
𝑥(– 𝑎𝑡 + 𝑏) → 𝑃 𝜋 𝐴2
{𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (2𝑡 −⋅ 6
)→ 2

3) K x(𝑎𝑡 + 𝑏) → 𝐾2𝑃

5. Causal and non-causal signal

A continuous-time signal x(t) is said to be causal if x(t) = 0 for t < 0, otherwise the signal
is non-causal. For an anti-causal signal x(t) = 0 for t > 0.
Similarly, a discrete-time signal x(n) is said to be causal if x(n) = 0 for n < 0; otherwise
the signal is non- causal. For an anti-causal discrete-time signal x(n) = 0 for n > 0.

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CHAPTER 3: CLASSIFICATION OF SYSTEMS

1. Linear, nonlinear systems

A linear system is one which satisfies the principle of superposition and homogeneity or
scaling.

Consider a linear system characterized by the transformation operator T[]. Let x1, x2 are the
inputs applied to it and y1, y2 are the outputs. Then the following equations hold for a linear
system

y1 = T[x1], y2 = T[x2]

Principle of homogeneity: T [a*x1] = a*y1, T [b*x2] = =b*y2

Principle of superposition: T [x1] + T [x2] = a*y1+b*y2

Linearity: T [a*x1] + T [b*x2] = a*y1+b*y2

Where a, b are constants.

2. Time variant, time invariant systems

A system is said to be time variant system if its response varies with time. If the system
response to an input signal does not change with time such system is termed as time invariant
system. The behaviour and characteristics of time variant system are fixed over time.

In time invariant systems if input is delayed by time t0 the output will also gets delayed by t0.
Mathematically it is specified as follows

y(t-t0) = T[x(t-t0)]

For a discrete time invariant system the condition for time invariance can be formulated
mathematically by replacing t as n*Ts is given as

y(n-n0) = T[x(n-n0)]

Where n0 is the time delay.

Methodology

1. Let y(t, t0) denotes the output corresponding to a delayed input x(t –t0). This can be obtained

by substituting x(t) → x(t – t0) in the given input-output relation

2. Now, obtain the delayed output y(t – t0), by directly substituting t → t – t0 in the given input-

output relation

3. If y(t, t0) = y(t – t0), then the system is time invariant. Otherwise it is a time-varying system

Similarly can be checked for discrete time signals also.

3. Systems with and without memory (Dynamic and Static systems)

A system is said to be static or memory less if its output at any instant depends on the input at

that and does not depend on the past or future values of input. Otherwise, if the output at any

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instant depends on the past or future values of input, then the system is said to be dynamic or

with memory.

4. Causal and Non-causal Systems

A system is said to be causal, if the present value of the output signal depends only on the
present value or past value or a combination of present and past values of the input signal. A
system is said to be non-causal if it is not causal i.e., the present value of output depends on
the future values of input. For example: (i) y(t) = x(t) + x(t – 1) is a causal system.
(ii) The system y[t] = x[n] + x[n — 1] is causal
NOTE: All memory less systems are causal systems because the output at any time instant
depends only on the input at that time instant. Systems with memory can either be causal or
non-causal.
5. Invertible and Non-Invertible Systems
A system is said to be invertible if the input to the system can be uniquely determined from the
output. In order to have a system to be invertible, it is necessary that distinct inputs produce
distinct outputs i.e., two different inputs cannot produce the same output.
If the system is invertible, there exists an inverse system. If these two systems are cascaded as
shown in the figure, then final output is same as the input.

Figure: CT Invertible System

Figure: DT Invertible System

NOTE: Invertible system
A system is invertible if for the given to inputs x1(t) and x2(t) with x1(t) ≠ x2(t), it must be true
that y1(t) ≠ y2(t)

6. Stable and Unstable systems

A system is said to be bounded input and bounded output (BIBO) stable if and only if every
bounded input produces a bounded output.
The input signal x(t) is said to be bounded if there exists a finite number M x such that |x(t)| ≤
Mx < ∞, for all t The system is BIBO stable if for any bounded input x(t) the output signal y(t)
is also bounded i.e., |y(t)| ≤ My < ∞, for all t. If the system produces unbounded output for
bounded input then it is unstable.
A Discrete Time system is said to be BIBO stable if for any bounded input, it produces a bounded
output.

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The system is BIBO stable if for any bounded input x[n] the output signal y[n] is also bounded
i.e.
|y[n] |< My < ∞, for all n
If the system produces unbounded output for a bounded input then it is unstable.
7. Properties of LTI systems in Terms of impulse Response
7.1. Memory less LTI system

A CT system is said to be memory less if its output at any time depends only on the value of the

input at the same time. A memory less, linear time invariant system has an input output relation

that is of the form

y(t) = Kx(t)

where K is any arbitrary constant. By substituting x(t) = δ(t) in equation, memory less LTI

system has the impulse response

h(t) = Kδ(t)

NOTE: Memory less LTI continuous system

An LTI continuous system will be memory less if and only if its impulse response h(t) = 0 for t

≠ 0.

7.2. Causal LTI System

An LTI system is said to be causal if the output at any instant depends only on the present and

past values of the input. Consider a continuous-time LTI system whose output y(t) can be

obtained using convolution integral given by

∞
𝑦(𝑡) = ∫ ℎ(𝜏)𝑥(𝑡– 𝜏)𝑑𝜏
–∞

At t = 0 the output can be written as

∞
𝑦(0) = ∫ ℎ(𝜏)𝑥(– 𝜏)𝑑𝜏
–∞

For a causal system the output depends only on present and past values of input. From equation,

we can see that, if τ ≥ 0, the output depends on present and past values of input and the system

is causal. But if τ < 0, then output depends on future values of input, therefore the system will

be causal if h(τ) = 0 for τ < 0.

NOTE:

An LTI system will be causal if and only if its impulse response h(t) = 0

for t < 0.

7.3. Invertible LTI system

An LTI system is said to be invertible if the input of the system can be recovered from the output.

As we discussed earlier. if the inverse system is connected in cascade with the original system,

then final output will be same as the input. This can be illustrated in below figure.

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Figure: An LTI inverse system

NOTE:
An LTI system is invertible if its impulse response satisfies h –1(t) * h(t) = δ(t)
NOTE:
An LTI system is BIBO stable if the impulse response is absolutely integrable
∞
∫ |𝒉(𝝉)|𝒅𝝉 < ∞
–∞

8. Table Showing Comparison of Different Signals with Their Properties

Relationship between Static or Time-

S.No. Linearity Causality
output and input Dynamic Variancy

Time-
1. y(t) = x(t – t0) Linear Causal Dynamic
invariant

2. y(t) = t.x(t) Linear Causal Static Time-variant

Non- Time-
3. y(t) = x(t) + A Causal Static
linear invariant

Non-
4. y(t) = x(αt) Linear Dynamic Time-variant
causal

Non- Time-
5. y(t) = =x2(t) Causal Static
linear invariant

Non-
6. y(t) = x(t2) Linear Dynamic Time-variant
causal

𝑑𝑥(𝑡) Time-
7. 𝑦(𝑡) = Linear Causal Dynamic
𝑑𝑡 invariant

𝑡
Time-
8. 𝑦(𝑡) = ∫ 𝑥(𝜏)𝑑𝜏 Linear Causal Dynamic
−∞ invariant

𝑎𝑡
Non-
9. 𝑦(𝑡) = ∫ 𝑥(𝜏)𝑑𝜏 Linear Dynamic Time-variant
−∞ causal

Non- Time-
10. y(t) = cos[x(t)] Causal Static
linear invariant

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Non-
11. y(t) = x(-t) Linear Dynamic Time-variant
causal

y(t) = cosω0t.x(t)
12. Linear Causal Static Time-variant

Note:
⇒ All the static systems are causal systems but converse is not true.
⇒ All the non-causal systems are dynamic systems but the converse is not true.

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CHAPTER 4: LTI SYSTEM (CONVOLUTION)))

1. Convolution Integral

∞
𝒚(𝒕) = ∫ 𝒙(𝝉)𝒉(𝒕 − 𝝉)𝒅𝝉
∞

or
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡) ⊗ ℎ(𝑡)

𝑢(𝑡 + 𝛼) ⊗ 𝑢(𝑡 + 𝛽) = 𝑟(𝑡 + 𝛼 + 𝛽)

𝒕𝟐
𝒚(𝒕) = 𝒖(𝒕) ∗ 𝒓(𝒕) = 𝒖(𝒕) 𝑷𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒃𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒄𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝟐
(𝑡 + 𝛼 + 𝛽)2
𝑢(𝑡 + 𝛼)|⊗ 𝑟(𝑡 + 𝛽)| = 𝑢(𝑡 + 𝛼 + 𝛽)
2
2. Properties of convolution Integral
i. Commutative property
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡) ⊗ ℎ(𝑡) = ℎ(𝑡) ⊗ 𝑥(𝑡)

ii. Distributive property

x(t) ⊗ [h1(t)⊗ h2 (t)] = x(t) ⊗ h1 (t) + x(t) ⊗ h2(t)
iii. Associative property
[x(t) ⊗ h1(t)] ⊗ h2(t) = x(t) ⊗ [h1(t) ⊗ h2(t)]
iv. Property based on time invariancy
a. x(t) ⊗ h(t) = y(t)
b. x(t + α) ⊗ h(t) = y(t + α)
c. x(t) ⊗ h(t + β) = y(t + β)
d. x(t + α) ⊗ h(t + β) = y(t + α + β)
v) Differentiation property:

If x(t) * h(t) = y(t)

Then,
dx(t) dy(t)
∗ h(t) =
dt dt
dh(t) dy(t)
x(t) ∗ =
dt dt
dx(t) dh(t) d2 y(t)
∗ =
dt dt dt 2

vi. When two equal width rectangular pulses of duration ‘T’ are convoluted, resultant signal is
always a triangular pulse of duration “2T”.

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vii. When two unequal width rectangular pulses of duration T1 and T2 are convoluted, then the
resultant signal is always a trapezoidal pulse of duration T1 +T2.
viii. Invertibility of continuous time signals
ℎ(𝑡) = ℎ1 (𝑡) ⊗ ℎ2 (𝑡) = 𝛿(𝑡)

ix. Scaling property of convolution

1
𝑥(𝑎𝑡) ⊗ ℎ(𝑎𝑡) = 𝑦(𝑎𝑡)
𝑎
x. Stability
For a continuous time LTI system to be stable, its impulse response should be absolutely
integrable. i.e.
∞
∫ |ℎ(𝑡)|𝑑𝑡 < ∞
−∞
xi. System in cascade connection
ℎ𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑑𝑒 (𝑡) = ℎ1 (𝑡) ⊗ ℎ(𝑡)
xii. System in parallel connection
ℎ𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 (𝑡) = ℎ1 (𝑡) + ℎ2 (𝑡)
3. Discrete Time LTI System
𝑥[𝑛] → 𝐿𝑇𝐼 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 → 𝑦[𝑛] = 𝑥[𝑛] ⊗ ℎ[𝑛]

output response of a LTI system to an input x[n]

∞

𝑦[𝑛] = 𝑥[𝑛] ⊗ ℎ[𝑛] = ∑ 𝑥[𝐾]ℎ[𝑛 − 𝐾]

𝐾=−∞

convolution sum

4. Properties of convolution sum

i. Commutative property
x[n] ⊗ h[n] = h[n] ⊗ x[n]
ii. Distributive property
x[n] ⊗ (h1[n] + h2[n]) = x[n] ⊗ h1[n] + x[n] ⊗ h2[n]
iii. Associative property
x[n] ⊗ h1[n] ⊗ h2[n] = x[n] ⊗ (h1[n] ⊗ h2[n])
iv. Shifting property
If y[n] = x[n] ⊗ h[n]
then, x[n – n0] ⊗ h n [n – n1] = y[n – n0 – n1]
v. Duration of convolution
Let M be the duration (length) of sequence x[n] and N be the duration (length) of sequence h[n],
then the duration of convolution sum.
y[n] = x[n] ⊗ h[n] is M+N-1
vi. Generalized Results
a. If x[n] = u(n)
h[n] = u(n)
then y[n] = x[n] ⊗ h[n] = u[n] ⊗ u[n] = (n + 1) u[n]

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b. u[n + α] ⊗ u[n + β] = [n + α + β + 1] u [n + α + β]
vii. Systems in parallel
h[n] = h1[n] + h2[n]
viii. System in cascade
h[n] = h1[n] ⊗ h2[n]

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CHAPTER 5: CONTINUOUS TIME FOURIER SERIES (CTFS))

1. Existence of Fourier Series

The Fourier series for a periodic signal x(t) exists if it satisfies the following conditions which
are knows as Dirichlet conditions:
• The function x(t) has a finite number of maxima and minima in one period.
• The function x(t) has a finite number of discontinuities in one period.
• The function x(t) is absolutely integrable over one period, that is,
𝑇
∫ |𝑥(𝑡)|𝑑𝑡 < ∞
0

2. Fourier Series

Fourier Series Form Mathematical Expression Coefficients

1
𝑎0 = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑇0 𝑇0
x(t) = a0
∞ 2
Trigonometric 𝑎𝑛 = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑛𝜔0 𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
+ ∑(𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛 𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛 𝜔0 𝑡) 𝑇0 𝑇0
𝑛=1 2
𝑏𝑛 = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)(𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛 𝜔0 𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑇0 𝑇0
∞
1
Exponential 𝑥(𝑡) = ∑ 𝑐𝑛 𝑒 𝑗𝑛𝜔0 𝑡 𝑐𝑛 = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜔𝑜 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇0 𝑇0
𝑛=−∞

A0 = a 0
x(t) = A0 𝐴𝑛 = √𝑎𝑛2 + 𝑏𝑛2
∞
Polar or Cosine Form 𝑏𝑛
+ ∑ 𝐴𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑛𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜃𝑛 ) 𝜃𝑛 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛–1 ( )
𝑛=1
𝑎𝑛

1
NOTE: 𝑐𝑛 = (𝑎𝑛 − 𝑗𝑏𝑛 ),
2
1
𝑐– 𝑛 = (𝑎𝑛 + 𝑗𝑏𝑛 ),.
2

3. Properties of Fourier Series

S.N. Property CTFS Coefficients

𝐶𝑇𝐹𝑆
1 Linearity 𝑝𝑥1 (𝑡) + 𝑞𝑥2 (𝑡) ↔ 𝑝𝑐𝑛 + 𝑞𝑑𝑛
𝐶𝑇𝐹𝑆
2 Time shifting 𝑥(𝑡 − 𝑡0 ) ↔ 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜔0𝑡0 𝑐𝑛
𝐶𝑇𝐹𝑆
3 Time reversal 𝑥(−𝑡) ↔ 𝑐−𝑛
𝐶𝑇𝐹𝑆
𝑥(𝑎𝑡) ↔ 𝑐𝑛 ,
4 Time scaling
With period aT0
∞
𝐶𝑇𝐹𝑆
5 Multiplication 𝑥1 (𝑡)𝑥2 (𝑡) ↔ ∑ 𝑎𝑙 𝑏𝑛−𝑙
𝑙=−∞

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𝐶𝑇𝐹𝑆
𝑥 ∗ (𝑡) ↔ ∗
𝑐−𝑛 and
6 Conjugation and conjugate symmetry
𝑐−𝑛 = 𝑐𝑛∗ for x(t) is real
𝑑𝑥(𝑡) 𝐶𝑇𝐹𝑆
7 Time Differentiation ↔ 𝑗𝑛𝜔0 𝑐𝑛
𝑑𝑡
𝑡 𝐶𝑇𝐹𝑆 𝑐𝑛
8 Time Integration ∫ 𝑥(𝜏) 𝑑𝜏 ↔
−∞ 𝑗𝑛𝜔0
𝐶𝑇𝐹𝑆
9 Convolution 𝑥1 (𝑡) ∗ 𝑥2 (𝑡) ↔ 𝑇0 𝑐𝑛 𝑑𝑛
∞
𝑇0
∫ 𝑥1 (𝑡)𝑥2∗ (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = 𝑇0 ∑ 𝑐𝑛 𝑑𝑛∗
Parseval’s Theorem 0 𝑛=–∞
10 ∞
If x1(t) = x2(t) = x(t) 𝑇0
∫ |𝑥(𝑡)2 |𝑑𝑡 = 𝑇0 ∑ |𝑐𝑛 |2
0 𝑛=–∞

𝐶𝑇𝐹𝑆
11 Frequency Shifting 𝑒 𝑗𝑘𝜔0𝑡 𝑥(𝑡) ↔ 𝑐𝑛−𝑘

4. Condition for periodic signals to be symmetry

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CHAPTER 6: CONTINUOUS TIME FOURIER TRANSFORM (CTFT)

1. Fourier Transform
Fourier transform is a transformation technique which transforms non-periodic signals from the
continuous-time domain to the corresponding frequency domain. The Fourier transform of a
continuous-time non periodic signal 𝑥(𝑡) is defined as
∞
𝑋(𝑗𝜔) = 𝐹[𝑥(𝑡)] = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞
If the frequency is represented in terms of cyclic frequency f (in Hz), then the above equation
is written as
∞
𝑋(𝑗𝑓) = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞

2. Existence of Fourier Transform

Dirichlet Conditions
(i) 𝑥(𝑡) is absolutely integrable. That is,
∞
∫ |𝑥(𝑡)|𝑑𝑡 < ∞
−∞
(ii) 𝑥(𝑡) has a finite number of maxima and minima and a finite number of discontinuities
within any finite interval.

3.MAGNITUDE AND PHASE SPECTRA

The Fourier transform 𝑋(𝑗𝜔) of a signal 𝑥(𝑡) is in general, complex form can be expressed as
𝑋(𝑗𝜔) = |𝑋(𝑗𝜔)| 𝑋(𝑗𝜔)

The plot of |𝑋(𝑗𝜔)| versus 𝜔is called magnitude spectrum of x(t) and the plot of 𝑋(𝑗𝜔) versus
𝜔is called phase spectrum. The amplitude (magnitude) and phase spectra are together called
Fourier spectrum which is nothing but frequency response of 𝑋(𝑗𝜔) for the frequency range
−∞ < 𝜔 < ∞.

4. Inverse Fourier Transform

The inverse Fourier transform of 𝑋(𝑗𝜔) is given as
1 ∞
𝑥(𝑡) = ∫ 𝑥(𝑗𝜔)𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔
2𝜋 −∞

5. Fourier Transform of Some Basic Signals

S. No. Time Domain 𝒙(𝒕) Fourier Transform 𝑿(𝒋𝝎)

1. 1 2𝜋𝛿(𝜔)
2. 𝛿(𝑡) 1
1
3. 𝑢(𝑡) 𝜋𝛿(𝜔) +
𝑗𝜔
1
4. 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)
𝑎 + 𝑗𝜔
2𝑎
5. 𝑒 −𝑎|𝑡|
𝑎 + 𝜔2
2

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1
6. 𝑡𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)
(𝑎 + 𝑗𝜔)2
𝑛!
7. 𝑡 𝑛 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)
(𝑎 + 𝑗𝜔)𝑛+1
1 𝑡>0 2
8. 𝑠𝑔𝑛(𝑡) = {
−1𝑡 < 0 𝑗𝜔
9. 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑜 𝑡 2𝜋𝛿(𝜔 − 𝜔0 )
10. 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔0 𝑡) 𝜋[𝛿(𝜔 − 𝜔0 ) + 𝛿(𝜔 + 𝜔0 )]
𝜋
11. 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔0 𝑡) [𝛿(𝜔 − 𝜔0 ) − 𝛿(𝜔 + 𝜔0 )]
𝑗
𝑎 + 𝑗𝜔
12. 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔0 𝑡) 𝑢(𝑡)
(𝑎 + 𝑗𝜔)2 + 𝜔02
𝜔0
13. 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔0 𝑡) 𝑢(𝑡)
(𝑎 + 𝑗𝜔)2 + 𝜔02
𝑡 1|𝑡| ≤ 𝜏/2 𝜔𝜏
14. rect ( ) = { 𝜏 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑐 ( )
𝜏 0|𝑡| > 𝜏/2 2𝜋
𝑊 𝑊𝑡 𝜔 1|𝜔| ≤ 𝑊
15. 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑐 ( ) rect ( )={
𝜋 𝜋 2𝑊 0|𝜔| > 𝑊
𝑡 |𝑡|
𝛥 ( ) = {1 − 𝜏 |𝑡| ≤ 𝜏 𝜔𝜏
16. 𝜏 𝜏 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑐 2 ( )
0𝑂𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 2𝜋

∞ ∞

17. ∑ 𝛿(𝑡 − 𝑘𝑇0 ) 𝜔0 ∑ 𝛿(𝜔 − 𝑚𝜔0 )

𝑘=−∞ 𝑚=−∞
2 /2𝜎 2 2 𝜔2 /2
18. 𝑒 −𝑡 𝜎√2𝜋𝑒 −𝜎

6. Properties of Fourier Transform

S. No. Properly Time Signal x(t) Fourier Transform X(j 𝜔)

1. Linearity ax1(t) + bx2(t) aX1(j𝜔) + bX2(j𝜔)
2. Time Shifting X(t – t0) e-j𝜔t0 X(j𝜔)
3. Conjugation X*(t) X*(-j𝜔)
1 𝜔
4. Time Scaling X(at) 𝑋 (𝑗 )
|𝑎| 𝑎
𝑑 𝑛 𝑥(𝑡)
5. Differentiation in time (j𝜔)n X(j𝜔)
𝑑𝑡 𝑛
𝑑𝑋(𝑗𝜔)
6. Differentiation in frequency domain t x(t) 𝑗
𝑑𝜔
𝑡 1
7. Time Integration ∫ 𝑥(𝜏) 𝑑𝜏 𝑋(𝑗𝜔) + 𝜋𝑋(0)𝛿(𝜔)
−∞ 𝑗𝜔
8. Frequency Shifting X(t) ej𝜔t X[j(𝜔 -𝜔0)]
9. Duality X(t) 2𝜋𝑥(−𝑗𝜔)
10. Time convolution X(t)*h(t) X(j𝜔) H(j𝜔)
1
11. Frequency Convolution x1(t)x2(t) [𝑋 (𝑗𝜔) ∗ 𝑋2 (𝑗𝜔)]
2𝜋 1
∞
1 ∞
12. Parseval’s theorem 𝐸𝑥 = ∫ |𝑥(𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑡 𝐸𝑥 = ∫ |𝑋(𝑗𝜔)|2 𝑑𝜔
−∞ 2𝜋 −∞
13. Time reversal X(-t) X(-j𝜔)

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7. Important Points
(i) If 𝑥(𝑡) is a real and even symmetric function, then its Fourier transform 𝑋(𝑗𝜔) is also
real and even.
(ii) If 𝑥(𝑡) is real and odd symmetric signal, its Fourier transform 𝑋(𝑗𝜔) is imaginary and
odd symmetric.
(iii) If 𝑥(𝑡) is an imaginary and even symmetric function, then its Fourier transform 𝑋(𝑗𝜔)
is also imaginary and even symmetric.
(iv) If 𝑥(𝑡) is imaginary and odd symmetric signal, its Fourier transform 𝑋(𝑗𝜔) is real and
odd symmetric.

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CHAPTER 7: LAPLACE TRANSFORM

1. The Bilateral or Two-Sided Laplace Transform

The bilateral or two-sided Laplace transform of a continuous-time signal x(t) is defined as
∞
𝑋(𝑠) = 𝐿{𝑥(𝑡)} = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 –𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
–∞
2. The Unilateral Laplace Transform
The Laplace transform for causal signals and systems is referred to as the unilateral Laplace
transform and is defined as follows:
∞
𝑋(𝑠) = 𝐿{𝑥(𝑡)} = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 –𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0
Comparison table for unilateral and bilateral Laplace transform:

Bilateral LT Unilateral LT

∞ ∞
1. X(s) ∫−∞ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐿𝑇[𝑥(𝑡)] 1. 𝑋(𝑠) = ∫0− 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑈𝐿𝑇[𝑥(𝑡)] \

2. Limits of integration: −∞ 𝑡𝑜 + ∞ 2. Limits of integration: 0− 𝑡𝑜 ∞

3. ROC is must 3. No need to specify ROC (ROC must

always be RHS of s- plane)

4. BLT is unique if ROC is specified 4.ULT is unique

5. Handles both causal and non- 5.Handles only causal systems

causal systems

3. THE EXISTENCE OF LAPLACE TRANSFORM

The bilateral Laplace transform of a signal x(t) exists if the following integral converges (i.e.
finite)
∞
𝑋(𝑠) = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 –𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
–∞

Substituting s = σ + jω in above equation

∞
𝑋(𝑠) = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 –(𝜎+𝑗𝜔)𝑡 𝑑𝑡
–∞
∞
= ∫–∞[𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 –𝜎𝑡 ]𝑒 –𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
The above integral converges if
∞
∫–∞ |𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 –𝜎𝑡 |𝑑𝑡 < ∞
Hence, the Laplace transform of x(t) exists if x(t) e–σt is absolutely integrable.

4. REGION OF CONVERGENCE
Laplace transform of x(t) i.e. X(s) exists if
∞
∫ |𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 –𝜎𝑡 |𝑑𝑡 < ∞
–∞

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The range of values of σ (i.e. real part of s) for which the Laplace transform converges is known

as Region of Convergence (ROC).

5. Laplace Transform of Some Basic Function

Laplace Transform
∞
S. No. CT signal x(t) ROC
𝑋(𝑠) = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 –𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
–∞
1. δ(t) 1 Entire s-plane
1
2. u(t) Re{s} > 0
𝑠
1
3. u(t) – u(t –a) (1– 𝑒 –𝑎𝑠 ) Re{s} > 0
𝑠
1
4. e–at u(t) Re {s} > – a
𝑎+𝑠
1
5. t u(t) Re {s} > 0
𝑠2
𝑛!
6. t nu(t) Re {s} > 0
𝑠𝑛 + 1
1
7. te–at u(t) Re {s} > – a
(𝑎 + 𝑠)2
𝑛!
8. tne–at u(t) Re {s} > – a
(𝑎 + 𝑠)𝑛+1
𝑠
9. cos(ω0t)u(t) 2 Re{s} > a
𝜔0 + 𝑠 2
𝜔
10. sin(ω0t)u(t) 2 Re {s} > 0
𝜔0 + 𝑠 2
(2𝜔02 + 𝑠 2 )
11. x(t) = cos2(ω0t)u(t) Re {s} > 0
𝑠(4𝜔02 + 𝑠 2 )
2𝜔02
12. x(t) = sin2(ω0t) u(t) Re {s} > 0
𝑠(4𝜔02 + 𝑠 2 )
x(t) = exp (–at) cos(ω0t) 𝑎+𝑠
13. Re {s} > – a
u(t) (𝑎 + 𝑠)2 + 𝜔02
𝑤0
14. x(t)=exp(–at) sin(ω0t) u(t) (𝑎 + 𝑠)2 + 𝑤02 Re {s} > – a

6. Properties of Laplace Transform

S.N. Property Time function x(t) ROC

𝐿
1. Linearity 𝑎𝑥1 (𝑡) + 𝑏𝑥2 (𝑡) ↔ 𝑎𝑋1 (𝑠) + 𝑏𝑋2 (𝑠) At least R1 ∩ R2

𝐿 1 𝑠
2. Time scaling 𝑥(𝑎𝑡) ↔ 𝑋( ) aRx
|𝑎| 𝑎

𝐿
3. Time shifting 𝑥(𝑡 − 𝑡0 ) ↔ 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡0 𝑋(𝑠) Rx

𝐿
4. Frequency shifting 𝑒 𝑠0𝑡 𝑥(𝑡) ↔ 𝑋(𝑠 − 𝑠0 ) Rx + Re(s0)

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𝑑𝑥(𝑡) 𝐿
5. Time differentiation ↔ 𝑠𝑋(𝑠) − 𝑥(0) Rx
𝑑𝑡

𝑡 𝐿 𝑋(𝑠)
6. time integration ∫ 𝑥(𝜏) 𝑑𝜏 ↔ R ∩ Re(s) >0
0 𝑠

𝐿 𝑑𝑋(𝑠)
7. s-domain differentiation −𝑡𝑥(𝑡) ↔ Rx
𝑑𝑠

𝐿
8. Conjugation x*(𝑡) ↔ X*(𝑠 ∗) Rx

𝐿
9. Time convolution 𝑥1 (𝑡) ∗ 𝑥2 (𝑡) ↔ 𝑋1 (𝑠)𝑋2 (𝑠) atleast R1 ∩ R2

𝐿 1
10. s-domain convolution 𝑥1 (𝑡)𝑥2 (𝑡) ↔ [𝑋 (𝑠) ∗ 𝑋2 (𝑠)] atleast R1 ∩ R2
2𝜋𝑗 1

11. Initial value theorem 𝑥(0+ ) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚+𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑠𝑋(𝑠)

𝑡→0 𝑠→∞

12. Final value theorem 𝑥(∞) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑠𝑋(𝑠)

𝑡→∞ 𝑠→0

𝐿
13. Time Reversal 𝑥(−𝑡) ↔ 𝑋(−𝑠) –Rx

7.IMPULSE RESPONSE AND TRANSFER FUNCTION

𝐿 𝐿
Let 𝑥(𝑡) ↔ 𝑋(𝑠) is the input and 𝑦(𝑡) ↔ 𝑌(𝑠) is the output of an LTI continuous time system
𝐿
having impulse response ℎ(𝑡) ↔ 𝐻(𝑠). The response y(t) of the continuous time system is given
by convolution integral of input and impulse response as
∞
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡) ∗ ℎ(𝑡) = ∫ 𝑥(𝜏)ℎ(𝑡– 𝜏) 𝑑𝜏
–∞

Using convolution property of Laplace transform the above equation can be written as.
Y(s) = X (s) H (s)
𝑌(𝑠)
Thus 𝐻(𝑠) =
𝑋(𝑠)

Where, H(s) defined as the transfer function of the system. It is the Laplace transform of the
impulse response.
Impulse response is
𝑌(𝑠)
ℎ(𝑡) = 𝐿–1 {𝐻(𝑠)} = 𝐿–1 { }
𝑋(𝑠)

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8. STABILITY AND CAUSALITY

For a causal system the ROC of its rational transfer function H(s) is to the right of the righter
most pole.
For the system to be stable (i.e. the ROC of its system function H(s) includes the entire jω-
axis) the righter most pole of H(s) must be to the left of jω axis.
NOTE: A causal system with rational transfer function H(s) is stable is and only if all its poles
lie in the negative half of s-plane.
9. SYSTEM FUNCTION FOR INTERCONNECTED LTI SYSTEMS
1. Parallel Connection
The parallel interconnection of two LTI continuous systems having impulse responses
h1(t) and h2 (t) is shown in the below figure.

Figure: Parallel connection of LTI system in s-domain

2. Cascaded Connection
Two systems with impulse responses h1(t) and h2 are connected in cascaded configuration
as shown in below figure.

Figure: Cascaded connection of LTI system in s-domain

10. ZERO INPUT RESPONSE AND ZERO-STATE RESPONSE

The Laplace transform gives total response which includes zero input response and zero state
response components.
Total response = Zero input response + Zero state response

10.1 Zero- input response:

The input is considered as zero and response is due to the initial conditions i.e. initial
conditions generates the output.

10.2 Zero state response:

The initial conditions are considered as zero (i.e. zero state) and response is due to
applied input. The term zero state signifies the system is initially released.

This is also termed as forced response as we are applying input (i.e., force to the
system) with zero initial condition.

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CHAPTER 8: Z TRANSFORM

1. The Bilateral or Two-sided Z-transform

The z-transform of a discrete time sequence x[n], is defined as
∞

𝑋(𝑧) = 𝛧{𝑥[𝑛]} = ∑ 𝑥[𝑛]𝑧 −𝑛

𝑛=−∞

2. The unilateral or One-sided z-transform

The z-transform for causal signals and systems is referred to as the unilateral z-transform. For
a causal sequence
z[n] = 0, for n < 0
Therefore, the unilateral z-transform is defined as
∞

𝑋(𝑧) = ∑ 𝑥[𝑛]𝑧 −𝑛
𝑛=0

3. EXISTENCE OF Z-TRANSFORM
For existence of z-transform
|X(z)| < ∞
∞

∑ 𝑥[𝑛]𝑟 −𝑛 < ∞
𝑛=−∞

4. Standard z transforms with their respective ROCs.

S.No. DT sequence x[n] z-transform ROC

1. δ[n] 1 Entire z-plane

Entire z-plane except

2. δ [n – n0] Z–n0
z=0
1 𝑧
3. u[n] –1
= |z| > 1
1– 𝑧 𝑧– 1
1 𝑧
4. αnu[n] –1
= |z| > |α|
1– 𝛼𝑧 𝑧– 𝛼
𝑧 –1 𝑧
5. αn–1u[n – 1] = |z| > |α|
1– 𝛼𝑧 –1 𝑧– 𝛼
𝑧 –1 𝑧
6. nu[n] –1 2
= |z| > 1
(1– 𝑧 ) (𝑧– 1)2
–1
𝛼𝑧 𝛼𝑧
7. nαnu[n] = |z| > α
(1– 𝛼𝑧 –1 )2 (𝑧– 𝛼)2
1– 𝑧 –1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛺0
𝑜𝑟
1– 2𝑧 –1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛺0 + 𝑧 –2
8. cos (Ω0n) u[n] |z| > 1
𝑧[𝑧– 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛺0 ]
𝑧 2 – 2𝑧 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛺0 + 1
𝑧 –1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛺0
𝑜𝑟
1– 2𝑧 –1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛺0 + 𝑧 –2
9. sin(Ω0n) u[n] 𝑧 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛺0 |z| > 1
𝑧 2 – 2𝑧 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛺0 + 1
10. αn cos(Ω0n)u[n] |z| > |α|
1– 𝛼𝑧 –1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛺0
𝑜𝑟
1– 2𝛼𝑧 –1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛺0 + 𝛼 2 𝑧 –2

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𝑧[𝑧– 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛺0 ]
𝑧 2 – 2𝛼𝑧 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛺0+ 𝛼2
–1
𝛼𝑧 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛺0
𝑜𝑟
1– 2𝛼𝑧 –1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛺0 + 𝛼 2 𝑧 –2
11. αn sin(Ω0n) u[n] 𝛼𝑧 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛺0 |z| > α
𝑧 – 2𝛼𝑧 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛺0 + 𝛼 2
2

𝐴 + 𝐵𝑧 –1
𝑜𝑟
r αnsin (Ω0n + θ) 1 + 2𝛾𝑧 –1 + 𝛼 2 𝑧 –2
12. |z| ≤ |α|(n)
u[n] with α ϵ R 𝑧(𝐴𝑧 + 𝐵)
𝑧 + 2𝛾𝑧 + 𝛾 2
2

5. Properties of z- transform

Properties Time domain z-transform ROC

Linearity ax1[n] + bx2[n] aX1(z) + bX2(z) at least R1 ∩ R2

x[n – n0] 𝑍 −𝑛0 𝑋(𝑧) Rx except for the

Time shifting
possible deletion or
(bilateral or non-
addition of z = 0 or z
causal) x[n + n0] 𝑍 𝑛0 𝑋(𝑧) =∞

𝑛0

x[n – n0] 𝑧 −𝑛0

(𝑋(𝑧) + ∑ 𝑥[−𝑚]𝑧 𝑚 )
𝑚=1
Rx except for the
Time shifting possible deletion or
(unilateral or causal) 𝑛0 −1
addition of z = 0 or z
=∞
x[n + n0] 𝑧 𝑛0
(𝑋(𝑧) − ∑ 𝑥[𝑚]𝑧 −𝑚 )
𝑚=1

1
Time reversal x[–n] 𝑋( ) 1/Rx
𝑧

Differentiation in z 𝑑𝑋(𝑧)
nx[n] −𝑧 Rx
domain 𝑑𝑧

𝑧
Scaling in z domain anx[n] 𝑋( ) |𝑎|𝑅𝑥
𝑎

Time scaling
xk [n] = x[n/k] X(zk) (Rx)1/k
(expansion)

Rx, except for the

Time differencing x[n] – x[n – 1] (1 – z–1) X(z)
possible deletion of
the origin

Time convolution x1[n] * x2[n] X1(z)X2(z) at least R1 ∩ R2

Conjugations x*[n] X*(z*) Rx

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𝑥[0] = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑋(𝑧) provided x[n] = 0 for

Initial-value theorem 𝑧→∞ n<0

x[∞]

Final-value theorem = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥(𝑛) provided x[∞] exists

𝑛→∞

= 𝑙𝑖𝑚(𝑧 − 1)𝑋(𝑧)
𝑥→1

6.Causality
A linear time-invariant discrete time system is said to be causal if the impulse response
h[n] = 0, for n < 0 and it is therefore right-sided. The ROC of such a system H(z) is
the exterior of a circle. If H(z) is rational then the system is said to be causal if
1. The ROC is the exterior of a circle outside the outermost pole; and
2. The degree of the numerator polynomial of H9z) should be less than or equal to the
degree of the denominator polynomial.
NOTE: ∑∞
𝑛=−∞ |ℎ[𝑛]| < ∞ condition for the stability.

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CHAPTER 9: DISCRETE TIME FOURIER TRANSFORM (DTFT)
1. DTFT
The DTFT of a non-periodic sequence x[n] is given by
𝑋(𝑒 𝑗𝛺 ) = 𝐹{𝑥[𝑛]} = ∑∞
𝑛=−∞ 𝑥[𝑛]𝑒
−𝑗𝛺𝑛

2. Magnitude and Phase Spectra

The Fourier transform X(ejΩ) of x[n] is, in general, complex and can be expressed as
X(ejΩ) = |X(ejΩ)| ∠X(ejΩ)
The plot of |X(ejΩ)| versus Ω is called magnitude spectrum of x[n] and the plot of ∠X(ejΩ)
versus Ω is called phase spectrum. The amplitude (magnitude) and phase spectra are
together called Fourier spectrum of signal x[n].

3. Existence of DTFT
The DTFT X(ejΩ) of a DT sequence x[n] exists, if x[n] is absolutely summable i.e.
∑∞
𝒏=−∞|𝒙[𝒏]| < ∞

4. Inverse DTFT
The inverse discrete time Fourier transform of X(ejΩ) is defined as:
1 𝜋
𝑥[𝑛] = ∫ 𝑋(𝑒 𝑗𝛺 )𝑒 𝑗𝛺𝑛 𝑑𝛺
2𝜋 −𝜋

5. Special forms of DTFT

Discrete Sequence x[n] DTFT X(ejΩ)

Real and Even Real and Even

Real and Odd Imaginary and Odd

Imaginary and Even Imaginary and Even

Imaginary and Odd Real and Odd

6. DTFT of some basic DT signals

Signal Fourier Transform

∞

1 2𝜋 ∑ 𝛿(𝛺– 2𝜋𝑘)
𝑘=−∞

δ[n] 1
∞
1
u[n] + ∑ 𝜋𝛿(𝛺– 2𝜋𝑘)
1– 𝑒 –𝑗𝛺
𝑘=–∞

1
𝑎𝑛 𝑢[𝑛], |𝑎| < 1
1– 𝑎𝑒 –𝑗𝛺

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𝛿[𝑛– 𝑛0 ] 𝑒 –𝑗𝛺𝑛0
∞
–𝑗𝛺0 𝑛
𝑒 2𝜋 ∑ 𝛿(𝛺– 𝛺0 – 2𝜋𝑘)
𝑘=−∞

∞
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛺0 𝑛 𝜋 ∑ {𝛿(𝛺– 𝛺0 – 2𝜋𝑘) + 𝛿(𝛺 + 𝛺0 – 2𝜋𝑘)}
𝑘=–∞

∞
𝜋
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛺0 𝑛 ∑ {𝛿(𝛺– 𝛺0 – 2𝜋𝑘)– 𝛿(𝛺 + 𝛺0 – 2𝜋𝑘)}
𝑗
𝑘=–∞

+∞ ∞
2𝜋 2𝜋𝑘
∑ 𝛿[𝑛– 𝑘𝑁] ∑ 𝛿 (𝛺– )
𝑁 𝑁
𝑘=−∞ 𝑘=−∞

(𝑛 + 1)𝑎𝑛 𝑢[𝑛] 1
|𝑎| < 1 (1– 𝑎𝑒 –𝑗𝛺 )2

7. Properties of DTFT

S. No. Property Sequence DTFT

1. Linearity a1x1[n] + a2x2[n] a1X1(ejΩ) + a2X2(ejΩ)

2. Periodicity x[n] X(ejΩ) = X(ej(Ω+2π))

3. Time shifting x[n – k] e–jΩk X(ejΩ)

4. Frequency shifting 𝑒 𝑗𝛺0𝑛 𝑥[𝑛] 𝑋(𝑒 𝑗(𝛺−𝛺0) )

5. Time reversal x[–n] X(e-Ω)

X[n/k], n is a multiple
6. Time expansion X(ejkΩ)
integer of k

Differentiation in the 𝑑
7. nx[n] 𝑗 𝑋(𝑒 𝑗𝛺 )
frequency domain 𝑑𝛺

8. Conjugation x*[n] X*(e–jΩ)

Convolution in time
9. x1[n] * x2 [n] X1(ejΩ) X2(ejΩ)
Domain

Convolution in the 1
10. x1[n]x2[n] [𝑋 (𝑒 𝑗𝛺 ) ∗ 𝑋2 (𝑒 𝑗𝛺 )]
frequency domain 2𝜋 1

11. Time differencing x[n] – x[n – 1] (1 – e–jΩ) X(ejΩ)

1
∞ 𝑋(𝑒 𝑗𝛺 )
(1– 𝑒 –𝑗𝛺 )
12. Time accumulation ∑ 𝑥[𝑛] ∞

𝑛=–∞ +𝜋𝑋(0) ∑ 𝛿(𝛺– 2𝜋𝑚)

𝑚=−∞

energy of the sequence x[n] is given as ∑∞ 2

𝑛=−∞|𝑥[𝑛]| =
13. Parseval’s Theorem 1 𝜋 2
∫−𝜋|𝑋(𝑒 𝑗𝛺 )| 𝑑𝛺
2𝜋

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888.88 8. Transfer Function & Impulse Response

𝐷𝑇𝐹𝑇 𝐷𝑇𝐹𝑇
Let 𝑥[𝑛] ↔ 𝑋(𝑒 𝑗𝛺 ) be the input sequence and 𝑦[𝑛] ↔ 𝑌(𝑒 𝑗𝛺 ) be the output sequence

of the system. Then, response (output) of the system is given by following convolution

sum.
𝑦[𝑛] = 𝑥[𝑛] ∗ ℎ[𝑛]

by taking DTFT using the convolution property, we have

Y(ejΩ) = X(ejΩ) H(ejΩ)

𝑌(𝑒 𝑗𝛺 )
𝐻(𝑒 𝑗𝛺 ) = (Transfer function)
𝑋(𝑒 𝑗𝛺 )

NOTE: X(ejΩ) exists if the ROC of X(z) includes the unit circle. We know that ROC does not
contain any poles. Therefore, it is concluded that DTFT of any sequence x[n] can be obtained
from its z-transform X(z) if the poles of X(z) are inside the unit circle.

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CHAPTER 10: SAMPLING THEOREM

1. Sampling
It is the process of converting a continuous time-signal x(t) into a discrete time signal x[n] by
taking samples of the continuous time signal at discrete intervals of time. That is,
𝑥[𝑛] = 𝑥(𝑡)|𝑡=nT𝑠
Where, n is any integer.
2. SAMPLING THEOREM
The sampling theorem states that, a band-limited signal x(t) having the highest frequency
component fm Hz can be exactly recovered or reconstructed from its samples taken at a rate of
2fm samples per second. Hence, the sampling rate or sampling frequency must satisfy this
condition,
fs > 2fm
The sampling interval
1 1
𝑇𝑠 = ≤
𝑓𝑠 2𝑓𝑚

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CHAPTER 11: DISCRETE FOURIER TRANSFORM (DFT)

1. Discrete Fourier Transform

The discrete-time Fourier transform of the sequence x[n] is given by
𝑁−1
−𝑗2𝜋𝑘𝑛
𝑋𝐷𝐹𝑇 [𝑘] = ∑ 𝑥[𝑛]𝑒 𝑁
𝑛=0

where k = 0, 1, 2, …., (N – 1)
Discrete Fourier transform XDFT[k] is also denotes as X[k] or DFT{x[n]}

2. INVERSE DISCRETE FOURIER TRANSFORM (IDFT)

The inverse Discrete Fourier transform of XDFT(k) is defined as
𝑁−1
1
𝑥[𝑛] = ∑ 𝑋[𝑘]𝑒 𝑗2𝜋𝑛𝑘/𝑁
𝑁
𝑘=0

3. Properties of DFT

Discrete Sequence x[n] DFT X[k]

Real and Even Real and Even
Real and Odd Imaginary and Odd
Imaginary and Even Imaginary and Even
Imaginary and Odd Real and Odd

S. No. Properties Discrete time Signal Discrete Fourier Transform

1 Linearity ax1[n] + bx2[n] aX1[k] + bX2[k]

2 Periodicity x[n + N] = x[n] X[k + N] = X[k]

−𝑗2𝜋𝑘𝑛0
3 Circular time shift x[n –n0 ]N 𝑋(𝑘)𝑒 𝑁

4 Time reversal x[N – n] X(N – k)

5 Conjugation x*[n] X*[N – k]

𝑗2𝜋𝑘0 𝑛
6. Circular frequency shift 𝑥[𝑛]𝑒 𝑁 X[(k – k0)]N
1
7. Multiplication x1[n] x2[n] (𝑋 [𝑘] ∗ 𝑋2 [𝑘])
𝑁 1
8 Circular Convolution x1[n] ⊛ x2[n] X1[k] X2[k]

𝑟̄𝑥𝑦 (𝑚)
𝑁−1
9 Circular correlation X(k)Y*(k)
= ∑ 𝑥[𝑛]𝑦 ∗ [𝑛– 𝑚]𝑁
𝑛=0
𝑁−1 𝑁−1
1
10 Parseval’s relation ∑ 𝑥1 [𝑛]𝑥2∗ [𝑛] ∑ 𝑋1 [𝑘]𝑋2∗ [𝑘]
𝑁
𝑛=0 𝑘=0

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CHAPTER 12: FAST FOURIER TRANSFORM (FFT)

1. Properties of Twiddle factor:

(i) Symmetry property:

𝑁
𝑘+
𝑊𝑁 2
= −𝑊𝑁𝑘

(ii) Periodicity property:

𝑊𝑁𝑘+𝑁 = 𝑊𝑁𝑘

Note: The fast Fourier transform algorithm exploits the two basic properties of the twiddle factor
𝑁
and reduces the number of complex multiplications required to perform DFT from N 2 to 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑁.
2

2. IDFT USING FFT ALGORITHM

FFT algorithm can be used to compute an inverse DFT without any change in the algorithm.
The inverse DFT of an N-point sequence X(k), k = 0, 1, …., N – 1 is defined as
𝑁−1
1
𝑥(𝑛) = ∑ 𝑋(𝑘)𝑊 −𝑛𝑘
𝑁
𝑘=0

Where, W = e -j2π/N

Take complex conjugate and multiply by N, we obtain

𝑵−𝟏
𝟏
𝑵𝒙 ∗ (𝒏) = ∑ 𝑿 ∗ (𝒌)𝑾−𝒏𝒌
𝑵
𝒌=𝟎

The desired output sequence x(n) can then found by complex conjugating the DFT and dividing
by N to give
𝑁−1 ∗
1
𝑥(𝑛) = [∑ 𝑋 ∗ (𝑘)𝑊 −𝑛𝑘 ]
𝑁
𝑘=0

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CHAPTER 13: DIGITAL FILTERS
b

1. There are two class of digital filters, depending on the duration of the impulse response.
1.(i) Finite-duration impulse response (FIR) digital filter, the operation of which
governed by linear constant coefficient difference equations of a non-recursive nature.
The transfer function of FIR digital filter is a polynomial in z-1.
It has three important properties.
• They have finite memory and therefore, any transient start up is of limited duration.
• They are always BIBO stable.
• They can realize a desired magnetic response with exactly linear phase (i.e. with no phase
distortion.)
1.(ii) Infinite-duration impulse response (IIR) digital filter, whose input output
characteristics are governed by linear constant coefficient difference equations of recursive
nature.
2. Basic Elements of Block Diagram

Elements of Block
Time Domain Representation s-domain Representation
diagram

Adder

Constant multiplier

Unit delay element

Unit advance element

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3. COMPARISION BETWEEN FILTERS

Table 2: Comparison Between Non-Recursive & Recursive filter

Non-Recursive filters Recursive filters

𝑁𝑝 𝑀
∞

𝑦(𝑛) = ∑ 𝑎𝑘 𝑥(𝑛 − 𝑘) 𝑦(𝑛) = ∑ 𝑎𝑘 𝑥(𝑛 − 𝑘) − ∑ 𝑏𝑘 𝑦(𝑛 − 𝑘)

𝑘–𝑁𝑓 𝑘=1
𝑘=−∞
for causal system for causal system
∞ 𝑁𝑝 𝑀
= ∑ 𝑎𝑘 𝑥(𝑛 − 𝑘) 𝑦(𝑛) = ∑ 𝑎𝑘 𝑥(𝑛 − 𝑘) − ∑ 𝑏𝑘 𝑦(𝑛 − 𝑘)
𝑘=0 𝑘0 𝑘=1
For causal i/p sequence It gives IIR output but not always.
𝑁
Ex: y(n) = x(n) – x(n – 3) + y(n – 1)
𝑦(𝑛) = ∑ 𝑎𝑘 𝑥(𝑛 − 𝑘) 𝑁𝑝
∑𝑘=–𝑁 𝑎𝑘 𝑧 −𝑘
𝑘=0 General TF:𝐻(𝑧) = 𝐹
1−∑𝑀 −𝑘
It gives FIR output. All zero filter. 𝑘=1 𝑏𝑘 𝑧

It is always stable. bk = 0 for Non-Recursive

Nf = 0 for causal system

4. Comparison Between FIR & IIR Filters

FIR filters IIR filters

1. Linear phase no phase distortion. Linear phase, phase distortion.

2. Used in speech processing, data transmission Graphic equalizers for digital audio, tone
& correlation processing. generators filters for digital telephone
3. Realized non recursively. Realized recursively.
Stable or unstable.
4. Stable H(n) = an(n), a < 1 stable
= 0, a > 1 unstable
5. Filter order is more Less

6. More co-efficient storage Less storage

7. Quantization noise due to finite precision
Quantization noise
arithmetic can be made negligible
8. Co-efficient accuracy problem is less severe. More
9. Used in multi rate DSP (variable sampling
rate)

****

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IMPORTANT FORMULAS TO REMEMBER

CHAPTER-1: BASICS OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

1. Introduction
Communication is the process of establishing a connection or link between two points for
information exchange.
OR
Communication is simply the basic process of exchanging information.
Communication system.
Typical examples of a communication system are line telephony and line telegraphy, radio
telephony and radio telegraphy, radio broadcasting, point to point communication and mobile
communication, computer communication, radar communication, satellite communication
television broadcasting, radio telemetry, radio aids to navigation, radio aids to aircraft
landing etc.
2. The Communication Process: Elements Of A Communication System

The whole idea of presenting the communication model is to analyse the key concepts used in
communication in isolated parts and combine them to form the complete picture.

3. Concept Of Bandwidth & Frequency Spectrum

3.1. Bandwidth:
Different types of passband signals such as voice signal, music signal, TV signal, etc. Each of
these signals will have its frequency range. This frequency range of a signal is known as its
bandwidth.

Thus, we write BW = f2 – f1
The bandwidth of different signals has been listed in table 1.

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TABLE 1

Bandwidth in
S. No. Type of the signal Range of frequency in Hz
Hz

Voice signal (speech) for

1. 300 – 3400 3,100
telephony

2. Music signal 20 – 15000 14,980

3. TV signals (picture) 0 – 5 MHz 5 MHz

300 – 3400
4. Digital data (If it is using the telephone line for its 3,100
transmission)

3.2. Frequency Spectrum

The frequency spectrum may be defined as the presentation of a signal in the frequency
domain. It can be obtained by using either the Fourier series or the Fourier transform. It
consists of the amplitude and phase spectrums of the signal.

4. Classification Of Communication System

It shows that the electronic communication system may be categorized into three groups
based on:
(i) Whether the system is unidirectional or bidirectional.
(ii) Whether it uses an analogue or digital information signal.
(iii) Whether the system uses baseband transmission or uses some modulation.

Classification of Electronic Communication Systems

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5. Classification Based On The Nature Of Information SignaL

Classification based on analogue or digital communication

6. Analog Communication
The modulation system or techniques in which one of the characteristics of the carrier is
varied in proportion with the instantaneous value of modulating signal is called an analogue
modulation system.

6.1. Advantages Of Analogue Communication

Some of the advantages of analogue communication are as under:
(i) Transmitters and receivers are simple.
(ii) Low bandwidth requirement
(iii) All natural signals are analogue, so they don’t have to be converted into digital signals for
modulation, so the output is free from quantization errors.
6.2. Drawbacks Of Analogue Communication
Some of the drawbacks are as under:
(i) Noise affects the signal quality
(ii) It is not possible to separate noise and signal.
.
7. Digital Communication:
The modulation system or technique in which the transmitted signal is in the form of discreet
pulses of constant amplitude, constant frequency and phase is called a digital modulation
system.
7.1. Advantages Of Digital Communication
Some of the advantages of digital communication are as under:
(i) Due to the digital nature of the transmitted signal, the interference of additive noise does
not introduce many errors. Hence, digital communication has a better noise immunity.
(ii) Due to the channel coding techniques used in digital communication, it is possible to
detect and correct the errors introduced during the data transmission.

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(iii) Repeaters can be used between transmitter and receiver to regenerate the digital signal.
This improves the noise immunity further and increases the range at which the signal can be
transmitted.
(iv) Multiplexing is easier in digital communications
7.2. Drawbacks Of Digital Communication
Some of the important drawbacks of digital communication are as under:
(i) The bit rates of digital systems are high. Therefore, they require a larger channel
bandwidth as compared to analogue systems.
(ii) Digital modulation needs synchronization between transmitter and receiver in case of
synchronous modulation.
(iii) System has an increased complexity.

8. Baseband And Bandpass Signals

8.1. Baseband Signal

The information or the input signal to a communication system can be analogue, i.e. sound,
picture, or digital, e.g., computer data. The electrical equivalent of this original information
signal is known as the baseband signal. Baseband is a signal that has a near-zero frequency
range (or a narrow frequency "bandwidth") from close to zero hertz up to a higher cut-off
frequency

8.2. Bandpass Signal

It may be defined as a signal which has a non-zero lowest frequency in its spectrum.
This means that the frequency spectrum of a bandpass signal extends from f 1 to f2 Hz.
The modulated signal is called the bandpass signal.

9. Modulation

In the modulation process, two signals are used, namely the modulating signal and
the carrier signal. The modulating signal is only the baseband or information signal,
while the carrier is a high-frequency sinusoidal signal.

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9.1 Need Of Modulation

i. To avoid interference between signals
ii. To decrease the length of transmitting and receiving antenna
iii. To allow the multiplexing of signals

10. Comparison Between Analog & Digital Communication

S.
Analogue modulation Digital modulation
No.

The transmitted modulated signal is The transmitted signal is digital, i.e.

(i)
analogue. train of digital pulses.

Amplitude, frequency or phase The amplitude, width or position of the

variations in the transmitted signal transmitted pulses is constant. The
(ii)
represent the information or message is transmitted in the form of
message. code words.

Noise immunity is poor for AM but

(iii) Noise immunity is excellent.
improved for FM and PM.

It is not possible to separate noise

It is possible to separate signal from
(iv) and signal. Therefore, repeaters
noise. Therefore, repeaters can be used.
cannot be used.

Coding techniques can be used to detect

(v) Coding is not possible.
and correct errors.

The bandwidth required is lower

Due to higher bit rates, a higher channel
(vi) than that for the digital modulation
bandwidth is required.
methods.

(vii) FDM is used for multiplexing. TDM is used for multiplexing.

(viii) Less secure. More secure

Analogue modulation systems are Digital modulation systems are PCM, DM,
(ix)
AM, FM, PM, PAM, PWM etc. ADM, DPCM, etc.

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CHAPTER-2: AMPLITUDE MODULATION

1. Amplitude Modulation
Amplitude modulation is defined as a process in which the amplitude of the carrier wave c(t)
is varied, with the message signal m(t) keeping other parameters constant.

1.1 Time-Domain Description

The standard form of an amplitude-modulated (AM) wave is defined by
x(t) = AC [1 + kam(t)] cos(2πfct)
Where ka is a constant called the amplitude sensitivity of the modulator, the modulated
wave so defined is said to be a “standard” AM wave because its frequency content is fully
representative of amplitude modulation.
• The amplitude of the time function multiplying cos(2πf ct) is called the envelope of the AM
wave s(t). Using a(t) to denote this envelope, we may thus write
a(t) = Ac |1 + ka m(t)|
• Two cases arise, depending on the magnitude of ka m(t), compared to unity.
case 1:
|ka m(t)| ≤ 1, for all t
Under this condition, the term 1 + ka m(t) is always non-negative. We may therefore simplify
the expression for the envelope of the AM wave by writing
a(t) = Ac(1 + kam(t)), for all t
case 2:
|kam(t)| > 1, for all t
The maximum absolute value of kam(t) multiplied by 100 is the percentage modulation.
Accordingly, case 1 corresponds to a percentage modulation less than or equal to 100%,
whereas case 2 corresponds to a percentage modulation of more than 100%.

AM waveform for sinusoidal modulating signal

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1.2 Frequency Domain Description
To develop the frequency description of the AM wave, we take the Fourier transform of both
sides. Let S(f) denote the Fourier transform of s(t), and M(f) denote the Fourier transform of
the message signal m(t); we refer to M(f) as the message spectrum. Accordingly, using the
Fourier transform of the cosine function AC cos(2πtct) and the frequency-shifting property of
the Fourier transform. we may write

Ac k A
S(t) = [(f − fc ) + (f + fc )] + a c [M(f – fc ) + M(f + fc )]
2 2

B.W = (fc + fm) – (fc – fm)

B.W = 2fm Hz or kHz
B.W = 2ωm rad/s

3. Single Tone Amplitude Modulation

Let carrier signal,
x(t) = AC cos ωct
And the message signal,
m(t) = Am cos ωmt
then after modulation, we get
1 1
X AM (t) = AC cos c t + m A cos(c + m )t + maAC cos(c − m )t
2 a c 2
Full carrier Upper Side Band Lower Side Band

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3.1 The Spectrum Of Sinusoidal AM Signal

2Am = Vmax – Vmin

Vmax − Vmin
⇒ Am =
2
Vmax + Vmin
AC =
2
Vmax = Ac (1 + ma )
Vmin = Ac (1 − ma )
Finally, we get,

Am V − Vmin
ma = = max → modulation index
AC Vmax + Vmin

% modulation = ma × 100

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4. Overmodulation
When ma > 1, i.e. Am > AC, overmodulation occurs, and the signal gets distorted. Because the
negative part of the waveform gets cut from the waveform leaving behind a “square wave-
like” signal, which generates an infinite number of harmonics, this type of distortion is known
as “Non-linear distortion” or “Envelope distortion.”

(a) Under modulated AM wave (b) Over modulated AM wave

6. Power Relations In AM

6.1. The Total Power In AM Full Carrier Dual Side-Band System

The total power in an AM wave is given by,
Pt = [Carrier Power] + [Power in USB] + [Power in LSB]
2 2
E2 E USB E LSB
∴ Pt = + +
R R R
E, EUSB and ELSB are the RMS values of the carrier and side-band amplitudes, and R is the
characteristic resistance of the antenna in which the total power is dissipated.
6.2. Carrier Power (Pc)
The carrier power is given by
2
E2 [Ec / 2] E2
Pc = = = C
R R 2R
6.3. Power In The Side-Bands
The power in the two side-bands is given as
E2SB
PUSB = PLSB =
R
maEc
As we know, the peak amplitude of each side-band is
2
[maEc /2 2]2 m2aE2c
PUSB = PLSB = =
R 8R
m2a E2c
PUSB = PLSB = 
4 2R
m2a
PUSB = PLSB = P
4 c

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6.4 Total Power
The total power is given by
Pt = Pc + PUSB + PLSB
m2a m2
= Pc + Pc + a Pc
4 4

 m2 
∴ Pt = 1 + a  Pc
 2 

Pt m2
Or, =1+ a
PC 2

7. Transmission Efficiency

• The transmission efficiency of an AM wave is the ratio of the transmitted power which
contains the information (i.e. the total side-band power) to the total transmitted power.
 m2a m2a 
 + P
PLSB + PUSB  4 4  c m2a /2 m2a
∴ = = = =
Pt  ma 
2
ma 2
2 + m2a
1 +  P 1 +
 2  C 2

• The percentage transmission efficiency is given by

m2a
% =  100%
2 + m2a

8. AM power in Terms of Current

Assume IC to be the RMS current corresponding to the unmodulated carrier and the RMS
current AM wave.

Pc = I2cR and Pt = I2t R

2
Pt I2 R  I 
∴ = 2t  =  t 
Pc Ic R  Ic 

Pt  m2 
= 1 + a 
Pc  2 
2
 It   m2a 
  = 1 + 
 Ic   2 

m2a
It = Ic 1 +
2

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9. Multiple Single-Tone Amplitude Modulation

Let us assume that there are two modulating signals.

x1(t) = Em1 cosωm1t
and x2(t) = Em2 cosωm2t

 E E 
eAM = Ec 1 + m1 cos m1t + m2 cos m2 t  cos c t
 Ec Ec 
Em1
Where, = m1
Ec

Em2
and = m2
Ec

Use the following identity to simplify the equation

1 1
cos A cos B = cos(A + B) + cos(A − B)
2 2

m1Ec mE
eAM = Ec cos c t + cos(c + m1 )t + 1 c cos(c − m1 )t
2 2
m2Ec mE
+ cos(c + m2 )t + 2 c cos(c − m2 )t
2 2

9.1. Total Power in AM Wave

The total power is given as,

Pt = Pc + PUSB1 + PLSB1 + PUSB2 +PLSB2
Extending the concept to the AM wave with n number of modulating signals with modulating
indices m1, m2…mn the total power is given by,

 m2 m2 m2 
Pt = Pc 1 + 1 + 2 + ... + n 
 2 2 2 

9.2. Effective Modulation Index (mt)

 m2 
We know that Pt = Pc 1 + t 
 2 
1/2
mt = m12 + m22 + ...mn2 

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10. GENERATION OF AM WAVES USING NON-LINEAR PROPERTY
The circuit that generates the AM waves is called an amplitude modulator
They are of the following type,
i. Square law modulator
ii. Switching modulator

11. Disadvantages of AM (DSBFC)

The AM signal is also called as "Double Side-band Full Carrier (DSBFC) signal. The main
disadvantage of this technique is:
• Power wastage occurs as the carrier does not contain any information, so it is needlessly
transmitted.
• AM needs larger bandwidth.
• AM wave gets affected due to noise as the amount of noise is directly proportional to the
bandwidth.

12. Detection Of AM Waves

12.1. Square-Law Detector

A square-law detector is essentially obtained by using a square-law modulator for detection.
Consider the characteristic transfer equation of a non-linear device, which is reproduced here
for convenience
v2(t) = a1v1(t) + a2v12(t)
where v1(t) and v2(t) are the input and output voltages, respectively and a 1 and a2 are
constants.

12.2. Envelope detector

1
Charging time constant = RC 
fc

1
Discharging time constant = RC 
fm
As the varying voltage across R follows the envelope.
1 1
So that,  RC 
fc fm

If RC is very small or RC is very large, then we can’t get the envelope of the message signal
waveform in both cases. If RC is very large, then diagonal clipping occurs.
For getting an envelope of m(t), the exact value of RC is given as,

1 1 − m2a
RC  
m ma

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13. Types Of Am

14. Double-Sideband Suppressed-Carrier Modulation

14.1 Time-Domain Description

To describe a double-sideband suppressed-carrier (DSBSC) modulated wave as a function of
time, we write
s(t) = c(t)m(t)
= Ac cos(2πfct) m(t)
14.2. Frequency-Domain Description
The suppression of the carrier from the modulated wave is well-appreciated by examining its
spectrum. Specifically, by taking the Fourier transform
1
S(f) = A [M(f − fc ) + M(f + fc )]
2 c
Where, as before, S(f) is the Fourier transform of the modulated wave s(t), and M(f) is the
Fourier transform of the message signal m(t).

14.3. Generation of DSBSC Waves

A double-sideband suppressed-carrier modulated wave consists simply of the product of the

message signal and the carrier wave. A device for achieving this requirement is called a
product modulator.

14.4. The Spectrum Of DSB-SC Signal

Modulated DSBSC signal

Transmission B.W = 2ω m

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14.5. Balanced Modulator

14.6. Ring Modulator

14.7. Coherent (Synchronous) Detection of DSB-SC Waves

Let x(t) be the DSB-SC signal at the input of the product modulator and the local oscillator
having frequency Ac cos (2πfct + ϕ). The signal x(t) can be represented as
x(t) = m(t)  A c cos(2fc t)

Hence the output of the product modulator is given by

x′(t) = m(t). Ac cos(2πfct) cos(2πfct + ϕ)
x′(t) = m(t). Ac cos(2πfct + ϕ) cos(2πfct)
1
But cos A cos B = [cos(A + B) + cos(A − B)
2
1
Therefore, x(t) = m(t)A c [cos(4fc t + ) + cos ]
2
1 1
x(t) = A c ( cos  ) (m(t)) + m(t)A c cos(4fc t + )
2 2

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Signal x′(t) is passed through a low pass filter. Which allows only the first term to pass
through and will reject the second term. Hence the filter output is given by,
1
m(t) = A cos m(t)
2 c
If Φ=90° the cosΦ=0, so the output becomes 0 this is called the quadrature null effect

15. Hilbert Transform

Hilbert transform of x(t) is represented with x̂(t) , and it is given by

+ i
 
i = e 2
, for   0 
 
H ( ) = 0, for  = 0 
 −
i 
−i = e 2 , for   0 
 

F ( H ( u ) ) ( ) = −i sgn ( ) F ( u )( )
Where sgn() is the signum function

16. Single Side-Band Supressed Carrirer

Let m(t) is modulating signal and 𝑚

̂(𝑡) is Hilbert transform of m(t) then,

ˆ sin c t
XSSB-SC (t) = m(t) cos c t + m(t)  LSB
ˆ sin c t
XSSB-SC (t) = m(t) cos c t – m(t)  USB

Also,
B.W = ωc + ωm – ωc
B.W = ωm

16.1. Power Saving

DSB-SC:
Pc
The power saved in DSBSC =  100
Pt

2
P save =  100%
2 + m2a

SSB-SC:
Pc + PUSBor PLSB
Power saved in SSB =  100
Pt

4 + m2a
Psave =  100%
4 + 2m2a

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17. Vestigial Side-Band Modulation (VSB)

VSB transmission is similar to single-sideband (SSB) transmission, in which one of the side-bands
is completely removed. HOWEVER, in VSB transmission, the second side-band is not completely
removed but is filtered to remove all but the desired range of frequencies.

VSB Transmitter

17.1. Transmission bandwidth

The transmission bandwidth of the VSB modulated wave is given by,
B = (fm + fv) Hz
where fm = Message bandwidth
And fv = Width of the vestigial sideband.

17.2. Generation of VSB Modulated Wave

The modulating signal x(t) is applied to a product modulator. The output of the carrier
oscillator is also applied to the other input of the product modulator. The output of the
product modulator is given by

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Generation of VSB signal

m(t) = x(t).c(t)
= x(t).Vc cos(2πfct)
The spectrum of the VSB modulated signal is given by,
Vc
S(f) = [X(f – fc) + X(f + fc)]H(f)
2
18. Noise in amplitude modulation

Ni (noise power ) =  f m
Where η=white noise power density
So
N
Figure of merit ( FOM ) = o
Si
Ni
FOM DSBSC = 1
FOM SSBSC = 1

ma2
FOM DSBFC =
2 + ma2

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CHAPTER-3: FREQUENCY AND PHASE MODULATION

1. Angle Modulation

An angle modulated wave can be expressed mathematically as

s(t) = Ac cos [ωct + θ(t)]
Where Ac is the peak carrier amplitude,
ωc is the carrier frequency and
θ(t) is the instantaneous phase deviation.
In angle modulation, θ(t) is a function of modulating signal.

2. Phase Modulation (PM)

2.1. Mathematical Expression for PM

A phase-modulated can be mathematically expressed in the time domain as follows:

Kp is the phase sensitivity in radians per volt, and m(t) is the message waveform.

2.2. Mathematical Expression for FM

We can use θ(t) to write the expression for FM in the time domain as under:
s(t) = Ac cos θ(t)
FM wave:

Kf is the frequency sensitivity in rad/V, and m(t) is the message signal.

3. Single-Tone Frequency Modulation

Changing the frequency of the carrier according to the-message signal is called Frequency

Modulation.

fi(t) = fc + Kfm(t) Hz

Kf = Frequency sensitivity (Hz/V)

fi(t) = fc + Kf Am cos2πfmt

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fi, max = fc + KfAm Hz

fi, min = fc – KfAm Hz

Δf = KfAm Hz = frequency deviation

3.1. Maximum Frequency of FM Wave:

The maximum frequency of FM wave is given by

fmax=fc± Δf Hz

3.2. For a single tone modulation:

m(t) = Am cos 2πfmt

  2K f Am 
s(t) = A c  cos  2fc t + sin2fmt  
 2fm 
  

  KA 
= Ac  cos  2fc t + f m sin2fmt  
 fm 
  

3.3. Modulation Index:

The modulation index of FM wave is defined as under:
Frequency deviation
f =
Modulating frequency

K f Am f
= =
fm fm

3.4. Deviation Ratio:

The modulation index corresponding to the maximum deviation and maximum modulating
frequency is called the deviation ratio.
Maximum deviation in frequency
Deviation ratio =
Maximum modulating frequency

3.5. Percentage Modulating of FM Wave:

Actual frequncy deviation
% Modulation =
Maximum allowable deviation

3.6. TYPES OF FM
The FM systems are classified into the following two types:
i. Narrowband FM (β << 1)
ii. Wideband FM (β >> 1)
BW of NBFM = 2fm

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The spectrum of AM and NBFM are identical except that the spectral component at fc – fm is
180° out of phase.

3.7. Narrow-band FM
Narrowband FM is very similar to AM; therefore, it is rarely used
Figure 6 shows the generation of narrowband FM using a balanced modulator.
BWNB=2fm

sNBFM ( t ) = A cos (ct ) − AK f m ( t ) sin (ct )

Figure 6: Generation of Narrowband FM

3.8. Wideband FM
Bessel function of order ‘n’ is given by

Jn (x) = (1 2)  ej(x sin −n) d

s(t) is wideband FM

s ( t ) = Ac  J (  ) cos ( 2 ( f
n =−
n c + nf m ) t )

Wideband FM spectrum

Generation Of WBFM Signals

WBFM signal can be generated by two methods

i. Direct Method or parameter variation method
ii. Indirect Method or Armstrong Method

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Direct Method

Figure 14(a): Voltage control oscillator

1
Frequency of oscillation, f =
2 (L1 + L 2 )(C + C1 )

Difficult to obtain higher-order frequency stability in carrier frequency because the

carrier generation is directly affected by the message signal, so highly stable sources

like crystal oscillators cannot be used. So it is rarely used.

Indirect Method (Armstrong’s method)

In WBFM, after going through a frequency multiplier with a multiplication factor of n

f = nf
 = n
fm = fm
f c = nf c

3.9. Power Calculation

Total Power

A C2 
Pt =
2R
 J ()
n =– 
2
n

According to the property of Bessel function

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A C2
Pt = .1
2R

AC2
Total power =
2R

Same as unmodulated carrier power

i.e. Pt = PC

The total power is independent of the modulation index. AM takes more power compared to
FM for the same message and carrier.

3.10. Calculation Of Practical B.W Of WBFM Using Carson’s Rule

Carson has proved that β + 1 number of side-bands having significant amplitudes contain
99% of the total power. This is called Carson’s rule
B.W. = 2(β + 1)fm
 f 
= 2 + 1 fm
f
 m 
= 2f + 2fm

3.11. FM Demodulation Using Frequency Discriminators And Envelop Detectors

The FM signal is demodulated by a two-step process. Here first, the FM signal is converted
into an AM signal using frequency discriminators and then that AM signal is demodulated
using an envelope detector to get our message signal.

FM discriminators can be divided into two types

Slope Detectors
• Single tuned or simple slope detector
Not used because it has harmonic distortions.
It is also sensitive to amplitude variations
• Stagger tuned or balanced slope detector
Limited to small frequency deviation signals
Phase difference discriminators
• Foster Seeley discriminator
Widely used
Sensitive to amplitude variations caused due to noise
• Slope detector
Insensitive to amplitude variations due to noise
Requires and AGC signal

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3.12. FM Demodulation Using Pll

First-order PLL
When the input to the PLL is of the form cos[2πft + ϕ], the output voltage of VCO is

d
V0  [] .
dt

When the input to the PLL is an FM signal, Ac cos[2πfct + 2πKf ∫m(t) dt], the output voltage is

d
V0  2Kf  m(t) dt
dt

V0  2K f m(t)

1
V0 = 2K f m(t)
2K V 
1
Where, =proportionality constant
2K V

Kf K f − frequency sensitivity of VCO at transmitter

V0 = m(t)
Kv K v − frequency sensitivity of VCO at Receiver

For perfect sync, fVCO=fc, which is called the lock mode.

And ΦVCO= Φc, which is called the capture mode

fVCO=fc is achieved very quickly due to the negative feedback due to the VCO

LPF is responsible for the capture mode (phase sync).

Lock range > Capture range

PLL operation is a differentiation operation

4. PHASE MODULATION

In phase modulation, the phase of the carrier is varied according to the message signal.

Time-domain equation of PM modulated signal can be written as,

S(t) = Ac cos[2fc t + Kpm(t)]

multitone modulation
 = Kpm(t)

Where, Kp =phase sensitivity (units =rad/V)

s(t) = Ac cos 2fc t + Kp Am cos 2fmt  single tone modulation

where Kp Am =  is called phase deviation

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s(t) = A c cos[2fc t +  cos 2fmt]

 =  = modulation index

5. Comparison Between AM and FM

Parameter Amplitude Modulation Frequency Modulation (Angle

modulation)
1 Noise performance Bad Better, but FM has a more severe
threshold effect
2 Common channel More than FM Less due to the capture effect
interference
3 Externally generated More affected but does not Less affected but requires more
noise effect require exact tuning accurate tuning
4 Channel bandwidth Low High
5 operating carrier Low operates in MF and HF High >30MHz
frequency bands
6 Transmission efficiency Less More

6. Capture effect

The capture effect is defined as the complete suppression of the weaker signal at, or near, the
same frequency or channel at the receiver's limiter (if present), where the weaker signal is
greatly attenuated.
It is only present in FM, not in AM(amplitude modulation)

7. Threshold effect
When the carrier-to-noise ratio decreases below a certain point, below this critical point, the
signal-to-noise ratio decreases significantly. This is known as the FM threshold effect.
It is more severe in FM than AM(amplitude modulation)

8. Pre-emphasis and de-emphasis

Pre-emphasis is boosting the amplitudes of higher frequencies at the transmitter.
De-emphasis is the attenuation of the higher frequencies by the same amount at the receiver.

9. Relation between PM and FM

K f Am
PM =
fm
f FM = K p Am f m

10. Figure of merit

3 2
FOM FM = 
2
1
FOM PM = 2
2

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CHAPTER-4: RECEIVERS

1. Features of a receiver
• Selectivity
It is the ability of the receiver to accurately distinguish between two carrier
frequencies and select the correct frequency. Selectivity depends on the sharpness of
the resonance curve of the tuned circuits in the circuit.
• Sensitivity
It is the ability of the receiver to detect the weakest possible signal. It depends on the
gain of the amplifying stages.
• Fidelity
It is the ability to reproduce all frequencies faithfully in the message signal at the
output it depends on the bandwidth of the amplifier, which amplifies the baseband
signal
2. TRF Receiver
Block diagram for TRF Receiver is as follows

Tuned radio frequency receiver

Carrier frequencies allotted from FM = (88– 108) MHz
Carrier frequencies allotted from AM =(550 – 1650) kHz
BW allotted to each AM broadcasting station = 10kHz
Don’t suffer from problems of image frequency rejection and tracking and alignment.
A very high value of Q is required for higher frequencies
Selectivity declines by a lot on higher frequencies.

3. SUPERHETERODYNE RECEIVER

Block diagram for TRF Receiver is as follows

Superheterodyne Receiver
The mixer will change the carrier frequency from fs to fIF.
The intermediate frequency for MW is 455 kHz.

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3.1. Choice Of Intermediate Frequency
For adjacent channel selectivity and easy tracking, the fIF should be low
For good image signal rejection, fIF should be high
3.2. Image Frequency:
Fsi = fs + 2 IF
Where IF is the image frequency
The resonant frequency of the IF tuned amplifier is constant, i.e., IF.
fl – fs = IF
Where fl is the local oscillator frequency
In SHR, the local oscillator frequency is always kept higher than the signal frequency

3.3. Capacitance Ratio

CMAX  f H + f IF 
= 
CMIN  f L + f IF 

3.4. Image (Frequency) Rejection Ratio:

Gain at fs
IRR =
Gain at fsi

Gain at fsi ≪ 1

By increasing the Intermediate frequency, IRR can be increased. By increasing the

bandwidth, the gain at fsi can be decreased so that IRR increases.

1
IRR 
B.W
IRR  Q

IRR = 1 + Q22

fsi fs
Where, = −
fs fsi

Since the frequency of the local oscillator is given by

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1
fLO =
2 LC

Where L is inductance and C is capacitance. Now, for a fixed value of L, we have 1/fLO
1
C =
2 L
1 1
or C =
2L fLO
2

So, the maximum value of capacitance exists for the minimum value of fLO, i.e

1 1
Cmax =
2L fLO,min
2

Similarly, we get

1 1
Cmin =
2L fLO,
2
max

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CHAPTER-5: NOISE IN ANALOG COMMUNICATION

1. Classification Of Noise

The fundamental noise sources produce different types of noise. They may be listed as
under:
(i) Shot noise
(ii) Thermal noise
(iii) Partition noise
(iv) Low frequency or flicker noise
(v) High frequency or transit time noise

1.1. Shot Noise

The mean square shot noise current for a diode is given as
In2 = 2(I + 2I0)q B A2

Where I = direct current across the junction (in the amp.)

I0 = reverse saturation current (in amp.)
q = electronic charge = 1.6 × 10–19C
B = effective noise bandwidth in Hz.
Schottky’s formula

io2 = 2qI o ( f )
Where io=shot noise current

1.2. Thermal Noise or Johnson Noise

The average thermal noise power is given by,
Pn = kTB Watts
Where k = Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38 × 10 –23 J/K
B = Bandwidth of the noise spectrum (Hz)
T = Temperature of the conductor in Kelvin
Also Pn=2kTBR
Noise voltage

vn = 2kTBR
1.3 Partition Noise
When a circuit is divided between two or more paths, the noise generated is Partition
noise. The reason for the generation is random fluctuation during division.

1.4 Flicker Noise

This type of noise is generally observed at a frequency range below a few kHz. The
power spectral density of this noise increases with the decrease in frequency. That is
why the name is given as Low- Frequency Noise.

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1.5 Transit Time Noise

This noise is also known as TRANSIT- TIME Noise. This is observed in semiconductor
devices when the transit time of a charge carrier while crossing a junction is comparable
with the time period of that signal.

2. White Gaussian Noise

White noise is the noise whose power spectral density is uniform over the entire frequency
range of interest, as shown in figure 2.

3.
Figure: Power Spectral Density of White Noise

The white noise contains all the frequency components in equal proportion. This is analogous to
white light, which is a superposition of all visible spectral components.
The white noise has a gaussian distribution. This means that the PDF of white noise has the
shape of a Gaussian PDF Hence, it is called gaussian noise.
As shown in figure 2, the power spectral density (PSD) of white noise is given by,
N0
Sn ( f ) =
2
This equation shows that the power spectral density of white noise is independent of frequency.
As N0 is constant, the PSD is uniform over the entire frequency range, including the positive and
the negative frequencies. N0 is defined as under:
N0 = kTe
where K = Boltzmann’s constant and
Te = Equivalent noise temperature or the system
An example of white noise is the thermal or Johnson noise.

3. Signal To Noise Ratio

It is defined as the ratio of signal power to the noise power at the same point.
S Ps
Therefore, =
N Pn

where Ps = Signal power

Pn = Noise power at the same point.
S/N (dB) = 10 log10 (Ps/Pn)
4. SINAD
This is another variation of signal to noise ratio. SINAD stands for signal noise and distortion,
and it is defined as,

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S+N+D
SINAD =
N+D
Where, S = Signal, N = Noise and D = Distortion
SINAD is generally used in the specifications of the FM receiver.

5. Noise Factor

It is defined as,
S N ratioat the input
F=
S N ratio at the output

Psi Pn0
F= 
Pni Ps0

Where Psi and Pni = Signal and noise power at the input
and Pso and Pno = Signal and noise power at the output

6. Noise Figure

Sometimes, the noise factor is expressed in decibels. When noise factor is expressed in
decibels, it is known as noise figure.
Noise figure FdB = 10 log10 F
Substituting the expression for the noise factor, we get

 S N at the input 
Noise figure = 10 log10   = 10 log10 (S/N)i – 10 log10 (S/N)0
 S N at the output 

Hence, Noise figure FdB = (S/N)i dB – (S/N)0 dB

The ideal value of noise figure is 0 dB.

7. Noise Temperature

The equivalent noise temperature of a system is defined as the temperature at which the
noise resistor has to be maintained so that by connecting this resistor to the input of a
noiseless version of the system, it will produce the same amount of noise power at the
system output as that produced by the actual system.
The equivalent noise temperature of the amplifier is given by,
Teq = (F – 1) T0
Where F is noise factor and T0 is temperature

8. The Figure of Merit:

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Powerof the modulated signal
(S/N)i=(Si/Ni) =
Power of noise in message bandwidth

Powerof the demodulated signal

(S/N)0 = (S0/N0) =
Power of noise in message bandwidth

(S N)0 1
Figure of Merit = =
(S N)i Noise Figure

(S N)i
Noise Figure =
(S N)0
(S/N)0 depends mainly on the modulation scheme and receiver characteristics.
9. Equivalent Noise Temperature In Cascaded States
Te 2 T Ten
Te = Te1 + + e2 + +
Ga1 Ga1Ga 2 Ga1Ga 2 Ga( n −1)

Where Gan=gain of the nth stage

Ten=noise temperature of the nth stage

10. Equivalent Noise Resistance In Cascaded States

R2 R RN
Req = R1 + 2
+ 22 2 + +
A1 A2 A1 1
2 2
A A A32 A(2n −1)
2

11. Noise Figure In Cascaded States

F2 − 1 F3 − 1 FN
F = F1 + + + +
Ga1 Ga1Ga 2 Ga1Ga 2Ga 3 Ga( n −1)

Where Gan=gain of the nth stage

Fn= noise figure of the nth stage

Req
F = 1+
Ra

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CHAPTER-6: RANDOM VARIABLES

1. Probability

1.1. Probability Axioms

1. (Nonnegativity) P(A) ≥ 0, for every event A.
2. (Additivity) If A and B are two disjoint events, then the probability of their union satisfies
P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B).
Furthermore, if the sample space has an infinite number of elements and A1, A2, ... is a
sequence of disjoint events, then the probability of their union satisfies
P(A1 ∪ A2 ∪….) = P(A1) + P(A2) + … P(An)
3. (Normalization) The probability of the entire sample space =Ω is equal to 1, that is,
P(Ω) = 1.

4.For an event, A 0  P ( A)  1
5.For an absolute certain event A P(A)=1
6.For an impossible event, A P(A)=0

1.2. Properties of Probability Laws

Consider a probability law, and let A, B, and C be events.
(a) If A ⊂ B, then P(A) ≤ P(B).
(b) P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B) — P(A ∩ B).
(c) P(A ∪ B) ≤ P(A) + P(B).
(d) P(A ∪ B ∪ C) = P(A) + P(Ac ∩ B) + P(Ac ∩ Bc ∩ C).
1.3. Conditional probability for event A and B:
P(A  B)
P(A | B) =
P(B)

2. Total Probability Theorem And Bayes' Rule

2.1. Total Probability Theorem
Let A1,…, An be disjoint events that form a partition of the sample space (each possible
outcome is included in one and only one of the events A 1,…, An) and assume that P(Ai) > 0,
for all i = 1,…, n. Then, for any event B, we have
P(B) = P(A1 ∩ B) + … +P(An ∩ B)
= P(A1)P(B | A1) + … + P(An)P(B | An).
2.2. Bayes' Rule
Let A1, A2,….., An be disjoint events that form a partition of the sample space, and
assume that P(Ai) > 0, for all i. Then, for any event B such that P(B) > 0, we have

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P ( Ai ) P ( B / Ai )
P ( Ai / B ) = n

 P( A ) P(B / A )
i =1
i i

3. Independent Events:
We say that A is independent of B
P(A | B) = P(A).
P(A | B) =P(A ∩ B)/P(B), this is equivalent to
P(A ∩ B) = P(A)P(B).

4. Introduction To Random Variables

A random variable is a real value function and defined over a sample space of a
random experiment.
It is also known as stochastic function, stochastic variable and random function
The random variables can be distinguished as
1. Discrete Random Variable
2. Continuous Random Variable
3 Cumulative Distribution Function
4 Mean, Variance and Standard Deviation of a Random Variable
5 Different types of Random Variable

5. Discrete Random Variable

When the random variable takes only a discrete set of values, it is called a discrete
random variable. For example, we flip a coin, the possible outcomes are head (H) and
tail (T), so S contains two points labelled H and T. Suppose we define a function X(S)
such that

 1 for S=H
X(S) = 
−1 for S=T

Thus, we have mapped the two outcomes into the two points on the real line. So, this
type of random variable is called a discrete random variable.

5.1. Probability Density Function of Discrete Random Variable

Let a discrete random variable X having the possible outcomes, X = {X 1,X2,…Xn}

So, the probability density function (PDF) of the discrete random variable is defined as

P ( X = x j ) = f ( x j ) , j = 1, 2,3,.......
f ( x)  0
 f ( x) = 1
x

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5.2. Probability Mass Function of Discrete Random Variable

Suppose that the jumps in Fx(x) of a discrete random variable X occur at the points x1,
x2, ..., where the sequence may be finite or countably infinite, and we assume x i < xj
if i < j.
Then Fx(xi)– Fx(xi–1,)= P(X ≤ xi) – P(X ≤ xi–1) = P(X = xi)
Let Px(x) = P(X = x)
The function px(x) is called the probability mass function (pmf) of the discrete random
variable X.
Properties of px(x):
I. 0 ≤ px(xk) ≤ 1 k = 1, 2, ...
2. px(x)= 0 if x # xk (k = 1, 2, ...)
3.  p (x ) = 1
k
x k

The CDF Fx(x) of a discrete random variable X can be obtained by

Fx(x)= P(X ≤ x) =  p (x )
xk  x
x k

6. Continuous Random Variable

A random variable that takes on an infinite number of values is known as a

continuous random variable. As there are infinite possible values of X probability that
1
it takes a single value is =0

6.1 CONTINUOUS RANDOM VARIABLES AND PDFs

For every subset B of the real line. In particular, the probability that the value of X
falls within an interval is
P(X  B) =  f (x)dx,
B x

Note that to qualify as a PDF, a function f x must be non-negative, i.e., fx(x) ≥ 0 for
every x, and must also satisfy the normalization equation
.

6.2 Properties of PDF of Continuous Random Variable:

1. fx(x) ≥ 0

2. 
− x
f (x)dx = 1

x
3. P(X ≤ x) = Fx(x) = 
− x
f ()d

b
4. P(a < x ≤ b) = a
fx (x)dx

5. Excluding the endpoints of an interval has no effect on its probability:

P(a ≤ X ≤ b) = P(a < X < b) = P(a ≤ X < b) = P(a < X ≤ b).

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7. CUMULATIVE DISTRIBUTION FUNCTIONS

The CDF of a random variable X is denoted by F x and provides the probability P(X ≤ x). In
particular, for every x we have

  px (k) X : discrete,
 k  x
Fx (x) = P(X  x) =  x
  fx (t)dt X : continuous
 −

7.1. Properties of a CDF

The CDF Fx of a random variable X is defined by Fx(x) = P(X ≤ x), for all x,
and has the following properties.
Fx is nondecreasing
if x ≤ y, then Fx(x) ≤ Fx(Y).
Fx(x) tends to 0 as x → -∞ and 1 as x → ∞.
If X is discrete, then Fx has a piecewise constant and has a staircase-like graph.
If X is continuous, then Fx has a continuously varying graph.
If X is discrete, the PDF and the CDF can be obtained from each other by summing or
differencing:
k
Fx(k) =  P (i),
i =−
x

px(k)= P(X ≤ k) – P(X ≤ k –1) = Fx(k) – Fx(k –1),

for all integers k.
• If X is continuous, the PDF and the CDF can be obtained from each other by
integration or differentiation:
x
Fx (x) = 
− x
f (t)dt,

8. The Statistical Average Of Random Variable:

8.1 Mean or Expected Value:

Let a random variable X characterized by its PDF fx(x). The mean or expected value of X is
defined as

E(X) = X = −
xfx (x)dx


Similarly, we obtain the expected value of a function g(X) as E[g(X)] = g ( X ) =  g(x)fx (x)dx
−

If X is a discretely distributed random variable, then the expected value of X is given by

n
E[X] = X = x =  x f (x )
i=1
i x i

Properties of expected values

E(cX)=cE(X)
E(X+Y)=E(X)+E(Y)

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E(XY)=E(X)E(Y)

8.2 Variance

The variance 2x of a random variable X is the second moment taken about its mean. i.e.

Var [X] = 2x = E [(X – μx)2]


= 
−
(x − x )2 fx (x)dx

Properties of variance
𝛔2=E((X-μ)2)=E(X2)-μ2
Var(cX)=c2Var(X)
Var(X+Y)=Var(X)+Var(Y)
Var(X-Y)=Var(X)+Var(Y)

8.3. Standard Deviation

The standard deviation σx of a random variable is the square root of its variance, i.e.,

var[x] = E ( X −  ) 
2
x =
 
9. Tchebycheff’s Inequality

E ( X − c ) 
2

P  X − c      2 

10. Normalized Random Variable
X −
X* =

E ( X *) = 0
Var ( X *) = 1

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11. Central Limit Theorem
The probability density of a sum of N independent random variables tends to approach the
probability density of a Normal distribution as N increases. It becomes equal to that of the
normal distribution function as N tends to infinity.
12. Covariance
The covariance of the random variables X and Y is defined as:

cov(X,Y) = σxy = E [(X - μx) (Y – μy )] = (X − x )(Y − y )

where μx and μy are the mean of random variables X and Y, respectively. We may expand the
above result as

cov(X,Y) = σxy = E[XY] – μxμy = XY − x y

it can also be written as

cov(X,Y)=E[XY]-E[X]E[y]
Properties of Covariance
If X and Y are real valued random variables and c and d are real valued constants
cov(X,X)=var[X]
cov(X,c)=0
cov(X,Y)=cov(Y,X)
cov(cX,dY)=cd cov(X,Y)
cov(X+c,Y+d)=cov(X,Y)
13. Correlation Coefficient
The correlation coefficient of random variables X and Y can be defined as
cov[xy]
xy =
x y

Where cov [X, Y] is the covariance of X and Y, and σx, σy are the standard deviations of
random variables.
NOTE:
1. The random variables X and Y are uncorrelated if and only if their covariance is zero, i.e.
cov[XY] = 0
2. The random variables X and Y are orthogonal if and only if their correlation is zero, i.e.
E[X, Y] = 0

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14. Different types of Random Variable distribution:

14.1. Exponential Distribution

PDF and CDF

PDF

e−x if x  0,
fx (x) = 
 0 otherwise,

CDF

1 − e−x if x  0,
Fx (x) = 
 0 otherwise,

Where λ is a positive parameter

1
Mean=E[X]=

1
var(X) = .
2
14.2. Normal Or Gaussian Distribution

PDF and CDF

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PDF
2
1  x − 
1 − 
2  

fx (x) = e
22

CDF

1  x −  
Fx ( x ) = 1 + erf  
2   2 

Where μ and σ are two scalar parameters characterizing the PDF

The mean and the variance are

E[X] = μ,
var(X) = σ2.

14.3. Bernoulli Random Variable

0  p 1
q = p −1

PDF

q = 1 − p x=0
f x ( x) = 
 p x =1

CDF

0, if x  0

Fx ( x ) = 1 − p, if 1  x  1
1, if x  1


x = E(X) =p

2x = Var(X) =pq

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14.4. Binomial Distribution

CDF PDF
PDF

f x ( x ) = nCx p x q n − x
CDF
 x 
Fx ( x ) =  nCi p i q n −i
i =0

Where p=1-q
x = E(X) =np

2x = Var(X) =npq

In a binomial distribution, if the n is large and p is small or close to zero, then it could be
approximated to a Poisson distribution with mean=np

14.5. Poisson Distribution:

PDF CDF

A random variable X is called a Poisson random variable with parameter ( 0)

PDF
x
fx (x) = e− x = 0, 1,2....
x!

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CDF
 x 
i
Fx ( x ) = e −
 i!
i =0

x = E(X) = 

2x = Var(X) = 

If
 →  then Poisson distribution approaches the normal distribution

14.6. Uniform Distribution:

PDF CDF

A random variable X is called a uniform random variable over (a, b) if its PDF is given by
 1
 axb
fx (x) = b − a
 0 otherwise

The corresponding CDF of X is
 0 xa

x − a
Fx (x) =  axb
b − a
 1 xb

The mean and variance are:

a+b
 x = E(x) =
2
(b − a)2
x2 = Var(X) =
12

14.7. Rayleigh Distribution

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PDF CDF
PDF
x2
x −
fx ( x) = e 2 2
2
CDF
x2
−
Fx ( x ) = 1 − e 2 2


x = E(x) = 
2
4− 2
x2 = Var(X) = 
2

15. Error Function

2
erf ( x ) =

x
e − t dt
2

16. Complementary error function

erfc(x)=1-erf(x)

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17. Q function

u2
1  −
Q ( x) =  e 2
du
2 x

Q ( x) = 1− Q (−x)
1 1  x 
Q ( x) = − erf  
2 2  2
1  x 
Q ( x ) = erfc  
2  2
Q ( 0 ) = 0.5

18. Multiple Random Variables

18.1. Expectation
If Y and X are continuous random variables, and g is some function, then Z = g(X, Y) is also
a random variable. For now, let us note that the expected value rule is still applicable and
 
E[g(X, Y)] =   g(x, y)f
− −
x,y (x, y)dxdy

As an important special case, fur any scalars a, is, we have

E(aX + by] = aE[X] + bE[Y].

18.2. Independence of Continuous Random Variables

Suppose that X and Y are independent, that is,

fx,y(x,Y)= fx(x)fy(y), for all x,y.

18.3. Independent Random Variables:

If X and Y are independent random variable’s, then
pXY(xi, yj) = pX(xi) pY(yj)

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19. Joint Probability Density Functions:

Let (X, Y) be a continuous bivariate random variable with CDF FXY(x, y) and let

2Fxy (x, y)
fXY (x, y) =
x y

The function fXY(x, y) is called the joint probability density (joint pdf) of (X, Y).

19.1. Properties of fXY(x,):

1. fXY(x, y) ≥ 0

2.  f
RA
XY (x, y) dx dy = 1

3. fXY(x, y) is continuous for all values of x or concept, possible a finite set.

4. P[(X, Y)]  A] =  f
RA
XY (x, y) dx dy

d b
5. P(a  X  b, c  d) =  c a
fXY (x, y)dx dy

Since P[(X = a)] = 0 = P(Y = c)

it follows that
P(a < X ≤ b, c < Y ≤ d) = P(a ≤ X ≤ b, c ≤ Y ≤ d) = P(a ≤ X < b, c ≤ Y < d)
d b
= P(a  X  b, c  Y  d) =  
c a
fXY (x, y)dx dy

19.2. Properties of FXY(x, y):

The joint CDF of two random variable’s has many properties analogous to those of the CDF of
a single random variable
1. 0 ≤ FXY(x, y) ≤ 1
2. If x1 ≤ x2, and y1 ≤ y2, the
FXY(x1, y1) ≤ FXY(x2, y1) ≤ FXY(x2, y2)
FXT(x1, y1) ≤ FXY(y1, y2 ≤ FXY(x2, y2)
3. lim FXY (x, y) = FXY (, ) = 1
x→ 
y→ 

4. lim FXY (x, y) = FXY (–, y) = 0

x → −

+
5. lim+ FXY (x, y) = FXY (–a , y) = FXY (a, y)
x→ a

6. P(X1 < X ≤ x2, Y ≤ y)= FXY(x2, y)–FXY(x1, y)

7. P(X ≤ x, y1 < Y ≤ y2) = FXY(x, y2)–FXY(x, y1)
8. If x1 ≤ x2 and y1 ≤ y2, then
FXY(x2, y2)– FXY(x1, y2) – FXY(x2, y1) + FXY(x1, y1) ≥ 0
Properties are almost same for the discreet case just use summation instead if integration.

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20. Marginal Probability Density Functions:


fX ( x) =  f ( x, y ) dy
−

fY ( x ) =  f ( x, y ) dx
−

FY ( x ) = lim F ( x, y )
y →

FY ( y ) = lim F ( x, y )
x →

f X ,Y ( x, y )
f y| x ( y | x ) =
fx ( x)
f X ,Y ( x, y )
f x| y ( x | y ) =
fY ( y )

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CHAPTER-7: RANDOM PROCESS

1. Classification of Random Process

Random processes may be classified as continuous or discrete.

1.1. Continuous Random Process: A continuous random process consists of a random
process with associated continuously distributed random variables
X(t, si). The Gaussian random process is an example of the continuous random
process.
1.2. Discrete Random Process: A discrete random process consists of random
variables with discrete distributions. For example, the output of an ideal (hard)
limiter in a binary (discrete with two levels) random process.

2. Probability Density Function of Random Process

A complete description of a random process {X(t, s)} is given by the N-fold joint pdf that
probabilistically describes the possible values assumed by a typical sample function at time t N
> tN–1 > … > t1, when N is arbitrary.
For N = 1, we can interpret this joint pdf as

fX1 (x1 , t1)dx1 = P(x1 − dx1  X1  x1 at time t1)

Where X1 = X(t1, s). Similarly, for N = 2, we can interpret the joint pdf as fX1X2 (x1 , t1 :x2 , t2)

dx1dx2 = P(x1 – dx1 < X1 ≤ x1 and x2 – dx2 < X2 ≤ x2) where X2 = X(t2, s). In general, we
denote the N-dimensional PDF of a random process as
fX(t)(x) = fX(t)(x(t1), x(t2), …., x(tN))

3. Stationary Random Process

A random process X(t) is said to be stationary to the order N if, for any t 1, t2 …, tN

fX(t)(x(t1 ), x(t2 ), ... x(tN )) = fX(t)(x(t1 + t0 ), x(t2 + t0 ), ... x(tN + t0 ))

Where t0 is an arbitrary real constant, the process is strictly stationary if it is stationary to the
order N → ∞.

4. Averages of Random Process:

We may define the time average and ensemble average of a random process in the following
ways:

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A random process with its random variables

4.1. Ensemble of a Random Process
If we fix t to some value, let's say t1, then the result is a random variable X(t1,
S)=[A1A2.....AN] then the mean of X(t1), E[X(t1)] can be calculated, which is known as an
ensemble average.
Ensemble average is a function of time. There is an ensemble average with respect to each
time, and thus ensemble average with respect to each time can be found.

4.2. Time Average of a Random Process

We can consider a sample function, let's say x1(t) over an entire time scale the mean value of
x1(t) is defined as

1
x1 ( t ) = lim  x ( t ) dt
1
T → 2T
−

Similarly, we can find the value for other functions in the variable
The expected value E[X(t)] is known as the time average where

X (t ) = ( x1 ( t ) , x2 ( t ) , x3 ( t ) ....... xN ( t ) )
Property of Ensemble average:
The mean (ensemble average) of a stationary process is constant, i.e.
μX(t) = μX for all t

5. Autocorrelation function

The autocorrelation function of a random process X(t) is defined as the expectation of the
product of two random variables X(t1) and X(t2), i.e.

RX(t1, t2) = E[X(t1 ) X(t2 )] = X(t1) X(t2)

 
=  
− −
x1x2 fx(t) (x1 , x2 ) dx1dx2

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where x1 = x(t1) and x2 = x(t2). Some important properties of the autocorrelation function of
a stationary random process are given below.

5.1. Properties of Auto Correlation Function:

• The autocorrelation function of a strictly stationary random process is a function
only of the time difference τ = t2 – t1, i.e.

RX(τ) = E[X(t) X(t + τ)] = X(t) X(t + )

• The mean square value of the process may be obtained from Rx(τ) simply by putting
τ = 0 in the above equation, i.e.

R X (0) = E[X2 (t)] = X2 (t)

• If the autocorrelation function of a random process has no periodic component then,

we may define
2
X(t) = R X ( ) or X(t) = R X ( )

• The autocorrelation function is the even function of τ, i.e.

RX(τ) = RX(–τ)
• The autocorrelation has its maximum magnitude at τ = 0, i.e.
RX(0) ≥ RX(τ)

6. Cross-Correlation Function

The cross-correlation function for two random processes, X(t) and Y(t), is defined as:

R XY (t1,t2 ) = E[X(t1 ) Y(t2 )] = X(t1 ) Y(t2 )

Where t1 and t2 denote the two values of time at which the processes are observed, the
following are some important properties of the cross-correlation function of two jointly
stationary random processes, X(t) and Y(t):

6.1. Properties of Cross-Correlation Function:

• The cross-correlation function of jointly random processes X(t) and Y(t) is a function
only of the time difference τ = t2 – t1, i.e.
RXY(t1, t2) = RXY(τ)
• The cross-correlation function is the even function of τ, i.e.
RXY(–τ) = RYX(τ)
• The random processes X(t) and Y(t) are said to be uncorrelated if, for all t 1 and t2,

R XY (t1,t2 ) = X(t1 )  Y(t2 )

|R XY ()|  R X (0) R Y (0)

•
1
|R XY ()|  [R (0) + R Y (0)]
• 2 X

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7. ERGODIC PROCESS

A random process is ergodic if the all-time averages of any sample function are equal to the
corresponding ensemble averages (expectations). As the ergodic process has its ensemble
average equal to its time average, we may deduce the following properties for the ergodic
process:

7.1 Properties of Ergodic Process:

• The dc value of an ergodic process can be defined in terms of ensemble average as

Xdc = X(t) = E[X(t)] = X(t)

• The dc power of an ergodic process can be defined as

Pdc = X(t)2 = {E[X(t)]}2 = {X(t)}2

• The power in the ac (time-varying) component is given by

2
Pac = 2x = X2 (t) = X(t) 2 = X2 (t) − X(t)

• The RMS power (total power) of an ergodic process is defined as

2
Ptotal = X2(t) = E[X2(t)] = X2 (t) = 2x + X(t)

• The RMS value of an ergodic process can be defined as

Xrms = X2 (t) = E[X2 (t)] = X2 (t)

2
= 2x + X(t)

8. Wide Sense Stationary Process:

A random process is said to be wide-sense stationery (WSS) if its mean is independent of

time and autocorrelation function depends on the time difference, i.e.
E[X(t)] = μx where μx is a constant
and RX(t1, t2) = RX(τ), where τ = t2 – t1

9. Power Spectral Density

The power spectral density of a given signal describes the distribution of power into
frequency components making up that signal

Following are some important properties of the power spectral density of a stationary
process.

9.1. Properties of Power Spectral Density:

• The power spectral density SX(f) is always real and non-negative, i.e.
SX(f) ≥ 0
• The power spectral density of a real-valued random process is an even function of
frequency, i.e.
SX(–f) = SX(f)

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• The total normalized power of a random process is defined in terms of power spectral
density as

Ptotal = −
SX (f) df

or
E[X2 (t)] = 
−
SX (f) df

or
R X (0) = −
SX (f)df

• The zero-frequency value of the power spectral density of a stationary process equals
the total area under the graph of the autocorrelation function, i.e.

SX (0) =  −
R X () d

10. Cross Spectral Density

Let X(t) and Y(t) be two jointly stationary processes with their cross-correlation functions
denoted by RXY(τ) and RYX(τ). We then define the cross-spectral densities for the random
processes as

SXY(f) =  −
R XY ()e− j2fr d


and SYX (f) =  −
R YX () e− j2fr d

Accordingly, using the formula for inverse Fourier transformation, we may also write

R XY () = −
SXY (f)ej2fr df


and R YX () = −
SYX (f) e j2fr df

10.1. Properties of Cross Spectral Density:

The cross-spectral densities SXY(f) and SYX(f) are not necessarily the real function or f.
However, using the property of the autocorrelation function, we may deduce that

SXY(f) = SYX(–f) = S*YX (f)

11. Linear System:

Consider a linens system shown in Figure 10. The input-output relationship for the system is
y(t) = h(t) * x(t)
The corresponding Fourier transform relationship is
Y(f) = H(f) X(f)

X(f) Y(f)
RX(τ) RY(τ)
SX(f) SY(f)

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11.1. Input-Output Relationship of a Linear System
If x(t) is a wide-sense stationary random process, then the output autocorrelation is defined
as
RY(τ) = h(–τ) * h(τ) * RX(τ)
Correspondingly, the output power spectral density is given by
SY(f) = |H(f)|2 SX(f)
Thus, the power transfer function of the network is
SY (f)
G(f) = = |H(f)|2
SX (f)

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CHAPTER-8: BASEBAND MODULATION

1. Sampling Process

Sampling is the process of measuring the instantaneous values of the continuous-time signal
in a discrete form. The sample is a piece of data taken from the whole data, which is
continuous in the time domain.

The time interval between two consecutive samples is called the sampling period.

Sampling frequency: The reciprocal of the sampling period is referred to as sampling

frequency, i.e.
fS = 1/TS

2. Sampling Theorem
A band-limited signal having no frequency components higher than f m Hz is completely
described by its sample values at uniform intervals less than or equal to 1/2f m Hz
A band-limited signal having no frequency components higher than f m Hz may be completely
recovered from the knowledge of its samples taken at the rate of at least 2f m samples per
second.
3. Nyquist Rate

Nyquist rate is defined as the minimum sampling frequency allowed to reconstruct a band-
limited waveform without error, i.e.
fN = min {fS} = 2W
Where W is the message signal bandwidth, and fS is the sampling frequency.

4. Nyquist Interval

The reciprocal of Nyquist rate is called the Nyquist interval (measured in seconds), i.e.
1 1
TN = =
fN 2W
Where fN is the Nyquist rate, and W is the message signal bandwidth.

5. Sampling of Bandpass Signals

The bandpass signal x(t), whose maximum bandwidth is 2fm, can be completely represented
and recovered from its samples if sampled at the minimum rate of twice the bandwidth.
Hence if the bandwidth is 2fm, the minimum sampling rate for bandpass signal must be 4f m
samples per second.
This bandpass signal is first represented in terms of its in-phase and quadrature components
Let xI(t) = Inphase component of x(t)
And xQ(t) = Quadrature component of x(t)
Thus, the signal x(t) in terms of inphase and quadrature components will be expressed as
x(t) = xI(t) cos(2πfct) – XQ(t) sin(2πfct)

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Thus, if 4fm samples per second are taken, the bandpass signal of bandwidth 2f m can be
completely recovered from its samples. Hence, for bandpass signals of bandwidth 2f m.
Minimum sampling rate = Twice of bandwidth
= 4fm samples per second.

6. Sampling Technique
There are three types of sampling techniques as under:
i. Instantaneous sampling
ii. Natural sampling
iii. Flat top sampling
Out of these three, instantaneous sampling is ideal sampling, whereas natural sampling and
flat-top sampling are practical sampling methods.
Table 1: Performance Comparison of three Sampling Technique

Parameter Ideal or
S.
of instantaneous Natural sampling Flat top sampling
No
comparison sampling

Sampling It uses the chopping It uses sample and hold

1. It uses multiplication
principle principle circuit

Generation
2.
circuit

Waveforms
3.
involved

This is not a practically This method is used This method is also used
4. Feasibility
possible method practically practically

Sampling The sampling rate The sampling rate The sampling rate
5.
rate tends to infinity satisfies Nyquist criteria satisfies Nyquist criteria

6. Noise Noise is maximum Noise is minimum noise noise is maximum

Time-domain A  

g (t) =  x ( t ) sin c (nfs  ) e j2nfst g (t) =  x (nT ) h ( t − nT )
7. representatio g (t) =  x (nT )  ( t − nT )
s s Ts n=− s s
n =−
n=−
n
Frequency 

domain

A  G ( f ) = fs  X ( f − nf ) H ( f )
8. G ( f ) = fs  X ( f − nf )
s
G (f ) =  sin c (nfs ) X ( f − nfs ) n=−
s

representatio n=−
Ts n=−
n

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7. Inter symbol Interference

Intersymbol interference (ISI) is a phenomenon in which one symbol interferes with

subsequent symbols. This is unwanted as the previous symbols have a similar effect as noise,
thus making the communication less reliable. The spreading of the pulse beyond its allotted
time interval causes it to interfere with neighbouring pulses. ISI is usually caused by
multipath propagation or the inherent linear or non-linear frequency response of
a communication channel causing successive symbols to blur together.

8. Aliasing

Aliasing is a phenomenon that causes different signals to become indistinguishable

when sampled. It also often refers to the distortion that results when a signal is
reconstructed from the samples different from the original continuous signal.

9. Pulse Modulation

Pulse modulation is the process of changing a binary pulse signal according to the
information to be transmitted. Pulse modulation can be either analogue or digital.

9.1. Analog Pulse Modulation

Analog pulse modulation results when some pulse attribute varies continuously in one-to-one
correspondence with a sample value. In analogue pulse modulation systems, the amplitude,
width, or position of a pulse can vary over a continuous range in accordance with the
message amplitude at the sampling instant.
i. Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
ii. Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
iii. Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)

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Representation of Various Analog Pulse Modulation

9.2. Digital Pulse Modulation
i. Delta Modulation (DM)
ii. Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
iii. Differential Pulse Code Modulation (DPCM)
iv. Adaptive Delta Modulation (ADM)

10. Pulse Code Modulation

The PCM is done by using the following steps
i. Sampling
ii. Quantizing
iii. Encoding

Block Diagram Representation of PCM System

10.1. Quantization
Quantization is the process of mapping input values from a large set or a continuous signal to
output values in a (countable) smaller set, with a finite number of elements

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10.1.1 Uniform Quantizer
A quantizer is called a uniform quantizer if the step size remains constant throughout the
input range.
There are two types of quantizers:
i. midtread type
ii. midrise type

Two types of Uniform Quantization (a) Midtread, and (b) Midrise

10.1.2. Nonuniform Quantizer
Nonuniform quantization is a quantizer whose step size is not fixed but varies based on
different techniques like μ law given below
1n(1 +  | m |)
| mq |=
1n(1 + )
Where m and mq are the normalized input and output voltages, and μ is a positive constant.
10.2. Encoding
An encoder translates the quantized samples into digital code words. The encoder works with
M-ary digits and produces a codeword of n digits parallel for each sample. Since there are Mn
possible M-ary codewords with n digits per word, unique encoding of the q different levels
requires that
Mn ≥ q
The parameters M, n, and q should be chosen so that
q = Mn or n = logM q
10.2.1. Encoding in Binary PCM
For binary PCM, each digit may be either of two distinct values, 0 or 1, i.e.
M=2
If the code word of binary PCM consists of n digits, then the number of quantization levels is
defined as
q = 2n
or n = log2q

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10.3. Characteristics of PCM System

• A sampled waveform is quantized into q quantization levels, where q is an integer.

• If the message signal is defined in the range (–mp, mp), then the step size of the quantizer
is
2mp
=
q
• For a binary PCM system with n digit codes, the number of quantization levels is defined as
q = 2n
• If the message signal is sampled at the sampling rate fS and encoded to n number of bits
per sample; then the bit rate in (bits/s) of the PCM is defined as
Rb = nfS

10.4. Transmission Bandwidth In A PCM System

1 1
BPCM  R b = nfs
2 2
Rb is the bit rate, n is the number of bits in PCM word, and f S is the sampling rate. Since the
required sampling rate for no aliasing is
fS ≥ 2 W
Where W is the bandwidth of the message signal (that is to be converted to the PCM signal).
Thus, the bandwidth of the PCM signal has a lower bound given by
BPCM ≥ nW
When k synchronising bits are included in the signal
BW=2(nN+k)fs Hz

10.5. NOISE IN PCM

In PCM (pulse code modulation), there are two sources of error:

i. Quantization noise
ii. Channel noise
Quantization Noise
For a PCM system, the kth sample of quantized message signal is represented by
Mq(kTS) = m(kTS) + ε(kTS)
Where m(kTS) is the sampled waveform, and ε(kTS) is the quantization error. Let the
quantization levels having a uniform step size δ. Then, we have
 
– 
2 2
So, the mean-square error due to quantization is
1  /2 2 2
2 = 
 – /2
 d =
12
…………(i)

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10.6. Signal to Quantization Noise Ratio

For the PCM system, we have the message signal m(t) and quantization error of ε. So, we
define the signal to quantization noise ratio as

m2 (t) m2 (t)
(SNR)Q = = ……………(ii)
2 2 / 12
Where δ is the step size of the quantized signal defined as
2mp
= …………………(iii)
q
Substituting equation (iii) in equation (ii), we get the expression for the signal to quantization
noise ratio as

m2 (t)
(SNR)Q = 12
(2mp / q)2

m2 (t)
(SNR)Q = 3q2 ……………(iv)
mp2

Where mp is the peak amplitude of message signal m(t), and q is the number of quantization
levels.

10.7. Channel Noise

If a PCM signal is composed of the data that are transmitted over the channel having bit
error rate Pe, then peak signal to average quantization noise ratio is defined as
3q2
(SNR)peak =
1 + 4(q2 – 1)Pe

Similarly, for the channel with bit error probability P e, the average signal to average
quantization noise ratio is defined as
q2
(SNR)avg =
1 + 4(q2 – 1)Pe

10.8. Companding
Companding is a non-linear technique used in PCM which compresses the data at the
transmitter and expands the same data at the receiver.
It is used to mitigate the effects of noise and crosstalk.

μ law companding

1  m  m
y= ln 1 +  '0  1
ln (1 +  )   mp  mp

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A-law companding

 A  m  m 1
   , 0  
1 + ln A  m p  mp A
y=
 1  Am  1 m
1 + ln A 1 + ln m  , A  m  1
  p  p

11. Delta Modulation

Delta Modulation is the simplest form of differential pulse-code modulation (DPCM), where
the difference between successive samples is encoded into n-bit data streams. In delta
modulation, the transmitted data are reduced to a 1-bit data stream

Delta modulation block diagram

11.1 NOISE IN DELTA MODULATION

The noise in delta modulation can be classified into two types:

i. Slope Overload Noise
ii. Granular Noise
11.1.1. Slope Overload Noise
This distortion arises because of a large dynamic range of the input signal
The maximum slope that the accumulator output can generate is

= fs
Ts

condition to avoid slope overload is,

dm(t)
max   fs
dt

Where m(t) is the message signal, δ is the step size of the quantized signal, and fs is the
sampling rate.
11.1.2. Granular Noise
Granular or Idle noise occurs when the step size is too large compared to a small variation in
the input signal

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Form equation (i), we have the total quantizing noise for the PCM system,

1  /2 2 2 ( /2)2
 – /2
(2 )PCM =  d = =
12 3

Replacing δ/2 of PCM by δ for DM, we obtain the total granular quantizing noise as
2
(2 )DM =
3

Thus, the power spectral density for granular noise in delta modulation system is obtained as

2 /3 2
SN (f) = =
2fs 6fs

Where δ is the step size, and fS is the sampling frequency.

11.2. Finding Minimum Step Size In Delta Modulation

dm(t)
fs  max = 2fm Am
dt

12. Multilevel Signaling

12.1. Baud Rate

1
D=
Ts

Where D is the symbol rate which is called baud.

12.2. Bits per Symbol
we define the bits per symbol as
K = log2M
12.3. Relation Between Baud and Bit Rate
For a multilevel signalling scheme, the bit rate and baud (symbols per second) are related as
Rb = kD =Dlog2M ……………..(v)
Rb is the bit rate, k = log2M is the bits per symbol, and D is the baud (symbols per second).

12.4. Relation Between Bit Duration and Symbol Duration

For a multilevel signalling scheme, the bit duration is given by

1
Tb =
Rb

Where Rb is the bit rate. Also, we have the symbol duration

1
Ts =
D
Where D is the symbol rate. Thus, by substituting this expression in equation (v), we get the
relation
TS = kTb = Tblog2M
Where k = log2M is the bits per symbol.

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13. Transmission Bandwidth

The null to null transmission bandwidth of the rectangular pulse multilevel waveform is
defined as
BT = D symbols/sec
sin x
The absolute transmission bandwidth for pulse multilevel waveform is defined as
z
D
BT = symbols / sec
2
14. Line Codes

Line Code Minimum Average DC Clock recovery Error Detection

Bandwidth
UNRZ 1/2T V/2 Poor No
BNRZ 1/2T 0 Poor No
URZ 1/T V/2 Good No
BRZ 1/T 0 Very good No
Manchester 1/T 0 Best No
BRZ-AMI 1/2T 0 Good Yes

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CHAPTER-9: BANDPASS MODULATION

1. Digital Bandpass Modulation

There are three basic modulation schemes:
• Amplitude shift keying (ASK)
• Frequency shift keying (FSK)
• Phase shift keying (PSK)
1.1. Amplitude-Shift Keying (ASK):
In ASK, the modulated signal is expressed as
A cos c t symbol 1
xc (t) = 
 0 symbol 2

Note that the modulated signal is still an on-off signal. Thus, ASK is also known as on-off
keying (00K).
1.2. Frequency-Shift Keying (FSK):
In FSK, the modulated signal can be expressed as

 A cos 1t symbol 1

xc (t) = 
A cos 2 t symbol 0

1.3. Phase shift keying (PSK):

In PSK, the modulated signal can be expressed as
 A cos c t symbol 1
xc (t) = 
A cos ( c t +  ) symbol 0

2. Amplitude Shift Keying

ASK is often referred to as on-off keying (OOK). The ASK signal is represented by
s(t) = Ac m(t) cosωct
where m(t) is a unipolar baseband data signal.

A cos 2c t →1
s ( t ) = A c cos c t =  c
 0 →0

AC2
PS =
2

2ps cos 2fc t → 1 0  t  T2

s(t) =
0 →0 elsewhere
Because of this, it is called “ON-OFF KEYING.”
Ask is one dimensional

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2.1. Transmission Bandwidth of ASK Signal

For ASK signal, the transmission bandwidth is given by

BT = 2Rb
If raised cosine-roll off is used (to conserve bandwidth), the absolute transmission
bandwidth (for rectangular pulse waveform) of the ASK signal is obtained as
BT = (1+α)Rb
Where α is the roll-off factor of the filter.

3. Binary Phase Shift Keying

3.1. Binary Phase-shift keying (BPSK) is a digital modulation scheme that conveys data by
changing two different phases of a carrier wave. The constellation points chosen are
usually positioned with uniform angular spacing around a circle.
3.2. The bandwidth of BPSK Signal

The null-to-null transmission bandwidth for the BPSK system is the same as that
found for amplitude shift keying (ASK). The null-to-null transmission bandwidth for
the BPSK system is given by
BT = 2Rb
Where Rb is the bit rate of the digital signal.

4. FSK
BFSK uses a pair of discrete frequencies to transmit binary (0s and 1s) information. With this
scheme, the 1 is called the mark frequency, and the 0 is the space frequency.
4.1. Transmission Bandwidth of Coherent Binary FSK Signal
The transmission bandwidth for the FSK signal may be expressed as
BT = 2(Δf + Rb)
Where Rb is the bit rate of the modulating signal and Δf is the peak frequency deviation.
The above expression can be more generalized for the following cases:
Case I: Narrowband FSK
For narrowband FSK signal, Δf ≪ Rb. So, the transmission bandwidth of narrowband FSK is
given by
BT = 2Rb
Case II: Wideband FSK
For wideband GSK signal, Δf ≫ Rb. So, the transmission bandwidth of wideband FSK given by
BT = 2Δf
Case III: FSK with Raised Cosine Roll-off Factor
If a raised cosine roll-off factor α is used, equation (ii) becomes
BT = 2Δf + (1 + α) Rb

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5. Noncoherent Binary Systems

The most common noncoherent bandpass modulation techniques are:

i. Differential phase-shift keying (DPSK)
ii. Noncoherent frequency-shift keying
6. Differential phase-shift keying (DPSK)
Following are the steps involved in the differential encoding of a message sequence:
Step 1: An arbitrary reference binary digit is assumed for the initial digit of the encoded
sequence. In the example shown in Table 1, a 1 has been chosen.
Step 2: For each digit of the encoded sequence, the present digit is used to reference the
following digit in the sequence.
Step 3: A 0 in the message sequence is encoded as a transition from the state of the
reference digit to the opposite state in the encoded message sequence; a 1 is encoded as no
change of state. In the example shown, the first digit in the message sequence is a 1, so no
change in state is made in the encoded sequence, and a 1 appears as the next digit.
Step 4: This serves as the reference for the next digit to be encoded. Since the next digit
appearing in the message sequence is a 0, the next encoded digit is the opposite of the
reference digit, or a 0.
Step 5: The encoded message sequence then phase-shift keys a carrier with the phases 0
and ϖ as shown in the table.
Differential Encoding Example

Reference Digit

Message Sequence 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0

Encoded Sequence 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0

Transmitted Phase 0 0 π 0 0 0 0 Π 0 π

7. Continuous Phase Frequency Shift Keying (CPFSK)

2 Eb
s(t) = cos it
Tb

it = ct + (t)

nht
Here (t) = (0)  where h = Deviation Ratio
Tb

nht
1t = c t + (0) +
Tb

nht
2t = c t + (0) –
Tb

Since (t) is changing with time, hence it is known as CPFSK.

2 nht
(1 – 2) t =
Tb

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nh
(f1 − f2 ) =
Tb

2 Eb
s1(t) = cos(2f1t) → +1
Tb

2 Eb
s2(t) = cos(2f2 t) → −1 / 0
Tb

n → integer taken as ‘1’ for smallest value.

8. MSK (Minimum Shift Keying)

1
Here, h = (Deviation ratio)
2
 1
Type of CPFSK in which  h = 
 2

In the case of MSK, both S1 and S2 will be orthogonal to each other. This type of FSK is also
known as fast FSK.
For MSK:
h 1 Bit rate
(f1 – f2) = = (for n =1) =
Tb 2Tb 2

9. Relation Between Bit Rate and Symbol Rate

Since k = log2M bits per symbol are transmitted, so symbol rate for the MPSK system can be
defined in terms of bit rate Rb as
Rb Rb
Rs = =
k log2 M

10. Relation Between Bit Energy and Symbol Energy

For a multilevel Signalling scheme, assume that the signal energy per bit is Eb, and signal
energy per symbol is Es. We express the relationship between these two quantities as
Es = Eb(log2M)

11. M-ary Phase Shift Keying (MPSK)

11.1. Transmission Bandwidth

For an M-ary PSK signal, we define the transmission bandwidth as
BT = 2Rs
where Rs is the symbol rate. Substituting equation (iii) in the above expression, We get the
transmission bandwidth of the MPSK system as
2R b
BT = ……………….(vii)
log2 M

Where Rb is the bit rate for the system. Also, we have overall absolute transmission
bandwidth with raised cosine filtered pulses as

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BT =
(1 +  ) R s
log2 M

Where α is the roll-off factor.

12. Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK)
12.1. Transmission Bandwidth
Substituting M = 4 in equation (vii), we get the transmission bandwidth for the QPSK system
as
2R b
BT = = Rb
log2 4

13. M-ary Frequency Shift Keying (MFSK)

13.1. Transmission Bandwidth
The transmission bandwidth for an M-ary FSK system is defined as
RbM
BT =
2 log2 M

Where Rb is the bit rate, and M = 2k is the size of the symbol.

14. Keying Techniques Block Diagrams

14.1. ASK transmitter and receiver

14.2. PSK transmitter and receiver

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14.3. DPSK transmitter and receiver

14.4. FSK transmitter and receiver

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14.5. QPSK transmitter and receiver

14.6. MSK transmitter and receiver

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15. Constellation diagrams

ASK

FSK

PSK

MSK

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16. Overall comparison

17. Matched Filter

The matched filter is the optimal linear filter for maximizing the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) in
the presence of additive stochastic noise

Impulse response of matched filter, h(t) is

• h(t) = si (T – t) si(t) → Real
• h(t) = si (T – t) si(t) → Imaginary
• h(t) = si *(T – t) si(t) →Complex

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CHAPTER-10: PROBABILITY OF ERROR AND DECISION THEORY

1. Bit Error Probability of ASK Signal

The probability of bit error for a coherent ASK system is given by

Pe = Q (Eb / N0 ) = Q () b

Eb is the bit energy, N0 is the noise power density, and γb is the bit energy to noise density
ratio.

2. Calculation of probability of error of Binary Phase Shift Keying

1 r 2
Pe (min) = erfc max
2 8
Tb
2
2max =  [s (t) − s (t)] dt
2
1 2
N0 0

NOTE: Probability of error in terms of distance (d)

1  d   d   d 
Pe = erfc   = Q  = Q 
2 2 N   2 N   2N 
 0   o   o 

1  E   2 Eb   2Eb 
Pe = erfc  b  = Q   = Q 
2  N0   2N   No 
   b   

If the distance between two manage points is decreased, then the probability of error will
increase.

3. Probability Of error in case of Non-Synchronized BPSK:

If  is the error between local oscillation and modulated signal, then P e will become
1/2
1 E cos2   2E cos2 
Pe = erfc b = Q  b 
2 N0  N0 

Eb cos2 
SNR =
N0

4. Bit Error Probability of BPSK Signal

If we consider phase error ϕ in demodulation, then the bit error probability is expressed as

Pe = Q ( 2b cos2  )
5. Bit Error Probability of Coherent Binary FSK Signal

For coherent binary FSK signal, we define the bit error probability as

Pe = Q ( Eb / N0 = Q ) () b

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Eb is the bit energy, N0 is the noise power density, γb is the bit energy to noise density ratio.
Note:
For a larger value of z, the Q(z) function can be approximated as
1
Q (z) 
2
e− z /2
, z  1
2z
Q(z) function can be expressed in terms of complementary error function as
1  z 
Q (z) = erfc  
2  2

5. Probability of bit error for binary DPSK (Non-coherent PSK)

1  −E 
Pe (bit − error) = exp  b 
2  N0 
The probability of bit error for binary DPSK is higher than binary BPSK.
Pe (DPSK) > Pe (BPSK)

6. Bit Error Probability for Noncoherent Frequency Shift Keying

The bit error probability for noncoherent frequency shift keying is defined
1  E  1   
Pe = exp  − b  = exp  − b 
2  2N0  2  2
Eb is the bit energy, Na is the noise power density, and γb is the bit energy to noise density
ratio.

7. Relation Between Probability Of Bit Error And Probability Of Symbol Error For

Orthogonal Signals

Let PE be the average probability of symbol error, and P e be the average probability of bit
error (bit error rate) for an M-ary orthogonal system (such as MFSK).
Pe 2k −1 M/2
= k = ……(v)
PE 2 −1 M −1

In the limit as k increases, we get

Pe 1
lim =
x → PE 2

8. Relation Between Probability Of Bit Error And Probability Of Symbol Error For Multiple

Phase Signals

For a multiple phase system (such as MPSK), the probability of bit error (P e) can be
expressed in terms of probability error (P E) as
PE
Pe =
log2 M

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9. Probability of Symbol Error for MPSK

The probability of symbol error for the MPSK system is defined as

 2Es 
PE  2Q  sin 
 N0 M 

Where M = 2k is the size of the symbol set, and E s is the energy per symbol. Since the
symbol energy, Es, is given by
Es = Eb(log2M) = kEb
Where k = log2M is the number of bits transmitted per symbol. So, we can express the
probability of symbol error in terms of Eb/N0 as

 2kEb 
PE = 2Q  sin 
 N0 M 

10. Probability of Bit Error for M-ary PSK
The bit error probability in terms of symbol error probability for an M-ary PSK system as
PE P
Pe = = E
log2 M k

The probability of bit error for M-ary PSK system as

2  2kEb 
Pe = Q sin 
k  N0 M 

2  
= Q  2kb sin2 
k  M 

11. Probability of Symbol Error for QPSK

For QPSK M = 4, we get the probability of symbol error for the QPSK system as

 2Es 
PE  2Q  sin 
 N0 4 


 E 
Or PE = 2Q  s 
 N0 
 
Since, the symbol energy Es is given by
Es = Eb(log2M) = Eb(log24) = 2Eb
So, we can express the probability of symbol error in terms of E b/N0 as
 2Eb 
PE = 2Q  
 N0 
 
12. Probability of Symbol Error for M-ary QAM
The probability of symbol error for an M-ary QAM system is given by

 1   3k Eb 
PE  1 − Q 
 M   M − 1 N0 

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 1   3k 
PE  4 1 −  Q  b 
 M   M − 1 

Where k = log2M is the number of bits transmitted per symbol, E b is the bit energy, N0 is the
noise power density, and γb is the bit energy to noise density ratio.
13. Probability of Bit Error for M-ary QAM
The bit error probability for an M-ary QAM system as
PE P
Pe = = E
log2 M k

4 1   3k 
= 1 − Q b 
k M   M − 1 
14. Probability of Symbol Error for M- ary FSK
The probability of symbol error for an M-ary FSK system is given by

 E 
PE  (M − 1) Q  s 
 N0 
 

 E log2 M 
= (M − 1) Q  b 
 N0 
 

or PE  (M − 1) Q ( b log2 M )
15. Probability of Bit Error for M-ary FSK
The bit error probability for an M-ary FSK system as
M
Pe = 2 PE
M−1

or Pe 
M
2
Q ( b log2 M )
16. OVERALL CONCLUSION OF FORMULAE

16.1. Probability of error of ASK, FSK, PSK and QPSK using constellation diagram

 d   d 
Pe = Q   = Q
 2N 
 ( d = dmin )
 2   0 

 A2c Tb 
For ASK : dmin = Eb  Eb = Bit energy = 
 2 

 Eb   A2 T 
Pe = Q   = Q c b

 2N0   4N0 
   

For PSK : dmin = 2 Eb

 Eb   A2 T 
Pe = Q  2  = Q c b

 2N0   N0 
   

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For FSK : dmin = 2Eb

 2Eb   A2 T 
Pe = Q   = Q c b

 2N0   2N0 
   

For QPSK : dmin = 2Es = 4Eb (Es = 2Eb )

 4Eb   A2 T 
Pe = Q   = Q c b
 (Pe= Bitt error probability)
 2N0   N0 
   
16.2. Probability of error for various signalling schemes:

 E   2Eb   A2 T 
QPSK : Pe(symbol) 2Q   ; Pe(bit) = Q    Eb = c b 
 N   N0  2 
 0  

1 −Es/N0  A2c T 
DPSK : Pe = e  Es = 
2  2 
2
 E    E 
16-QAM : Pe = 3Q  s  − 2.25 Q  s

 N0    5N0  
    

 d2   2Eb 
MSK : Pe = Q   = Q 
 2    

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CHAPTER-11: INFORMATION THEORY

1. Information
The amount of the information associated with xi is defined as
1
I ( xi ) = loga
P ( xi )
1
or Ii = loga
pi

Units of f=information based on the value of a

If a=2 unit is bits

If a=e unit is nat

If a=10 unit is decit

However, bits is the most commonly used unit

Entropy is also known as the measure of uncertainty.

1.1. Properties of Information:

• If we are sure of the outcome of an event, even before it occurs, there is no

information gained, i.e.
Ii = 0 for pi = 1
• The occurrence of an event either provides some or no information but never brings
about a loss of information, i.e.
Ii> 0 for 0 < pi< 1
• The less probable an event is, the more information we gain when it occurs.
Ij> Ii for pj< pi
• If two events xi and xj are statistically independent, then
I(xixj) = I(xi) + I(xj)
2. Entropy:
If each symbol xi occurs with probability pi and conveys the information Ii, then the average
information per symbol is obtained as entropy, and it is given by
n
H ( X ) = E I ( xi )  = pI i i
i=1

n
1
H (X) =  p logi 2
i=1 pi

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2.1. Properties of Entropy:
These are some important properties of entropy.
• In a set of symbol X, if the probability pi = 1 for some i and the remaining probabilities in
the set are all zero; then the entropy of the source is zero, i.e
H(X) = 0
• If all the n symbols emitted from a source are equiprobable, then the entropy of the
source is
H(X) = log2n
• From the above two results, we can easily conclude that the source entropy is bounded as
0 < H(X) < log2n

3. Information Rate:
Information rate for a source with entropy H is given by
H
R= bits / sec
T
Where T is the time required to send a message.

If the message source generates messages at the rate of r messages per second, then we
have
1
T =
r
The information rate of the source as
R = rH bits / sec

3.1. Methodology to evaluate source Information Rate:

For a given set of source symbols, we evaluate the information rate in the following steps:
Step 1: Obtain the probability pi of each symbol emitted by a source.
Step 2: Deduce the amount of information conveyed in each symbol using the expression,
1
Ii = log2 bits
pi

Step 3: Obtain the source entropy by substituting the above results in the expression

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n n 1
H=  p I =  p log
i i i 2  
i=1 i=1  pi 
Step 4: Obtain the average message transmission rate using the expression
1
r=
T
where T is the time required to send a message
Step 5: Evaluate the information rate of the source by substituting the above results in the
expression
R = rH bits / s

4. Discrete Memoryless Channels

The matrix of transition probabilities [P(Y|X)], given by:

 P(y1 x1 ) P(y2 x1 ) ... P(yn x1 ) 

 
 P(y1 x2 ) P(y2 x2 ) ... P(yn x2 ) 
[P(Y|X)] =  
 ... ... ... ... 
P(y1 xm ) P(y2 xm ) ... P(yn xm )


if the input probabilities P(X) are represented by the row matrix

[P(X)] = [P(x1) P(x2) … P(Xm)]
and the output probabilities P(Y) arc represented by the row matrix
[P(X)] = [P(y1) P(y2) … P(ym)]
then [P(Y)] = [P(X)][P(Y|X)]
If P(X) is represented as a diagonal matrix

P(x1 ) 0 ... 0 
 
0 P(x2 ) ... 0 
[P(X)]d = 
 ... ... ... ... 
 
 0 0 ... P(xm )

then [P(X, Y)] = [P(X)d[P(Y|X)]

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5. Entropy functions for Discrete Memoryless Channel

If the channel has n inputs and m outputs, then we can define several entropy functions for
input and output as
n
H ( X ) = − P ( x1 ) log2 P ( xi )
i=1
m
( )
H ( Y ) = − P y j log2 P y j
j=1
( )
6. Joint Entropy
The joint entropy is given as
n m
( )
H ( X, Y ) = −  P xi , y j log2 P xi , x j
i=1 j=1
( )
7. Conditional Entropy
The several conditional entropy functions for the discrete memoryless channel are defined as
m
( )
H ( Y | xi ) = − p y j | xi log2 P y j | xi
j=1
( )
n
( ) (
H X | y j = − P xi | y j log2 xi | y j
i=1
) ( )
n m
( )
H ( Y | X ) = −  P xi , y j log2 P y j | xi
i=1 j=1
( )
n m
( )
H ( X | Y ) = −  P xi , y j log2 P xi | y j
i=1 j=1
( )
8. Mutual Information
The mutual information I(X; Y) of a channel is defined by
I(X; Y) = H(X) – H(X|Y) b/symbol
Also, we can define the mutual information as
I (X; Y) = H(Y) – H(Y | X)
I (X; Y) = H(X) – H(X | Y)
For a noise-free channel
I (X; Y) = H(X,Y)

9. Channel Capacity

The channel capacity is defined as the maximum mutual information, i.e.

C = max {I(X;Y)}
Substituting above equation, we get the channel capacity as
C = max {H(X) – H(X |Y)}
This result can be more generalized for the Gaussian channel. The information capacity of a
continuous channel of bandwidth B hertz is defined as
C = Blog2 (1 + S/N)
where S/N is the signal to noise ratio. This relationship is known as the Hartley – Shannon
law that sets an upper limit on the performance of a communication system.

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10. Channel Efficiency

The channel efficiency is defined as the ratio of actual transformation to the maximum
transformation, i.e.
I ( X; Y )
=
max{I(X; Y)}
I ( X; Y )
=
C

Redundancy in the channel is defined as R=1-η

11. Capacities of Special Channels:

11.1. Lossless Channel:

For a lossless channel, H(X|Y) = 0 and
I(X; Y)= H(X)
Thus, the mutual information (information transfer) is equal to the input (source) entropy,
and no source information is lost in transmission. Consequently, the channel capacity per
symbol is
Cs = max H(X) = log2m
{P(xi )}

where m is the number of symbols in X.

11.2. Deterministic Channel:

For a deterministic channel, H(Y|X) = 0 for all input distributions P(x i), and
I(X; Y) = H(Y)
Thus, the information transfer is equal to the output entropy. The channel capacity per
symbol is
Cs = max H(Y) = log2n
{P(xi )}

where n is the number of symbols in Y.

11.3. Noiseless Channel:

Since a noiseless channel is both lossless and deterministic, we have
I(X; Y) = H(X) = H(Y)
and the channel capacity per symbol is
Cs = log2m = log2n

12. Binary Symmetric Channel:

For the BSC of Figure below, the mutual information is:

I(X; Y) = H(Y) + plog2p + (1 – p)log2(1 – p)
Where p is the probability of error
and the channel capacity per symbol is
Cs = 1 + plog2p + (1 – p)log2(1 – p)

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Binary Symmetric Channel

13. Differential Entropy:
The average amount of information per sample value of x(t) is measured by

H(X) = –  − X
f (x)log2 fX (x) dx b/sample

The entropy H(X) defined above is known as the differential entropy of X.


H(Y) = – 
− Y
f (y)log2 fY (y) dy

 
H(X|Y) = – 
− 
−  XY
f (x, y)log2 fX (x | y) dxdy

 
H(X|Y) = – 
− 
−  XY
f (x, y)log2 fY (y | x) dxdy

14. Shannon’s theorem

It says that for any given degree of noise contamination of a communication channel, it is
possible to communicate discrete data (digital information) nearly error-free up to a
computable maximum rate through the channel

15. Bandwidth and S/N tradeoff

A noiseless channel can have an infinite capacity
However, if the bandwidth approaches infinity, the channel capacity does not become infinite
because the noise power increases with the increase in bandwidth. Thus for fixed signal
power and white Gaussian noise, the channel approaches an upper limit for capacity known
as Shannon’s limit
S S
lim C = log e = 1.44 =RMAX
 →  

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CHAPTER-12: CODING TECHNIQUE

1. Average codeword length:

Average codeword length is given by

N
L =  ni p ( ni ) letters/message
i =1

Where ni=number of symbols in the ith message

p(ni)=probability of the ith message

2. Source Coding theorem

Source encoding theorem states that the minimum average codeword length for any
distortion less source encoding scheme is defined as

H (X)
Lmin =
log2 k

Where H(X) is the source's entropy, and k is the number of symbols in the encoding alphabet.
Thus, for the binary alphabet (k = 2), we get the minimum average codeword length as
Lmin = H ( X )

3. Coding Efficiency
Lmin
=
L
H (X)
=
L log2 k

4. Shannon-Fano Coding:
Methodology: Shannon – Fano encoding algorithm:
Step 1: The source symbols are first arranged in order of decreasing probability.
Step 2: The set is then divided into two sets that are as equiprobable as possible
Step 3: 0’s are assigned to the upper set, and 1’s to the lower set.
Step 4: The above process continues, each time partitioning the sets with as nearly equal
probabilities as possible until further partitioning is impossible.
5. Huffman coding:
Methodology: Huffman encoding algorithm:

Step 1: The source symbols are arranged in order of decreasing probability.

Step 2: The two source symbols of lowest probability are assigned a 0 and a 1.

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Step 3: These two source symbols are then combined into a new source symbol with
probability equal to the sum of the two original probabilities. (the list source symbols,
and therefore source statistics, is thereby reduced in size by one.)
Step 4: The probability of the new symbol is placed in the list per its value.
Step 5: The above procedure is repeated till we have a final list of source statistics (symbols)
of only two for which a 0 and a 1 are assigned.
Step 6: The code for each (original) source symbol is found by working backwards and
tracing the sequence of 0s and 1s assigned to that symbol as well as its successors.

6. Linear block codes

Linear block code is an error-correcting code in which the actual information bits are linearly
combined with the parity check bits to generate a linear codeword transmitted through the
channel.

6.1. Error Detection and Correction Capabilities:

A linear code C with minimum distance dmin can detect up to t errors if

dmin ≥ t + 1.”
A linear code C of minimum distance dmin can correct up to t errors if
dmin ≥ 2t + 1."

6.2. Parity-Check Matrix:

A parity-check matrix in a linear block code is a matrix that describes the linear relationships
that the components of a codeword must satisfy. It is used to decide whether a particular
vector is a codeword or not and is also used in decoding algorithms.

H is an m x n matrix defined by
H = [P Im ]
where m = n – k and Im is the mth-order identity matrix. Then
P T 
HT =  
 Im 
Matrix H is called the parity-check matrix of C. Note that the rank of H is m = n – k, and
the rows of H are linearly independent. The minimum distance d min of a linear block code C is
closely related to the structure of the parity-check matrix H of C.

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7. SYNDROME DECODING
With syndrome decoding, an (n, k) linear block code can correct up to t errors per codeword
if n and k satisfy the following Hamming bound.
t
n
2n−k   i 
i=0  

n n!
Where   =
 i  (n − 1) !i!
A block code for which equality holds is known as the perfect code. Single error-correcting
perfect codes are called Hamming codes.

****

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IMPORTANT FORMULAS TO REMEMBER

CHAPTER 1: DIODE CIRCUITS

1.Diode models:

Figure 1: Approximate and ideal semiconductor diode models.

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2. V-I Characteristics:
A diode is an active unidirectional of non-linear device.

Figure 2: V-I characteristics

Breakdown voltage of diode is the manufactures specification. So, in any type of PN-junction.
1
VBr. 
Doping

3.Diode Resistance:

3.1.Dynamic Resistance of Diode:

dV VT
r = ;r =
dl l
l  l0 for a forward current l = 26 mA

rsi > rGe

Diode small signal conductance:
ID
g=
VT

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4.Temperature Dependence of V-I Characteristics:
1.Reverse saturation current approximately doubles for every 10°C rise in temperature
I02(T) = I01 × 2(T2–T1)/10
2.For either silicon or Ge at room temperature,
dV
= −2.5mV/ C
dT
5.Summary of series & parallel clipper :

Positive Negative

Simple series clippers (Ideal diode)

Based series Clippers (Ideal Diodes)

Figure 3

6.CLAMPER

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6.1. Negative clamper

Fig 4(a): Ideal clamper circuit

Fig 4(b): waveform

6.2. Negative clamper with voltage source:

Figure 5(a)

Figure 5(b): Waveform

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6.2. Positive clamper :

Figure 6(a): Positive clamper circuit

Figure 6(b): Waveform

7.VOLTAGE MULTIPLIER :

7.1. Voltage doubler:

Figure 7(a): Voltage doubler circuit

VAB = Vm + Vm = 2Vm

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7.2. Voltage tripler/Quadrupler :

Figure 7(b): Voltage tripler/Quadrupler circuit

8. DIODE AS RECTIFIER:

8.1. Half wave Rectifier

Figure 8(a): Half Wave Rectifier

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Figure 8 (b): Input and Output waveform

Vm
a. Vo (DC ) =


Vo (DC ) Vm Im
b. Io (DC ) = = =
R R 

Vm
c. Vo (rms ) =
2

Im
Io (rms ) =
d.
2

2 2
 Vo (rms )   Io (rms ) 
=   – 1 =   –1
 Vo (DC )   Io (DC ) 
e.

 = 1.21 (%) = 121%

f. ➔

PIV = Vm
g.
Po ( dc )
=  100
Pin ( ac )
h. ➔  = 40.5%

i. FF = 1.57

j. TUF = 28%
Im I
k. Peak factor = = m 2
Irms Im /2
l. Time period = T = 2π , Frequency f(out) = f(in)

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8.2.Disadvantage of half wave rectifier:
(i) Vo (DC) = 0.318 Vm
Output DC voltage is only 31.8% of peak input voltage Vm
(ii) η = 40.5%
Efficiency is only 40.5%, that is only 40.5% is converted into DC remaining will be
lost.
9.Full Wave Rectifier:
9.1.Centre-Tapped Full-wave Rectifier:

Fig 9(a)

(b)
Figure 9: (b) Centre tap rectifier circuit, (c) waveform

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2Vm
Vo (DC ) = = 0.636Vm
i. 

2Im
Io (DC ) = = 0.636 Im
ii. 

Vm
Vo (rms ) =
2
iii.
Im
Io (rms ) =
2
iv.
 = 0.483 (%) = 48.3%
v. ➔

 = 81%
vi.
PIV = 2Vm
vii.

Figure 10

TUF(primary) + TUF(sec ondary)

TUF =
viii. 2
PDC
(TUF)p = = 69%
(Pac )p

ix. FF = 1.11

Im Im
Peak factor = =  2
Irms Im / 2
x.

xi. Time period, T = T/2 = π , Frequency f(out) = 2*f(in)

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9.2. Bridge Rectifier

Figure 11: Bride Rectifier

10. FILTERS

A filter circuit is a device to remove the AC components of the rectified output,

but allows the DC components to reach the load.
10.1 Capacitor filter:

Figure 12: Basic capacitor filter circuit

Figure 13(a): Full wave rectifier with capacitor filter

Figure 13 (b): Filtered output voltage

1
r.f. =
4 3fCRL

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10.2 Inductive filter:

Figure 14: Inductive Filter circuit

√2 R L RL
Ripple factor = ⋅ ⇒
3 2ωL 3√2ωL
10.3 LC filter:

Figure 15: LC Filter circuit

Inductance is higher with respect to capacitance.

2 XC
r.f. =
3 XL

10.4 π- section filter:

Figure 16: π – section filter circuit

√2 X C1 ⋅ X C2
ripple factor. =
XL ⋅ R L
Here, XC1, XC2, XL are reactance and RL is resistive load.
10.5.RC filter :
RC filters are formed by replacing the inductor component of the π-section filter.

Figure 17: RC filter circuit

2XC1 XC2
Ripple factor =
R  RL

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CHAPTER 2:VOLTAGE REGULATORS

1.REGULATOR

i. The output resistance of the regulator should as low as possible, ideally zero.
ii. The maximum power dissipation by the Zener diode should be as low as possible.
Forward Biased Zener Diode
Ideal Practical
(VA > VK)

Fig 1. Equivalent Circuit of Zener Diode

Reverse Biased Zener Diode

Ideal Practical
(VA < VK)

Breakdown Region Zener Diode

Ideal Practical
(VK > VZ)

Figure 2: Equivalent Circuit of Zener Diode

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CHAPTER 3 : BJT BIASING & STABILIZATION

1. SIMPLIFIED STRUCTURE OF BJT AND MODE OF OPERATION:

Table-1

BJT Modes of operation

Mode EBJ CBJ

Cut-off Reverse Reverse

Active Forward Reverse

Reverse Active Reverse Forward

Saturation Forward Forward

2.Relation between current gain :

For dc mode, common emitter current gain
IC
=
IB

And, common base current gain

IC
=
IE

 
= & =
 +1 1 − 

3.Calculation of Stability (S)

Ic 1+
S= = …….(xi)
Ico I
1–  B
Ic

IB
• For any BJT circuit lies between 0 and –1. So, S lies between 1 and (1 + β)
Ic

• Since smaller stability factor is desired, so ideally Stability factor should be equal to
1.
4.BJT BIASING
4.1 Fixed Bias:

S =1+

Disadvantage
• If β = 100, the stability factor is 101 and the collector current is 101 times that
ICO, reverse saturation current. Hence the stability factor for a fixed biased circuit
is very high. So, it will be the least stable biasing arrangement.

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4.2 Collector to base bias circuit :
 +1
S=
 RC 
1 +  
 R C + RB 

Advantage
• Stability factor is smaller than (β + 1), hence an improvement in stability is
obtained over fixed bias circuit.
Disadvantage
• Stability factor depends upon RC. If Rc becomes smaller or zero, then stability
factor becomes very large and IC does not remain stable.
• Resistance RB connected from collector to base cause negative feedback due to
which voltage gain of the amplifiers circuit decreases.
4.3. Self-bias or Voltage-Divider bias:
1+
S=
 RE
1+
Rb + RE

Important point
• S varies between 1 for small Rb/RE and 1 + β for Rb/RE → 
• Smaller value of Rb, better to stabilization
(Note: even if Rb becomes zero, the value of S can’t be reduced below unity. Hence
Ic always increases more than Ico.)

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CHAPTER 4 : CURRENT MIRROR CIRCUITS

1.CURRENT MIRROR CIRCUIT

NOTE : for Current Mirror:

High output resis tan ce

Low input resis tan ce

1.1.Dc Analysis Of Bipolar Transistor Current Mirror

Figure 1

IC1 1
 Mirror Ratio = MR = =
IRe f 2
1+


NOTE : Generalized Formula

IRn
IC1 = Here, n = no. of transistors.
n+1
1+


1.2.Drawback Of Single Current Mirror

(a) The main drawback of a single Current Mirror is that the no. of transistors
cannot be more than 10.
n·IR
i.e., I0 = nIC1 = Here n = no. of transistors n  10
n+1
1+


(b) Single Current Mirror holds only for higher values of β.

(c) This Mirror concept is only used for perfectly matched transistors.
∴ we used Modified Current Mirror that can be used for n (no. of transistors) greater
than 10 and β limitation is also removed.

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2. MODIFIED CURRENT MIRROR: [n > 10]

Figure 3
 2 
IR = IC1 1 + 
  (1 +  ) 

IR
 IC1 =
2
1+
 (  + 1)

NOTE: In General, for n current sources,

IR
IC = for n > 10
n+1
1+
 (  + 1)

Applications of Current Mirror

(i) It can be used as a Current Regulator
(ii) It is used in biasing circuits
(iii) It is used is differential Amplifiers as a current source at the emitter terminal.

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CHAPTER 5 : BJT AMPLIFIERS

1. HYBRID EQUIVALENT MODEL:

Figure 1: Hybrid equivalent Circuit

I0 hf
Ai = =
Ii 1 + h0R L
▪

V0 hfR L
AV = =−
Vi hi + (hh
i 0 − hf hr )R L
▪
Vi hf
Zi = = hi − hrRL Ai = hi − hrRL
Ii 1 + h0R L
▪
V0 1
Z0 = =
I0 h0 − hrhf (hi + R s )
▪

1.1 Summary of h-parameters:

Table-1 h-parameter for Common-Emitter Configuration
h-parameters Expression
Vbe
Input impedance hie = ohms
ib VCE = const

Vbe
Reverse voltage gain hre = unitless
Vce IB = const

ic
Forward current gain hfe = unitless
ib VCE = const

Ic
Output conductance hoe = siemens
Vce IB = const

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Table 2: Conversion table for Hybrid Parameters
Common-base to Common-emitter to Common-base to
common-emitter common-base common-collector
hib hie hib
hie = hib = hic =
1 + hfb 1 + hfe 1 + hfb
hibhob hiehob
hre = − hrb hrb = − hre hrc = 1
1 + hfb 1 + hfe
hfb hfe −1
hfe = − hfb = − hfc =
1 + hfb 1 + hfe 1 + hfb
hob hoe hob
hoe = hob = hoc =
1 + hfb 1 + hfe 1 + hfb

Table 3: Typical values of h-parameters for CE, CC and CB Transistor Configurations

h-Parameters Common-emitter Common-collector Common-base

hi 1 kΩ 1 kΩ 20 Ω

hr 2.5 × 10–4 1 3 × 10–4

hf 50 –50 –0.98

1/h0 40 kΩ 40 kΩ 2 MΩ

2. Base Current and input Resistance at the Base :

The small signal input resistance between base and emitter, looking into the base, is
denoted by rπ and is defined as

vbe  V VT
r = = = T or r =
ib gm IB IC
3.Emitter Current and the input Resistance at the Emitter :

vbe V r
re = = T = 
ie IE 1+
4.SMALL SIGNAL HYBRID-Π EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF BJT:

Figure 2

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Vbe V VT
= r = T =
ib IBQ ICQ

ICQ
gm =
VT

VT ICQ
rgm = · =
ICQ VT

5.BASIC TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER CONFIGURATIONS :

Table 4

Four equivalent two-ports network

Gain Property Equivalent circuit Gain Property

Output voltage proportional to

Voltage amplifier
input voltage

Output current proportional to

Current amplifier
input current

Transconductance Output current proportional to

amplifier input voltage

Transresistance Output voltage proportional to

amplifier input current

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6.Different Types of Amplifiers comparison:

Table 5: Different Types of Amplifiers & its performance parameters

Voltage Gain AV Input Impedance Output Impedance Current Gain AI
Commo  " Ri = rπ || RB ro || RC −R'C
n
R = gmRL"
r L Ri' = RS + (Ri ) R'C + RC
(R '
C = R C || ro )
Emitter
with RE (R"
L = ro || RC || RL )
Commo RL" −gmRL" Ri = r + (1 +  ) RE RC -β
=
n r + (1 +  ) RE 1 + gmRE
Emitter
Ri' = R s + Ri
without
RE
Commo (1 +  ) RE" Ri = r + (1 +  ) RE'  R + r  ( + 1) ro   + 1  
1 RE || ro ||  S  ( )
n
r + (1 +  ) RE"  (1 +  )  (RE + ro )
Collecto
Ri' = (RS || RB ) + Ri
r (R"
E = RE || ro )
Commo  r RC gmR C  r 
( RC || RC ) = gm (RC || RL )  || RE   1
 (1 +  )
n Base r 1+ R C + RL 


7. FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER:

Figure 3: Capacitive Coupled Common Emitter Amplifier

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Figure 4: Magnitude of gain of the CE amplifier versus frequency

7.1. Cut-off Frequency

For a given circuit with equivalent resistance (R eq) and equivalent capacitance (C eq),
the 3-dB cut-off frequency is given by
1
f3dB =
2Ceq R e q

Thus, we calculate 3 dB frequencies due to CC1, CC2, CE as below.

• The effect of CC1 is determined with CE and CC2 assumed to be acting as perfect
short circuit as shown in fig, So,
1
( f3dB )C
C1
=
2CC1 ((RB || r ) + R S )

Figure 5 :The effect of Cc1 is determined with

CE and Cc2 assumed to be acting as perfect short circuit
• The 3 dB frequency due to CC2 is given by
1
( f3dB)CC2
=
2CC2 (R C + RL )

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Figure 6 :The effect of Cc2 is determined with Cc1 and CE

assumed to be as perfect short circuit.

• The 3 dB frequency due to CE is given by

1
( f3dB )C
E
=
 R || R S 
2CE  re + B
  + 1 

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CHAPTER 6 : MOSFET Biasing & Amplifiers

1.MOS TRANSCONDUCTANCE:

1.1.Transconductand in saturation region:

nCoxW
I D (sat) = (VGS − Vth ) 2
2L
I D
gm =
VGS

W
g m =  n Cox (VGS − VTH )
L

W
gm = 2nCox ID = 2KID
L

1.2 Various dependencies of gm

Table 1
W W W
constant variable variable
L L L
VGS–VTH variable VGS–VTH constant VGS–VTH constant

gm  ID gm  ID W
gm 
L

g m  VGS − VTH W 1
gm  gm 
L VGS − VTH

2. DIFFERENT BIASING METHODS

2.1 Drain to gate bias configuration:

VDS = VGS

Drain to gate bias always enables MOSFET in saturation region

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2.2 Fixed bias configuration:

Figure 2 (a) and (b)

DRAWBACK OF FIXED BIAS:

It is a dual battery design which makes it expensive and more space
occupied bias Configuration.
2.3 Self bias configuration:

(VGS )Q
 (ID )Q = −
RS
Vds= Vdd-Id(Rs+Rd)

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3.SMALL SIGNAL AC EQUIVALENT MODEL

• Comparison between BJT and MOSFET:

MOSFET

BJT

Voltage Controlled Current Source (VCCS)

Current Controlled Current Source (CCCS)

Here,
Here, gm = transconductance
gm = transconductance rd = dynamic resistance
rd = dynamic resistance ID = f(VGS, IDS)
ro = output resistance
ID ID
∴ In BJT, high input impedance and low ID = V +  VDS
output impedance VGS GS VDS
Therefore, BJT = CCCS gm 1/rd
⇒ Current amplifier Therefore, MOSFET = VCCS
⇒ Transconductance amplifier

Table 2: Comparison between BJT and MOSFET

4.ANALYSIS OF COMMON SOURCE AMPLIFIER

Figure 2 : CS Configuration of E-MOSFET with potential divider biasing (Bypassed Rs)

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PARAMETER EXACT With rd >> RD

ZI RG RG

ZO RD||rd RD

AV -gm(RD|| rd) -gmRD

Table 2: Summarized performance of common source amplifier

5.ANALYSIS OF COMMON DRAIN AMPLIFIER:

Figure 3: Circuit diagram of Common Drain Amplifier

PARAMETER EXACT rd>>RD

ZI RG RG
1 1
Z0 || RS || RS
gm gm
gm (rd || R s ) gm R s
AV
1 + gm (rd || R s ) 1 + gm R s

Table 3: Summarized performance of Common Drain Amplifier

6. ANALYSIS OF COMMON GATE AMPLIFIER

Figure 5: Common Gate Amplifier

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Figure 6: Simplified small signal model

Zin ' =
(r0 + RD )
(1 + gmr0 )

 1 
Zin =  R S ||  (if r0 is infinity)
 gm 


Z0 = RD || r0

Z0 = R D (if r0 is infinity)

 RD  
  gmRD + 
V0  r0  
Av = =  
Vin  RD 
 1 +  
  r0  

Voltage gain = A v = gmRD

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CHAPTER 7 : MULTI STAGE AMPLIFIERS

1.Cascading Amplifier

Figure 1: Two stage Amplifier.

A = A1  A2

V0
A=
Vin

2.EFFECT OF CASCADING ON BANDWIDTH

2.1. Identical Stages:

The lower cutoff frequency for the multi stage amplifier is given by :

fL
(fC )low =
21/n − 1

and the upper cutoff frequency for multi-stage amplifier is given by:

(fC )high = fH  21/n − 1

Here,
n = no. of stages
fL , fH are low & high frequency respectively.

Thus, bandwidth of multi-stage amplifier is Bw = fC ( )high − ( fC )low

2.2.Non-Identical stages:
Here for every gain, separate bandwidth is present.

Figure 2: Cascading of non-identical stages

 fLn = 1.1 fL21 + fL22 + ...fLn

2

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1.1
Similarly, fHn =
1 1 1
2
+ 2 .... 2
fH1 fH2 fHn

3.EFFECT OF CASCADING ON RISE TIME (tr)

3.1. For Single Stage:

0.35
tr =
fH

Here, tr = rise-time
fH = bandwidth
3.2. For Multi Stage:

tr = 1.1 tr12 + tr22 + tr32

∴ Rise time of Multistage:
Conclusion:
(i) Bandwidth of multi-stage amplifier is always less than bandwidth of single stage
amplifier (Gain = more)
(ii) Rise-time of multi-stage amplifier is always greater than rise time of single stage
amplifier.
4.Comparison of different type of coupling :
Table 1

Transformer
Characteristic R-C coupling Direct Coupling
coupling

Frequency Excellent in audio

Poor Best
Response frequency range

Cost Less More Least

Space & Weight Less More Least

Impedance
Not good Excellent Good
Matching

Power amplifying extremely

Use Voltage amplification
amplification low frequency

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5. POPULAR CASCADING DESIGN:

5.1.1 Cascade Amplifier: (CE – CB configuration)-

Figure 3: Cascode Amplifier Configuration

cascode amplifier has a high gain, moderately high input impedance, a high output
impedance, and a high bandwidth.
5.1.2 Transconductance of below cascode amplifier:

Figure 4: Cascode Amplifier

( gm )cascode = gm1

5.2 Darlington Pair [CC – CC]

Figure 5: Darlington pair configuration

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5.3 DIFFERENCE:
Emitter Follower Darlington pair

(i) AI = β AI = AI1  AI2

(ii) AV = 1 (CC = voltage buffer)
IE1 IE2
(iii) Zi =  R L AI = 
IB1 IB2
(iv) Z0 = re

(1 + 1 )IB1 (1 + 2 )IB2
AI = 
IB1 IB2

AI = (1 + 1 )  (1 + 2 )

 overall   1  2

(ii) Zi = (1 + 1 )(1 + 2 ) RL  12RL

Table 3: Difference between Emitter follower and Darlington pair

Following are the important characteristics of Darlington pair:

• Extremely high input impedance.
• Extremely high current gain.
• Extremely low output impedance.

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CHAPTER 8: FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS

1. Difference between positive and negative feedback:

Positive feedback Negative feedback

V0 = AVi V0 = AVi

V i = Vs + Vf V i = Vs – V f

V0 = A(Vs + Vf) V0 = A(Vs – Vf)

V0 = A(Vs + βV0) V0 = A(Vs – βV0)

V0(1 – βA) = AVS V0(1+ βA) = AVS

V0 A V0 A
= =
Vs 1 – A Vs 1 + A

Table 1: Difference between positive and negative feedback

1.1 Conclusion
(1) Apf > A > Anf.

A
(2) A nf = A >>> 1
1 + A

1
A nf = stability.


NOTE- Negative feedback theory is applied for stable system like Amplifier.

A
(3) A pf =
1 − A

Figure 1

NOTE- Positive feedback theory is applied for unstable system like oscillator

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2. EFFECTS OF NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

2.1 Advantage of Negative feedback amplifier

A
Af =
1 + A

A f A f 1
=  sensitivity
A f A 1 + A
(1 +  A) → desensitivity

2.2 Increase in input impedance

Figure 2
Zif = Zi (1 + A )

2.3 Decrease in output impedance

Z0
Zof =
1 + A
2.4 Increase in BW

Figure 3

Lower cutoff frequency decreases

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fL
f 'L =
1 + A

Upper cutoff frequency increases

f 'H = (1 + A ) fH

BW’ = BW(1 + A  )

3.TOPOLOGY

Figure 4-Block diagram analysis

3.1 At input side
At input side voltage mixed in series and current mixed in shunt.

Figure 5
3.2 At output side
In output side current sampled in series and voltage sampled in shunt.

Figure 6
4.Amplifier Characteristics-
The amplifier characteristics which are affected by various negative feedback are
listed in the following table 2

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Amplifier Nomenclature Input Output
Impedance Impedance
Voltage Amplifier Voltage series Zi =  Z0 = 0
OR Increases Decreases
Series voltage Zif = Zi (1 + Aβ)
OR
Series shunt
OR
Voltage Voltage
Transreistance Amplifier Voltage shunt Zi = 0. Z0 = 0.
OR Decrease Decrease
Shunt voltage Zi Z0
OR 1 + A 1 + A
Shunt shunt
OR
Voltage current
OR
Transconductance Current series Zi =  Z0 = 
Amplifier OR Input impedance output impedance
Series current increases increases
OR Zi (1 + A  ) Z0(1 + A  )
Series series
OR
Current voltage
Current Amplifier Current shunt Input impedance output impedance
or decreases increases
Shunt Current Zi = 0 Z0 = 
or Zi Z0(1 + A  )
Shunt series 1 + A

or
Current
Current

Table 2

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5.TYPES OF NEGATIVE FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERSRS:

Figure 4.1: Voltage Series Topology

Figure 4.2 : Voltage Shunt Topology

Figure 4.3 : Current Series Topology

Figure 4.4: Current Shunt Topology

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CHAPTER 9 :POWER AMPLIFIERS

1. BASICS OF POWER AMPLIFIERS

1.1.CLASS A POWER AMPLIFIERS

Pin = voltage × current = VCC(IC)Q

2
V2  Vm  1 V 2
(Pout )ac = I2R C = =  = m
R C  2  R C 2R C

I = RMS value of ac output current through load.

V = RMS value of ac voltage
Overall efficiency (η):

(Pout )ac
()overall =
(Pin )dc

Here,
()overall  30%
Transformer coupled class A power Amplifier: -

VCC  (IC )Q 1
()collector = =
2VCC  (IC )Q 2

1
=  100% = 50%
2
CONCLUSION:
Therefore, the efficiency of class A power amplifier is nearly to 30% whereas it has got
improved to 50% by using the transformer coupled class A power amplifier.
1.2. CLASS B POWER AMPLIFIERS:
POWER EFFICIENCY OF CLASS B PUSH PULL AMPLIFIER

(Pout )ac
()overall =
(Pin )dc


= = 0.785 = 78.5%
4
1.3. CLASS AB AMPLIFIER

The conduction angle of class AB amplifier is somewhere between 180° to 360°

depending upon the operating point selected.
Efficiency of class AB is in between 50-60%

1.4. CLASS C AMPLIFIERS

The conduction angle for class C is less than 180°

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2.COMPARISON

Class A Class B Class AB Class C

Efficiency 50% 78.5% Between A & B 100%

100°-150°
180°-220°
Conduction angle 360° 180° (less than 180°)
(Greater than 180°)

Table 1: Comparative study between different Power Amplifiers

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CHAPTER 10 : DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIERS

1. Basics of Differential Amplifier:

Fig. 1 Ideal differential amplifier

The differential amplifier amplifies the difference between two input voltage signals. Hence it is also
called difference amplifier.
Vo ∝ (V1 – V2)
2. Differential Gain (Ad)
Vo = Ad(V1 – V2)
Where, Ad = differential gain
The difference between the two inputs (V 1 – V2) is generally called difference voltage and denoted as
Vd .
V o = Ad V d
Hence, the differential gain can be expressed as,
Vo
Ad =
Vd

Generally, the differential gain is expressed in its decibel (dB) value as,
Ad = 20 Log10 (Ad) in dB
3. Common Mode Gain (Ac):
The output voltage of the practical differential amplifier also depends on the average common level
of the two inputs. Such an average level of the two input signals is called common mode signal
denoted as Vc.
V1 + V2
∴ Vc =
2
The gain with which it amplifies the common mode signal to produce the output is called as common mode gain
of the differential amplifier denoted as Ac.
∴ Vo = Ac Vc
So, the total output of any differential amplifier can be expressed as,
∴ V o = Ad V d + A C V c

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4. Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)
`The ability of a differential amplifier to reject a common mode signals is expressed by a ratio called
common mode rejection ratio denoted as CMRR.
It is defined as the ratio of the differential voltage gain Ad to common mode voltage gain Ac.

Ad
∴ CMRR =  =
Ac

*Ideally the common mode voltage gain is zero, hence the ideal value of CMRR is inifinite.
*For a practical differential amplifier A d is large and Ac is small hence the value of CMRR is also very
large.
*Many a times, CMRR is also expressed in dB, as

Ad
CMRR in dB = 20 log dB
Ac

The output voltage can be expressed in terms of CMRR as below:

∴ Vo = Ad Vd + Ac Vc
 A V 
= Ad Vd 1 + c c 
 Ad Vd 

 
 
 1 Vc 
∴ Vo = Ad Vd 1 +
 Ad  Vd 
   
  Ac  

 1 V 
∴ Vo = Ad Vd 1 +  c
 CMRR Vd 

5. Different types of Differential Amplifier:

Ad Voltage RE Input R0 Output
Configuration Circuit
gain resistance resistance

Dual Input, hfe RC

1. Balanced 2(RS + hie) RC
R S + h ie
Output

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Dual Input, hfe R C

2. Unbalanced
Output (
2 R S + h ie ) 2(RS + hie) RC

Single Input, hfe RC

3. Balanced 2(RS + hie) RC
R S + h ie
Output

Single Input, hfe R C

4. Unbalanced
Output (
2 R S + h ie ) 2(RS + hie) RC

Table 5
The expression for the common mode gain Ac remains same for all the configurations which is,
hfe RC
Ac =
RS + h ie + 3RE (1 + hfe )

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CHAPTER 11 : OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

1. OPAMP INTRODUCTION:

1.1 COMPARISON BETWEEN IDEAL OPAMP AND PRACTICAL OPAMP:

Property Ideal Practical (Typical)

Open-loop gain Infinite Very high (>1000)

Open-loop bandwidth Infinite Dominant pole (≅ 10 Hz)

CMRR Infinite High (> 60 dB)

Input Resistance Infinite High (> 1 MΩ)

Output Resistance Zero Low (< 100 Ω)

Input Bias Currents Zero Low (< 50 nA)

Offset Voltages Zero Low (< 10 mV)

Offset Currents Zero Low (< 50 nA)

Slew Rate Infinite A few V/μs

Drift Zero Low

Table1: Comparison of an ideal and a typical practical opamp

1.2. Slew-Rate:

V0
SR = V/s
t

Vi
SR = ACL
t
1.3. Maximum Signal Frequency in terms of Slew Rate:

SR
f Hz
2k

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2. APPLICATIONS OF OP-AMP

2.1. Inverting-Amplifier:

−R f
Av =
R1

Figure: 1

2.2. Non-Inverting Amplifier:

Figure 2: Non-Inverting Amplifier

V0 R
AV = =1+ f
Vi R1
2.3. Voltage Adder:
2.3.1. Inverting Adder:

Figure: 3

 V0 = −(V1 + V2 ) if R1=R2=R

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2.3.2. Non-Inverting Adder:

Figure: 4

 V0 = (V1 + V2 )

2.4. Voltage Subtractor Circuit

Rf2 R
V0 = V1 − f V2
R1R 3 R2

Figure 5: Voltage Subtractor Circuit

2.5. Differentiator circuit:

Figure 6: Differentiator circuit

dVi
V0 = −RC
dt

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2.6. Integrator circuit:

Figure 7: Integrator circuit

−1
RC  i
V0 = Vdt

2.7. Logarithmic Amplifier:

Logarithmic Amplifier by using diode Logarithmic Amplifier by using transistor

Figure: 8

 V 
V0 = −VT ln  i 
 ISR 

2.8. Exponential Amplifier:

Figure 9: Exponential Amplifier

V0 = −IS ReVi /VT

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2.9. Square root amplifier:

Figure: 10

2Vi
V0 = − − VT
W
nCox R
L

2.10. Comparator: –

(b) Inverting Comparator

(a) Non-Inverting Comparator

V = + Vsat , Vi  VRe f  V , Vi  VRe f

V0 =  H V0 =  L
 VL = −Vsat , Vi  VRe f VH , Vi  VRe f

Table 2: Comparator

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2.11. Schmitt Trigger

Figure 11: Basic Schmitt Trigger

2.11.1. Inverting Schmitt trigger:

Here,

 R1   R1 
VTH =   VH , VTL =   VL
 R1 + R 2   R1 + R 2 
2.11.1. Non Inverting Schmitt trigger:

R 
VTH = −  1  VL
 R2 

R 
VTL = −  1  VH
 R2 

Non-Inverting Schmitt trigger Voltage-Transfer Characteristics

2.12. Precision Rectifier

Figure 13:

2.13. Instrumentation Amplifier:

It consists of two non-inverting amplifiers and one difference amplifier.

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Figure 14: Instrumentation Amplifier

R4  2R 2 
V0 = 1 +   V − V1 
R3  R1   2

2.14. Astable Multivibrator:

Figure 15: Astable Multivibrator

R2
Here = = feedback fraction
R1 + R2

Figure 16: Waveform

Here,
TC = charging time
Td = discharging time

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1 +  
Td = RCln   Discharging time
1 −  

1 +  
TC = RCln   Charging time
1 −  

1 +  
T = Td + TC = 2RCln   Total time period
1 −  
R2
Here,  =
R1 + R2

1
f = Frequency of square wave generator
1 +  
2RCln  
1 −  
2.15. Bistable Multivibrator

Figure 17: Bistable Multivibrator

Here, a to b changes only after triggering and before triggering, it will be
constant = +Vsat

Figure:18

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2.16. Monostable Multivibrator

Figure 19: Monostable Multivibrator

Figure:20 Waveform

Time Period of Monostable Multivibrator:

TP=0.693RC

Other names of Monostable Multivibrator:

• One Shot Multivibrator

• Pulse Stretcher

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CHAPTER 12 : OSCILLATORS

1. OSCILLATION CRITERION

Figure 1: Oscillator Block Diagram

V0 A
=
Vin 1 − A

A = 1 ..….. (i)

Expressed in polar form A = 10 or 360 ……… (ii)

Equation (i) & (ii) gives two requirements for oscillation:

• The magnitude of the loop gain Aβ must be at least 1, and
• The total phase shift of the loop gain Aβ must be equal to 0° or 360°.
The above conditions is known as Barkhausen criterion.
2.OSCILLATOR TYPES:

Types of components used Frequency of oscillation Types of waveform generated

Sinusoidal
RC oscillator Audio frequency (AF)
Square wave
LC oscillator Radio frequency (RF)
Triangular wave
Crystal oscillator
Sawtooth wave etc.

Table 1

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3. THE PHASE-SHIFT OSCILLATOR
3.1. Phase Shift Oscillator Using FET

Figure 2(a): An FET Phase Shift Oscillator

1
f =
2RC 6

At the frequency of oscillation,

1
=+
29
In order that |βA| shall not be less than unity, it is required that |A| be at least 29.
Hence and FET with μ < 29 cannot be made to oscillate in such a circuit.
3.2. Phase Shift Oscillator Using BJT:

Figure 2(b): A Transistor Phase shift oscillator

The frequency of oscillation is given by

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1 1
f = ·
2RC 6 + 4K

Where, K = RC/R. The condition for sustaining of oscillation is given by

29
hfe  4K + 23 +
K
3.3. Phase-Shift Oscillator with Op-Amp

Figure 2(c): A Phase Shift Oscillator Using Op-amp

1 0.065
f0 = =
2 6RC RC

At this frequency, the gain A must be at least 29.

That is,

RF
= 29 or R F = 29R1
R1

3.4.Disadvantage:

The disadvantage of RC phase-shift oscillator is that the frequency of oscillation cannot be

altered. In further we will study the oscillators in which frequency can be altered by changing
circuit parameters.

4.WEIN BRIDGE OSCILLATOR:

1 0.159
f0 = =
2RC RC

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Figure 3: Wein- Bridge Oscillator

At this frequency the gain required for sustained oscillation is given by
1
A= =3


R2
That is 1+ =3 ➔ R 2 = 2R1
R1
5.1.COLPITTS OSCILLATOR:

(a) (b)

Figure 4: MOSFET Colpitts Oscillator (a) The ac equivalent circuit,

(b) Small- Signal equivalent Circuit

1
0 = (i)
 CC 
L 1 2 
 C1 + C2 

From the real part, the condition for oscillation is

20LC2 1
= gm + (ii)
R R
combining equations (iii) and (iv) yields,

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C2
= gmR (iii)
C1

where gmR is the magnitude of the gain, Equation (v) states that to initiate oscillations
spontaneously, it must have gmR > (C2/C1).
5.2. Colpitts Oscillator using BJT
Frequency of oscillation

1 C2
f = and gmR C 
 CC  C1
2 L  1 2 
 C1 + C2 

Figure 4(c): Colpitts Oscillator using BJT.

6. HARTLEY OSCILLATOR:

Figure 5: The ac equivalent BJT Hartley Oscillator

1
0 = and rπ ≫ 1/ ωC2.
(L 1 + L 2 ) C

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7. CLAPP OSCILLATOR:

Figure 6: Clapp Oscillators

Frequency of oscillation

1 1 1 1 1 
f0 =  + + 
2 L  C1 C2 C3 

 
If C3 is selected such that it is much smaller than C1 andC2 then

1 1 1
 +
C3 C1 C2

Thus,

1 1 1
f0 = 
2 L C3

f0 becomes independent of C1 and C2.

8.CRYSTAL OSCILLATORS

Figure 7: (a) Circuit Symbol, (b) Equivalent Circuit,

(c) Crystal reactance versus frequency

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1
a series resonance at ωs s =
LCs

1
and a parallel at ωp p =
 CC 
L s p 
C + C 
 s p 

1
0 = s
LC s

S.No Oscillator Range of Frequency

1. Phase shift 1Hz to 10MHz
2. Wein-bridge 1Hz to 1MHz
3. Colpitts 10kHz to 100MHz
4. Hartley 10kHz to 100MHz
5. Crystal For fixed frequency
6. Clapp 10kHz to 100MHz
7. Negative resistance >100mHz
Table 2

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CHAPTER 13 : 555 TIMER & WAVE GENERATORS

1. THE 555 TIMER CIRCUIT

Figure 1(a): Pin diagram of 555 Timer

Figure 1(b): Block diagram representation of the internal circuit of the 555-IC
timer.

2
VTH = VCC for comparator 1
3

1
And VTL = VCC for comparator 2
3

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2. IMPLEMENTATION OF A MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR USING 555 TIMER

Figure 2(a): The 555 circuit connected as a monostable multi-vibrator.

Figure 2(b): Waveform of circuit 2(a)

T=RC ln (3)=1.1RC

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3. IMPLEMENTATION OF ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR USING THE 555 TIMER

Figure 3(a): Astable Multivibrator 555 circuit.

Figure 3(b): waveform of circuit 3(a)

TC = 0.693 (R A + R B )C

TD=B ln(2) = 0.693 R BC

T = 0.693 (R A + 2RB )C
The frequency of oscillation,
1 1
f= =
T TC + TD
1 1.44
f = =
0.693(R A + 2R B )C (R A + 2R B )C

Duty cycle:
TC R + RB
Duty cycle=  100% = A  100%
T R A + 2R B
Duty cycle of the circuit is always greater than 50%.

****

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PLAN FORMULA NOTES (NETWORK THEORY)

Basic Concepts

Current: Electric current is the time rate of change of charge flow.

dq
i= (Ampere)
dt
• Charge transferred between time t 0 and t
t
q=  idt
t0

Sign Convention: A negative current of -5A flowing in one direction is same as the current of +5A in
opposite direction.
Voltage: Voltage or potential difference is the energy required to move a unit charge through an
element, measured in volts.

Power: It is time rate of delivering or absorbing energy.

• Law of conservation of energy must be obeyed in any electric circuit.

• Algebraic sum of power in a circuit, at any instant of time, must be zero.
i.e. ∑P = 0

Circuit Elements:
Passive element: If it is not capable of delivering energy, then it is passive element. Example:
resistor, inductor and capacitor.

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Active element: If an element is capable of delivering energy independently, then it is called active
element. Example: Voltage source and current source.

Linear and Non-linear elements: If voltage and current across an element are related to each other
through a constant coefficient then the element is called as linear element otherwise it is called as
non-linear.
Unidirectional and Bidirectional: When element's characteristics are independent of direction of
current then element is called bi-directional element otherwise it is called as unidirectional.
• R, L & C are bidirectional
• Diode is a unidirectional element.
• Voltage and current sources are also unidirectional elements.
• Every linear element should obey the bi-directional property but vice versa as is not necessary.
Resistor: Linear and bilateral (conduct from both direction)
• In time domain: V(t) = I(t)R
• In s domain: V(s) = RI(s)
l
R= ohm
A

• l = length of conductor, ρ= resistivity, A = area of cross section

• Extension of wire to ‘n’ times results in increase in resistance:
R ' = n2R
• Compression of wire by ‘n’ times results in decrease in resistance:
R
R' =
n2
Capacitor: All capacitors are linear and bilateral, except electrolytic capacitor which is unilateral.
• Time Domain:
t
CdV(t) 1
i(t) =
dt
V(t) =  i(t)dt
C −
• In s-domain:

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1
I(s) = s CV(s), V(s) = I(s)
sC
• Capacitor doesn’t allow sudden change of voltage, until impulse of current is applied.
• It stores energy in the form of electric field and power dissipation in ideal capacitor is zero.
• Impedance:
1
Zc =-jXc Ω & Xc = ; Xc → Capacitive reactance;  = 2  f
C
Inductor:
Linear and bilinear element
• Time Domain:
di(t)
V(t) = L
dt
t
1
L 
i(t) = V(t)dt

• Impedance:
ZL = j XL Ω & XL = L
• n s-domain:
V(s) = sL I(s)
1
I(s) = V(s)
sL
• Inductor doesn’t allow sudden change of current, until impulse of voltage is applied. It stores
energy in the form of magnetic field.
• Power dissipation in ideal inductor is zero.

FORMULAS FOR THE BASIC CIRCUIT COMPONENTS

CIRCUIT IMPEDANCE VOLT- AMP EQUATIONS ENERGY
ELEMENT (dissipated on R or
Absolute Complex instantaneou RMS values for stored in L, C)
Value form s values sinusoidal signals

RESISTANCE R R V=iR Vrms=lrmsR E=lrms2Rt

INDUCTANCE 2  fL jωL di Vrms=lrmsx2  fL 1 2

V =L E= Li
dt 2
CAPACITANCE 1 1 dV Irms 1
i=C Vrms = E= CV2
2fC j C dt 2fC 2
Notes:
R- resistance in ohms, L- inductance in Henry, C- capacitance in farad, f – frequency in Hertz, t-
time in seconds,  ≈ 3.14159,
ω = 2  f – angular frequency
j – imaginary unit (j2=-1)
Euler’s formula: ejx =cosx + jsinx

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EQUATIONS FOR SERIES AND PARALLEL CONNECTIONS

CIRCUIT SERIES PARALLEL
ELEMENT CONNECTION CONNECTION

RESISTORS R parallel =
1
1 1 
Rseries=R1+R2+…  + + 
 1
R R 2 

INDUCTORS Lparallel =
1
1 1 
 + + 
 1
L L 
Lseries=L1+L2+…
2

CAPACITORS Cseries =
1
 1 1  C parallel = C1 + C2 + C3 ...
 + +
 C1 C2 

Rules of series Rules of parallel

Veq = V1 + V2 + V3 ieq = i1 + i2 + i3
1
R eq =
Req = R1 + R2 + R3 1 1 1
+ +
R1 R2 R3

1
Ceq =
1 1 1 Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3
+ +
C1 C2 C3

CALCULATIONS OF EQUIVALENT RLC IMPEDANCES

CIRCUIT CONNECTION COMPLEX FORM ABSOLUTE VALUE
1 2
Z = R2 + (L − )
1 C
Z=R+jωL+
j C
Series

1
Z=
1 1  1 
2
Z= +  C −
1
+
1
+ jC R 2
  L 
R jL

Parallel

Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic induction:

• If a flux linking a coil varies as a function of time then an emf is induced between its
terminals (statically induced emf).

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d di
• V =N Also, V=L
dt dt
• So,
N = Li
N
L=
i

(Δ – γ) And (γ – Δ) Transformations:

Δ – γ Transformation:

Z b Zc
Z1 =
Za + Z b + Zc
Za Zc
Z2 =
Za + Z b + Zc

Za Z b
Z3 =
Za + Z b + Z c

γ → Δ Transformation:

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Z1Z2 + Z2 Z3 + Z1Z3
Za =
Z1

Z1Z2 + Z2 Z3 + Z1 + Z3
Zb =
Z2
Z1Z2 + Z2 Z3 + Z1Z3
Zc =
Z3

Bridge:

Z1 = |Z1| ∠θ1
Z2 = |Z2| ∠θ 2
Z3 = |Z3| ∠θ 3
Z4 = |Z4| ∠θ 4
for balance,
Z1Z2 = Z3Z4

| Z1 || Z2 | = | Z3 || Z 4 |
 and
1 + 2 = 3 + 4

Source Transformation:

It is a process in which a voltage source connected in series with resistance can be converted
into a current source connected in parallel with the same resistor and vice-versa.

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Where,
Vs = IsRs
then

Vs
Is =
Rs

Voltage Source:
• In a practical voltage source, there is small internal resistance, so the voltage across the element
varies with respect to current.

• Ideal voltmeter, RV is infinite (Internal resistance)

Current Source:
• In practical current source, there is small internal resistance, so current varies with respect to
the voltage across element.

• Ideal Ammeter, Ra is 0 (Internal resistance)

• Internal resistance of voltage source is in series with the source.
• Internal resistance of ideal voltage source is zero.
• Internal resistance of current source is in parallel with the source.
• Internal resistance of ideal current source is infinite.

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Independent source: Voltage or current source whose values doesn’t depend on any other
parameters.
• Example: Generator

Dependent Source: Voltage or current source whose values depend upon other parameters like
current, voltage.

Lumped Network: Network in which all network elements are physically separable is known as
lumped network.

Distributed Network: A network in which the circuit elements like resistance, inductance etc, are
not physically separable for analysis purpose, is called distributed network. Example: Transmission
line.

Mesh and Nodal Analysis

Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL):
KCL states that the algebraic sum of the currents entering a node or meeting at a point is
zero.
It is based on law of conservation of charge.
Kirchhoff’s voltage law:
KVL states that the algebraic sum of all the voltages in a closed loop is zero.
It is based on the law of conservation of energy.

Mesh Analysis:
• Path – A set of elements that may be traversed in order, without passing through the same node
twice.
• Loop – A closed path
• Mesh – A loop that does not contain any other loop within it.
• Planar Circuit – A circuit that may be drawn on a plane surface in such a way that there are no
branch crossovers
• Non-Planar Circuit – A circuit that is not planar, i.e. some branches pass over some other branches
(cannot use Mesh Analysis)
• Number of equations required to solve the circuit with the help of mesh analysis are:

e = b − ( n − 1)
Where,
b = number of branches
n = number of nodes
Nodal Analysis:
• Identify the total number of nodes in the circuit.
• Assign the voltage at each node and one of the nodes is taken as the reference node and the
potential of reference node is equal to the ground potential.

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• Develop KCL equation for each non – reference node.

• By solving KCL equation, find the node voltages.
The total number of equations required to solve the network by using nodal analysis are:
e=N–1

Circuit Theorem
Thevenin’s Theorem:
Any linear network can be replaced by an independent voltage source in series with an impedance
such that the current voltage at the terminal is unchanged.

Norton’s Theorem:
Identical to Thevenin’s statement except that the equivalent circuit is an independent current source
in parallel with Zs = RTh.

Superposition Theorem:
If a number of voltage or current sources are acting simultaneously in a linear bidirectional network,
the resultant response in any branch is the algebraic sum of the responses that would be produced in
it, when each source acts alone replacing all other independent sources by their internal resistances.

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem:

For DC Circuits:
RTh = RL

VTh2
Pmax =
4 RTh

For AC Circuits:
1. When complete ZL load is varying, i.e. RL & XL is varying, then the condition for

maximum power to be transferred to the load is Z L = Z S*

2. When only RL is varying & XL is fixed, then the condition for maximum power to be

R L = R S2 + ( XS +XL )
2
transferred to the load is

3. When only RL is varying and XL = 0, then the condition for maximum power to be

transferred to the load is RL = Z S

4. When only XL is varying and RL is fixed, then the condition for maximum power to

be transferred to the load is XL = - XS.

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2
VTh
Pmax =
4R Th

Millman’s Theorem:

As per Millman’s Theorem,

V1 V2 V3 V
±
± ± +.........................± n
R1 R 2 R 3 Rn
V=
1 1 1 1
+ + +......................+
R1 R 2 R 3 Rn
1
R=
1 1 1 1
+ + +......................+
R1 R 2 R 3 Rn
Mathematically, it is written as

n
VK
 RK
V= K=1
n
1

K=1 R K

1
R= n
1
RK=1 K

Average Power Power Factor

Vm Im PF= cos (  )
PAvg = − cos(  )
2 2  = v - i
= VrmsIrms cos(  )

Reactive Power
Q = VrmsIrms sin(  ) True Power
Measured VARs (Volt Ampere Reactive) P = I2 R
P2 + Q2 = (VrmsIrms)2
Apparent Power (s)
S= VrmsIrms VA
S=P+jQ
S = I2 Z

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TRANSIENT ANALYSIS
DC Transients:
For Inductor,

iL(0-) = iL(0) = iL(0+)

Where,

iL(0-) = current at instant just before switch operation

iL(0) = current at exact instant of switch operation

iL(0+) = current at instant just after the switch operation.

For capacitor,

Vc(0–) = Vc(0) = Vc(0+)

Source free circuits:

Source free RL circuit:

i( t ) = I 0 e − t 
Where,  is time constant

L
τ=
R eq

VL (t)= -I0 Re-Rt L

VR (t ) = I0 Re− Rt L

Energy stored in inductor:

1
WL (t)= Li 2
2


1

WL (t ) = L I0 e− Rt L
2
 2

1
 WL ( t ) = LI02 e− 2 t 
2

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1
(
WR ( t ) = LI02 1 − e− 2 t 
2
)

Source Free RC circuit:

Vc (t ) = V0 e− t 
Where,  = time constant

 = RC
V0 −t RC
ic (t) = − e
R

V0 e− t RC
iR (t ) =
R
Energy stored in capacitor:
1
Wc ( t ) = CV2
2

=
1
2
(
C V0 e−t  )2

1
Wc (t ) = CV02 e −2 t 
2
1
(
WR = (t ) = CV02 1 − e − 2 t 
2
)
Circuits with Source:

RL circuit with source:

i( t ) = i() + [i(0) − i()] e− t   L

General equation   where ,  = 
 R
RC circuit with source:
Vc ( t ) = VCF ( t ) + VPI ( t )

Vc ( t ) = Vc () + Vc (0) − Vc () e− t  where,  = RC

Second Order System:

Series RLC system:

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2
-R R  1
s1,2 =−    −
2L  2L  LC
For Underdamped case:

i(t)=(C1cosβt+C2sinβt)e-αt

1 2L
Time constant, τ= =
α R
2
1 R 
damping frequency, ωd = - 
LC  2L 
2
1 R C
ωd = 1 -  
LC 2 L

1 R C
→ ωn = → natural frequency; ξ=
LC 2 L

Parallel RLC circuit:

2
-1  1  1
s1,2 = ±   -
2RC  2RC  LC

For Underdamped case:

V(t) = (C1 cost + C2 sint)e-t

1
where, Time constant, τ= =2RC
α
2
1  1 
ωd = - 
LC  2RC 
2
1  1 L
ωd = 1-   ; ωd =ωn 1-ξ
2

LC  2R C 

1 1 L
Where, ωn = ; =
LC 2R C
AC Transients:

R( t −to )
V −
i (t) = − m sin ( ωt 0 + θ − α ) e sin (t +  −  )
Vm
L
+
|Z| | Z|
For transient free response:
t0 +  –  = 0

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t0 =  – 

L
t 0 = tan −1 −
R

Two-port Networks

The six parameters derived from two port network are as follows:

• Z Parameters

• Y or Z-1 Parameters

• h Parameters

• g or h-1 Parameters

• ABCD or T Parameters

• (ABCD)-1 or T-1 Parameters

Impedance parameter or Z – parameter or open-circuit parameter:

• Z parameter is also referred as open circuit parameters.

V1 = f (I1, I2)
V2 = f (I1, I2)
Independent Variables are I1 & I2
Dependent variables are V1 & V2
• V1 = Z11I1 + Z12I2
V2 = Z21I1 + Z22I2
• Z Parameters for the symmetrical lattice network are

 Za + Zb Zb − Za 
 2 2 
Z=
 Zb − Za Za + Zb 
 2 2 

Admittance parameter or Y-parameter or short-circuit parameter:

• Y parameter is also referred as open circuit parameters.

I1 = f (V1, V2)
I2 = f (V1, V2)
Independent Variables are V1 & V2
Dependent variables are I1 & I2
• I1 = Y11V1 + Y12V2
I2 = Y21V1 + Y22V2
Condition of Reciprocity and Symmetricity:

Parameter Reciprocity Symmetricity

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Z parameter Z12 = Z21 Z11 = Z22

Y parameter Y12 = Y21 Y11 = Y22

All resistive circuits are reciprocal network and dependent source networks are non-reciprocal.
In case of dependent source network, if Z12 = Z21 then the network will be reciprocal.

Hybrid parameter or h-parameter:

• V1 = f (I1, V2)
I2 = f (I1, V2)
Independent Variables are I1 & V2
Dependent variables are V1 & I2
• V1 = h11I1 + h12V2
I2 = h21I1 + h22V2
• Relation between h Parameters and Z or Y Parameters:

V1 1 1
h11 = =  h11 =
I1 V2 =0
Y11 Y11

V1 Z12 Z12
h12 = =  h12 =
V2 I1 =0
Z22 Z22

I1 Y21 Y12
h21 = =  h21 =
V2 V1 =0
Y11 Y22

I1 1 1
h22 = =  h21 =
V2 I1 = 0
Y22 Z22

• Condition for Reciprocity: h12 = –h21

• Condition for Symmetry: Δh or |h| = 1 or h11h22 – h12h21 = 1

Inverse Hybrid parameter or g-parameter:

• I1 = f (V1, I2)
V2 = f (V1, I2)
Independent Variables are V1 & I2
Dependent variables are I1 & V2
• I1 = g11V1 + g12I2
V2 = g21V1 + g22I2
• Condition for Reciprocity: g12 = -g21
• Condition for Symmetry: Δg = |g| = 1 or g11g22 – g12g21 = 1

Transmission parameter or ABCD parameter or T parameter:

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• V1 = f (I1, I2)
V2 = f (I1, I2)
Independent Variables are I1 & I2
Dependent variables are V1 & V2
• V1 = AV2 – BI2
I1 = CV2 – DI2
• Condition for Reciprocity: ΔT = 1 or AD – BC = 1
• Condition for Symmetry: A = D

INTERCONNECTION OF TWO PORT NETWORKS

Series Connection:

 Z =  Za +  Zb
Z + Z11b Z12a + Z12b 
[Z] =  11a 
Z +
 21a Z22b Z22a + Z22b 

Parallel Connection:

 Y  =  Ya +  Yb
 Y +Y Y12a+Y12b 
[Y]=  11a 11b 
 Y21a+Y21b Y22a+Y22b 

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Series parallel Connection:

h =  h a +  h b

Parallel Series Connection:

g  = g a + g b

Cascade Connection:

[ABCD]Total = [ABCD]a  [ABCD]b

Network Components:

Transformer:
4 terminal or 2-port devices.

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• N1 > N2 : Step down transformer

V1 N1
=
V2 N2
• N2 > N1 : Step up transformer
I1 N2 N1
= , Where = K → Turns ratio.
I2 N1 N2
n 0   0 n
•  T  =   h =  
 0 1 / n  −n 0 

• Transformer does not work as amplifier because current decreases in same amount power
remain constant.

Gyrator:

• R0 = Coefficient of Gyrator
• V 1 = R 0 I2
• V 2 = R 0 I2
• If load is capacitive then input impedance will be inductive and vice versa.
• If load is inductive then input impedance will be capacitive.
• It is used for simulation of equivalent value of inductance.

For Series and Shunt elements:

For Series element (I1 = –I2)

ABCD parameters can be defined by

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A B  1 Z
 = 
C D 0 1 
For Shunt element (V1 = V2)

ABCD parameters can be defined by

 1 0
A B   
 = 1 
C D  1
 Z 

AC Circuits
Circuits driven by sinusoidal voltage and current sources are called ac circuits. Both sine and
cosine come under sinusoidal sources.

Root Mean Square:

T
1
Vrms =
T0 V 2dt

Where, T is time period.

Average value:
1 T
T 0
Vavg = Vdt

where, T is time period of equal.

Form factor:
It is the ratio of RMS value of waveform to the average value of waveform.

RMS Value
FF =
Avg Value
Peak Factor:
It is the ratio of the max value of waveform to the RMS value of waveform.
Max Value
PF =
RMS Value
Sinusoidal steady state analysis:
Conditions to compare the phases of two sinusoidal:
(i) Both functions should be expressed either in sine or cosine.

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(ii) Both functions should have to written with positive amplitude.

(iii) Both functions should have same frequency.

Representation of Circuit elements:

Time Domain Frequency domain

v = Ri V = RI

di
v=L
dt V = jωLI

1 1
C
v= idt v= I
j C

Series RL Circuit:

Z = R + jX L
Phasor:

V = VR2 + VL2

VL −1 X L
 = tan −1   = tan
VR R
VR
cos  = (lagging )
V
Pavg = VRMS IRMS cos

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Series RC Circuit:

Phasors:

V = VR2 + VC2

VC −1 X C
 = − tan −1   = − tan
VR R

VR
cos  = → leading
V
Pavg = VRMS IRMS cos

Series RLC Circuit:

Z = R + j(XL − XC)
Phasor:

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V = VR2 + (VL − VC )
2

VL − VC −1 X L − XC
 = tan −1   = tan
R R
V
cos  = R → (lagging)
V

Series and Parallel Resonance:

1 1
Z = R + jXL – jXC Y= + + jC
R jL

Variation of circuit parameters for series RLC with frequency:

a) Reactance of the circuit is zero at the resonant frequency.

b) Impedance of the circuit reaches its minimum at the resonant frequency.
c) Current in a series resonant circuit is maximum at the resonant frequency.

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1 1
 0 = rad/sec or f0 = Hz
LC 2 LC

Characteristic Series Circuit Parallel Circuit

1 1
Resonant Frequency (ω0)
LC LC
0L 1 R
Quality Factor or or 0RC
R 0RC 0L
0 0
Bandwidth
Q Q

Magnetic Coupling Circuits

Self-Inductance:
Self-Inductance is the effect of change in the magnetic flux linking in the circuit due to change
in current of the same circuit. It is denoted by ‘L’ and the unit is Henry.
di1
Vinduced =L1 (According to Faraday’s Law)
dt
L1 is the self-inductance corresponding to change in current i1,
d11
Also, L1 = N1
di1

Mutual-Inductance:
Mutual inductance is the effect of change in magnetic flux linking in a circuit due to change in
current of another circuit.
The voltage induced in the first coil due to current in it.
d11 di
V1 = N1 = L1 1
dt dt
The voltage induced in the second coil due to current in the first coil.
d12 di
V2 = N2 = M 21 1
dt dt

Coefficient of Coupling:
The coefficient of coupling is defined as the fraction of the total flux that links the magnetic
coil.
12 
K= or K = 21
1 2
N111 
 L1 = ; L2 = N 2 22
i1 i2

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21 12
M12 = N1 ; M 21 = N 2
i2 i1

M = K L1L2

Magnetically coupled coils in series connection:

or

For positive mutually connected series coil: Leq =L1 +L2 +2M

For negative mutually connected series coil: Leq =L1 +L2 -2M

Magnetically coupled coils in parallel connection:

Case-I: Positive naturally connected parallel coil

As current enters through dots in both the coils, they are positive mutually connected coils.

L1L2 − M2
L eq =
L1 + L2 − 2M

Case-II: Negative mutually connected parallel coil

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As current enters through dot in one coil and leaves through dot in another coil, they are

negative mutually connected coil.

L1L2 − M2
L eq =
L1 + L2 + 2M

*****

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IMPORTANT FORMULAS TO REMEMBER

CHAPTER 1: VECTOR CALCULUS

1. Vector Quantity
A physical quantity which has both magnitude and definite direction is called a vector
quantity. The various examples of vector quantity are force, velocity, displacement, electric
field intensity, magnetic field intensity, acceleration etc.
1.1. Representation of a Vector
To distinguish between a scalar and a vector it is customary to represent a vector by a letter

with an arrow on top of it, such as a and b , or by a letter in boldface type such as A and B .
1.2. Unit Vector
A unit vector consists both magnitude and direction. Its direction is same as that of the main
vector however, its magnitude is unity. It can be written in various as I A, iA, αA or uA. A unit
vector is defined as the ratio of the main vector itself to its magnitude. For example, the unit

A
vector of A is given as A =
| A|
Where |A| is the magnitude of the vector and αA is the unit vector of A.
2. Basic Vector Operations
2.1. Scaling of a Vector
When a vector is multiplied by a scalar it results in a vector quantity.

Consider a vector A and a scalar k. The product R of the two quantities is given as

R = kA
Following are some important properties of scaling operation:
Properties of scaling operation

1. Consider the scaling operation R = k A . The direction of R is same as that of A if k is

positive, and opposite to that of A if k is negative.
2. In rectangular coordinates, assume that the scaling operation is given by

Rx ax + Ry a y + RZ aZ = k (Ax ax + Ay a y + Az aZ )

The above equality is satisfied if each component of the LHS is equal to the corresponding
component of RHS, i.e.
Rx = kAx, Ry= kAy, Rz = kAz
The magnitude of R is

| R |= k Ax2 + Ay2 + Az2 = kA

3. Let k1, k2 be the scalars, and A, B be the vectors then,

(k1+k2) A = k1 A +k2 A

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2.2. Addition of Vectors
Consider the two vectors,

A = Ax ax + Ay a y +Az aZ and

B = Bx ax +By a y + Bz aZ
The addition of these two vectors is given by

A + B = (Ax+Bx) ax + (Ay+By) a y + (AZ+BZ) aZ

Properties of Vector Addition
1. Vector addition follows the commutative law, i.e.

A + B = B + A
2. Vector addition follows the associative law, i.e.

A +( B + C ) = ( A + B ) + C
3. Similar to the vector addition, the subtraction of the vectors is defined as

A - B = (Ax - Bx) ax + (Ay - By) a y + (Az-BZ) aZ

k1( A + B ) = k1 A + k1 B
2.3. Multiplication of vectors
When two vectors A and B are multiplied, the result is either a scalar or a vector depending
on how they are multiplied. There are two types of vector multiplication:

1. Scalar (or dot) product: A • B

2. Vector (or cross) product: A × B

2.3.1 Scalar Product
The dot product of the vectors A and B is defined as

A • B = |A||B| cosθ
Following are some important properties of dot product of two vectors.
Properties of Dot product
1. The dot product of two orthogonal vectors is always zero, i.e.

A • B = 0, if θ = 900
2. The dot product of two parallel vectors in equal to the product of their magnitudes, i.e.

A • B = AB, if θ = 00
3. In rectangular coordinate systems, the dot products of the unit vectors are given as
αx • αy = αy• αz = αz• αx=0
αx • αx = αy • αy = αz• αz =1
4. if the two vectors are defined in rectangular coordinates as

A = Axαx + Ayαy + Azαz

B = Bxαx+ Byαy + Bzαz
Then, their dot product is evaluated as

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A • B = AxBx + AyBy + AzBz

5. The dot product follows the commutative law, i.e.

A •B = B•A
6. The dot product also follows the distributive law, i.e.

A • (B + C ) = A •B + A •C
2.3.2 Vector of Cross Product
The cross product of two vectors A and B is Defined as

A × B = (AB sin θ) αn
Where αn is the unit vector normal to the plane containing A and B, θ is the angle between
the vector A and B as shown in Figure 1.4 As there are the normal unit vector α n we use the
right- hand rule.
Right hand rule
Let your fingers point in the direction of the first vector and curl around (via the smaller
angle) toward second; then your thumb indicates the direction of α n. the cross-product A× B
points upward.
Properties of cross product
1. The cross product of two orthogonal vectors is equal to the product of their magnitudes
with the direction perpendicular to the plane, i.e.

A × B = ABαn, if, θ = 900

2. The cross product of two parallel vectors is always zero, i.e.

A × B = 0, if θ = 00
3. In rectangular coordinate system, the cross product of the unit vectors are given as
αx× αx = αy× αy = αz× αz = 0
α x× α y = α z
α y × αz = αx
α z × αx = αy
4. If the two vectors are defined in rectangular coordinates as

A = Axαx+ Ayαy+Azαz
B = Bxαx+Byαy + Bzαz
Then, their cross product is evaluated as

 ax ay az 
 
A  B =  Ax Ay Az 
 Bx By Bz 

5. The cross product is anti-commutative, i.e.

A × B =– B × A
6. The cross product follows the distributive law, i.e.

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A × (B + C) = A × B + A × C
3. COORDINATE SYSTEMS
The following three most useful coordinate systems:
1. Cartesian or rectangular coordinates,
2. Circular or cylindrical coordinates, and
3. Spherical coordinates.
3.1. Rectangular or Cartesian Coordinate System
The three coordinate axes are designated as x, y and z which are mutually perpendicular to
each other. The variables x, y and z can have any values in the range
-∞ < x < ∞, -∞, < y < ∞, -∞ < z < ∞
Vector Representation in Rectangular Coordinate System
A vector A in rectangular coordinate system is represented as
A = A x α x + A y α y+ A z α z
Where αx,αy, αz are the unit vectors along the x, y and z directions.
The magnitude of A is given by

| A | = Ax2 + Ay2 + Az2

Figure: Representation of cartesian coordinates

3.2. Cylindrical Coordinates

The cylindrical coordinate system is very convenient whenever we are dealing with problems
having cylindrical symmetry.
A Point P in cylindrical coordinates is represented as (ρ,  , z) and is as shown in figure

below.
The ranges of the variables are:
0

0    2

−  z  +

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A vector A in cylindrical coordinates can be written as

( A , A , A ) or A ˆa
  z   + A ˆ
a + A zˆ
az

Figure: Representation of cylindrical coordinates

Notice that the unit vectors ˆ
a , ˆ
a and âz are mutually perpendicular because our coordinates

system is orthogonal.
ˆ
a  ˆ
a = ˆ
a  ˆ
az = ˆ
az  ˆ
a = 0

ˆ
a  ˆ
a = ˆ
a  ˆ
a = ˆ
az  ˆ
az = 1

ˆ
a  ˆ
a = ˆ
az

ˆ
a  ˆ
az = ˆ
a

ˆ
az  ˆ
a = ˆ
a

Conversion of cartesian coordinate to cylindrical coordinate and vice-versa

Point transformation,

= x2 + y2
y
 = tan−1
x
z=z
or
x =  cos 
y =  sin 
z=z
The relationship between ˆ
ax , ˆ
ay , ˆ
az and ˆ
a , ˆ
a , ˆ
az are vector transformation,

ˆ
ax = cos  ˆ
a − sin  ˆ
a

ˆ
ay = sin  ˆ
a + cos  ˆ
a

ˆ
az = ˆ
az

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or ˆ
a = cos ˆ
ax + sin ˆ
ay

ˆ
a = − sin ˆ
ax + cos ˆ
ay

ˆ
az = ˆ
az

( )
Finally, the relationship between (Ax, Ay, Az) and A , A  , A z are

A cos  sin  0 A x
A = − sin  cos  0 A y
Az 0 0 1 A
z

Ax cos  − sin  0 A
Ay = sin  cos  0 A 
Az 0 0 1 A
z

3.3. Spherical Coordinates

A point P can be represented as ( (r, , ) ) and s illustrated in figure below. From figure, we

notice that r is defined as the distance from the origin to point P or the radius of a sphere
centered at the origin and passing through P; θ (called the colatitudes) is the angle between
the z-axis and the position vector of P; and  is measured from the x-axis (the same

azimuthal angle in cylindrical coordinates). According to these definitions, the ranges of the
variables are
0r

0

0    2

Note: the unit vectors ˆ

ar , ˆ
a and ˆ
a are mutually perpendicular because our coordinate

system is orthogonal.

ˆ
ar  ˆ
a = ˆ
a  ˆ
a = ˆ
a  ˆ
ar = 0

ˆ
ar  ˆ
ar = ˆ
a  ˆ
a = ˆ
a  ˆ
a = 1

ˆ
ar  ˆ
a = ˆ
a

ˆ
a  ˆ
a = ˆ
ar

ˆ
a  ˆ
ar = ˆ
a

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Conversion of cartesian coordinate to spherical coordinate and vice-versa

Point transformation,

r= x2 + y2 + z2

x2 + y2 + z2
 = tan−1
z
y
 = tan−1
x
Or
x = r sin  cos 
y = r sin  sin 
z = r cos 
The relationship between ˆ
ax , ˆ
ayˆ
az and ˆ
ar , ˆ
a , ˆ
a are

ˆ
ax = sin  cos  ˆ
ar + cos  cos  ˆ
a − sin ˆ
a

ˆ
ay = sin  sin  ˆ
ar + cos  sin  ˆ
a + cos ˆ
a

ˆ
az = cos ˆ
ar − sin ˆ
a

ˆ
ar = sin  cos ˆ
ax + sin  sin ˆ
ay + cos ˆ
az

ˆ
a = cos  cos ˆ
ax + cos  sin ˆ
ay − sin ˆ
az

ˆ
a = − sin ˆ
ax + cos ˆ
ay

(
Finally, the relationship between (Ax, Ay, Az) and Ar , A  , A  ) are

Vector transformation,
Ar sin  cos  sin  sin  cos  A x
A = cos  cos  cos  sin  − sin  A y
A − sin  cos 0 Az

Ax sin  cos  cos  cos  − sin  Ar

A y = sin  cos  cos  sin  cos  A
Az cos  − sin  0 A

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4. DIFFERENTIAL ELEMENTS IN COORDINATE SYSTEMS
4.1. Differential Elements in Rectangular Coordinate System
The differential elements in rectangular coordinate system are defined as follows:
1. Differential length in rectangular coordinate system:
dL = dxαx + dyαy + dzαz
2. Differential area in rectangular coordinate system:
dS = dydzax = dxdzαy = dxdyαz
3. Differential volume in rectangular coordinate system:
dV =dxdydz
4.2. Differential Elements in Cylindrical Coordinate System
The differential elements in cylindrical coordinate system are defined as follows:
1. Differential length in cylindrical coordinate system:
dL = dραρ + ρdϕαϕ+dzαz
2. Differential area in cylindrical coordinate system:
dS = ρdϕdzαρ = dρdzαϕ = ρdϕdραz
3. Differential volume in cylindrical coordinate system:
dV = ρdρdϕdz
4.3. Differential Elements in spherical Coordinate System
The differential elements in spherical coordinate system are defined as follows:
1. Differential length in spherical coordinate system
dL = drαr + rdθαθ + rsinθdϕαϕ
2. Differential area in spherical coordinate system
dS = r2sinθdθdϕαr = rsinθdrdϕαθ = rdrdϕαϕ
3. Differential volume in spherical coordinate system
dV = r2sinθdrdθdϕ
5. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
The Del operator (∇), in the different coordinate system, is defined as

  
= x +  y + z (Rectangular coordinates)
x y z
 1 
=  +  +  z (Cylindrical Coordinates)
  z
 1  1 
= r +  +  (Spherical coordinates)
r r  r sin  
6. Gradient of a Scalar
The gradient (or grad) is defined by the operation of the Del operator on a scalar field. For a
scalar Field V, we define the gradient in the different coordinates as
V V V
V = x +  y + z (Rectangular coordinates)
x y z

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V 1V V
V =  +  +  z (Cylindrical coordinates)
  z
V 1V 1 V
V = r +  +  (Spherical coordinates)
r r r sin  
7. Divergence of a Vector
Divergence of a vector function is a scalar and defined as the net outward flux per unit
volume over the elementary closed surface. For a vector function A, we define the divergence
in the different coordinates as

 A A A 
 A= x + y + z  (Rectangular)
 x y z 

1  (  A ) 1 A Az
 A= + + (Cylindrical)
    z
1 (r 2 Ar ) 1 (sin  A ) 1 A
 A= + + (Spherical)
r 2
r r sin   r sin  
8. Curl of a Vector
The curl of a vector plays a very important role in electromagnetic theory.
We define the curl of vector A in different coordinate systems as

 ax ay az 
 
   
 A =  ( Rectangular coordinates )
 x y z
 
 Ax Ay Az 

 ax  a az 
 
 1     
 A =   ( Cylindrical coordinates )
       z
 
 A  A Az 

a ra r sin a

A = 
 1    
 (Spherical coordinates)
 r2 sin    r  
Ar rA  r sin A 

9. Laplacian Operator
The Laplacian Operator is the square of the Del operator and written as (∇2). It can operate
both on scalar as well as vector field. The Laplacian of a scalar field is a scalar field whereas
the Laplacian of a vector is a vector field.
9.1. Laplacian of a Scalar
The Laplacian of a scalar field V in different coordinate systems is defined as

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 2V  2V  2V
 2V = + + (Rectangular coordinates)
x 2 y 2 z 2
1   V  1  2V  2V
 2V =  + 2 + 2 (Cylindrical coordinates)
      
2
z

1   2 V  1   V  1  2V
 2 .V =  r  +  sin   + (Spherical coordinates)
r 2 r  r  r 2 sin      r 2 sin 2   2
9.2. Laplacian of a Vector
The Laplacian of a vector is defined as the gradient of divergence of the vector minus the curl
of the curl of vector, i.e.
∇2 A = ∇ (∇. A) - ∇×∇× A

10. DIVERGENCE THEOREM

According to divergence theorem, the surface integral of a vector field over a closed surface
is equal to the volume integral of the divergence of the vector field over the volume.
Mathematically, the divergence theorem is written as

 A dS =  ( A ) dV
s

Where A is a vector field and V is the volume bounded by the closed surface S.

11. STOKE’S THEOREM

According to Stoke’s theorem, the line integral of a vector field around a closed path in equal
to the surface integral of the curl of vector field over the open surface bounded by the closed
path. Mathematically, the Stoke’s theorem is written as

 A dL =  (  A ) dS
L S

Where A is a vector field and S is the open surface bounded by the closed path L.

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CHAPTER 2: ELECTROSTATICS

1. Electric charge
Electric Charge is a fundamental conserved property of some subatomic particles, which
determines their electromagnetic interaction.
1.1 Point Charge
Point charges are very small charges assumed to be of infinitesimally small volume, although
they have finite volume considered as a single charge.
1.2. Line Charge
The charge per unit length along the line charge is called line charge density. It is denoted by
L and defined as

Q dQ
L = lim =
L →0 L dL

where Q is small charge, and L is small length.

1.3. Surface Charge
The charge per unit area over the surface is called the surface charge density. It is denoted
S
by and defined as
Q dQ
S = lim =
 s→0 S dS
where Q is small charge, and S is small area.
1.4. Volume Charge
The charge per unit volume in the region is called volume charge density. It is denoted by 

and defined as
Q dQ
 = lim =
 →0  d
where Q is small charge, and  is small volume.
2. Electric flux Density

The electric flux density vector D in a medium is defined as the product of the permittivity
and the electric field vector

D = E
The permittivity of the medium is defined in terms of the free space permittivity and the
relative permittivity (∈ ′)as
= ' 0
Electric flux density is independent of the medium properties
Q Q
For point charge E = ˆ
a ,D =
2 R
ˆ
aR
4  R 4R2
PL P
For line charge E = ˆ
aP , D = L ˆ
a
2 P 2P P

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The unit of electric flux density are
F F C
 =
m m m2
NOTE: The units of D are equivalent to surface density i.e. C/m2
3. Gauss’s Law – Maxwell Equations
The total outward electric flux Ψ through any closed surface is equal to the total charge
enclosed by the surface.
In equation form, gauss’s law is written as
=  D. dS = Q
s
enclosed

Where = dS = ˆ
andS and ˆ
an is the outward pointing unit normal to closed surface S.

=  D. dS =
s
total charge enclosed

Q=  P dv
v
v

or Q =  D.dS =   dv
S V
v

By applying divergence theorem to the middle term, we have

 D.dS =  .Ddv
S V

Comparing the two volume integrals

.D = v
It states that the volume charge density is the same as the divergence of the electric flux
density.
4. Electric field due to a point charge
Q
D= ˆ
a
4r2
Q
E= ˆ
a
4 0 r2
Where, Q is the point charge and r is the distance between point where electric field is
calculated and point charge.
5. Electric field due to an Infinite line charge
𝑃𝐿
⃗ =
⇒ 𝐷 𝑎̂
2𝜋𝜌 𝑃
𝑃𝐿
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸⃗ = 𝑎̂
2𝜋 ∈0 𝜌 𝑃
Where, PL is linear charge density, 𝜌 is distance of the point P (P is the point where electric
field is calculated) from line charge and 𝑎̂𝑃 is position vector of point P.
6. Electric Field due to an infinite sheet of charge
𝜌
⃗ = 𝑠 𝑎̂𝑧
𝐷
2

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⃗
𝐷 𝜌𝑠
Or, 𝐸⃗ = = 𝑎̂𝑧
∈0 2∈0

Where, 𝜌𝑠 is surface charge density and âz is the unit normal vector from sheet to the
pointwhere electric field is calculated.
7. Field due to a uniformly chargedsphere
𝑟
𝜌𝑣 𝑎̂𝜏 ; 0 < 𝑟 ≤ 𝑎
⃗ = {3 3
𝐷 Where, 𝜌𝑣 is volume charge density.
𝑎
2 𝜌𝑣 𝑎
3𝑟
̂𝜏 ; 𝑟 ≥ 𝑎

Figure: Gaussian surface for a uniformly charged when (a)r ≥ a and (b) r ≤ a

Figure: Sketch of |D| against r for a uniformly charged sphere.

8. Electric field due to multiple point charger
The electric field due to multiple points chargers can be determined using the principle of

superposition. for N point charges Q 1,Q2,……..QN located at r1 ,r2 ,r3......rN the electric fields

intensity at point r is obtained by equations.

Q1(r − r1 ) Q2 (r − r2 ) QN(r − rN )
E= 3
+ 3
... + 3
4 0 r − r1 4 0 r − r1 4 0 r − rN
N
1 QK (r − rk )
E=
4 0

K =1 r1 − rk
3

9. Electric field due to charge distributions

dQ = L dl  Q =  L dl(line charge)
L

dQ = SdS  Q =  SdS (surface charge)

S

dQ = v dV  Q =  v dV (volume charge)
v

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10. Electric field on the axis of a charged ring
Consider a circular ring of radius a with uniform line charge density ρ L(C/m) and a point P on
the axis of ring as shown in figure

Figure: electric field to circular ring

The total electric field is therefore

Qz
E= ˆ
az
40 (z2 + a2 )3/2

Q
Note: As z → , E tends to
40z2
11. Electric field of a Charged Circular Disk
The electric field due to a uniformly charged circular disk at a point on its axis can be
calculated using the result for a ring. Consider a disk of radius a, surface charge density
ρs*(C/m2) and point P as shown in the figure

Figure: Electric field due to charged circular

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s  
z
E= 1 − ˆaz
20  z +a 
2 2

Q
Note: If z ≫ a then E = ˆ
az
4 0 z2

12. Potential difference in the electric field of a point charge

The potential difference between two points A and B in the electric fields of the point charge
is
B B
VAB = −  E.d l =  dV = VB − VA
A A

13. Energy Density in Electrostatic Field

1 1
WE = 
2 vol.
(D.E) dv = 
2 vol.
0 E2dv (J)

Where, D is electric flux density and E is electric field intensity.

We defined energy density in (J/m3)
14. Boundary Conditions

Electric field intensity E into two orthogonal components

E = Et + En

where Et and En are tangential and normal components of E respectively.

14.1. Dielectric-Dielectric Boundary Conditions

Consider the E field existing in a region that consist of two different dielectrics characterized
by ϵ1 = ϵ0ϵn and ϵ2 = ϵ0ϵa as shown in figure.

Figure: Dielectric-dielectric boundary: (a) determining E1t = E2t

(b) determining D1σ = D2σ.

The fields and E1 and E2 can be decomposed as

E1 = E1t + E1n

E2 = E2t + E2n
then, E1t = E2t

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14.2. Conductor-Dielectric Boundary Conditions

Figure: Conductor-dielectric boundary.

Q
Dn = = S
S
or, Dn = ρ S
14.3. Conductor-Free Space Boundary Conditions
The boundary conditions at the interface of conductor and free space can be obtained from
conductor-dielectric boundary conditions with ϵr =1.
Thus the boundary condition are
Et = 0. Dt = ϵ0Et = 0
S
Dn =
0

Figure: Conductor-free space boundary

15. Poisson’s and Laplace’s Equations
v
2 V = − , Where V is electrostatic potential andρv is volume charge density.

This is known as Poisson’s equation.
As special case of this equation occurs when ρv = 0 (i.e., for a charge free region
2 V = 0
Which is known as Laplace’s equation.

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16. Coaxial Capacitor

Figure: A coaxial capacitor

The capacitance of a coaxial cylinder is given by
Q 2 
C= =
V b
ln
a
17. Spherical Capacitor

Figure: A spherical capacitor

The capacitance of the spherical capacitor is
Q 4 
C= =
V 1 1
−
a b

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CHAPTER 3: MAGNETOSTATICS

1. MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY

Magnetic flux density is the amount of magnetic flux per unit area of a section, perpendicular
to the direction of magnetic flux.
It is denoted by B. Mathematically,
d
B= a
dS n
Where d is a small amount of magnetic flux through small area dS of the section
perpendicular to magnetic flux an is the unit vector normal to the surface area.
also expressed as
 = S
B • dS

2. Relation between Magnetic field Intensity (H) and Magnetic Flux Density (B):
The magnetic field intensity is related to the magnetic flux density as

B = H = 0,H
Where,  is the permeability of the medium, 0=4  ×10-7 H/m is the permeability of free
space, and , is the relative permeability of the medium.
3. Biot-Savart’s Law

Figure: Magnetic field due to small length at P

Idl  aR
Line current H= L 4R2
KdS  aR
Surface current H= L 4R2
Jdv  aR
Volume current H= V 4R2
(H direction = I direction × Radial vector)

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4. Ampere’s Circuital Law
According to Ampere’s circuital law the line integral of magnetic field intensity H around the
closed loop L is equal to I, i.e.

∮𝐻 ⋅ 𝑑𝐿 = 𝐼
𝐿

Differential Form of Ampere’s Circuital Law

In differential form Ampere’s circuital law is defined as
H = J
i.e. the curl of the magnetic field intensity (H) is equal to the current density (J) at the point
in space.
5. H-field for finite length of current I carrying wire:

Figure: Field at P due to line conductor

I
H= ( sin 1 + sin 2 ) a
4

Note: Notice from the above equation that H is always along the unit vector â (i.e., along

concentric circular paths) irrespective of the length of the wire or the point of interest P.
6. H-field for infinite length of current I carrying wire:
I
H= ˆ
a
2 
The unit vector â must be found carefully. A simple approach is to determine â form

ˆ
a = ˆ
al  ˆ
ap

Where âl is a unit vector along the line current and âp is a unit vector along the

perpendicular line from the line current to the filed point.

Electric force (Fe = QE) Magnetic Force (Fm = Qu ×B)

1. It is in the same direction as the field E. It is perpendicular to both u and B.

2. It can perform work. It cannot perform work.

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3. It is independent of the velocity of charge. It depends upon the velocity of charge.

4. It can produce change in kinetic energy. It cannot produce change in kinetic energy.

Table: Comparison between Electric Force and Magnetic Force

7. Force on a Differential Current Element in Magnetic Field

The differential magnetic force experienced by various differential current elements are given
below:

Fm =  IdL  B (Line current)

L

Fm =  K  BdS (Surface current)

S

Fm =  J  Bdv (Volume current)

V

Where IdL is the line current element, KdS is surface current element, Jdv is volume current
element, and Fm is the magnetic force exerted on the respective elements in presence of
magnetic field B
8. Magnetic Force Between Two Current Elements
Consider the two differential current elements I 1dL1 and I2dL2 separated by a distance r. The
magnetic force between the two current elements is given by

 I1 I2 dL2  ( dL1  ar )
F =
4  
L1 L2 r2
This equation is also called Ampere’s force law.
9. Magnetic Susceptibility
In a linear material, magnetization is directly proportional to field intensity. i.e.
MH
or M = mH

where m is the magnetic susceptibility of the medium. The magnetic susceptibility of a

magnetic material is a measure of the degree of magnetization of a material in response to

an applied magnetic field.
10. Relation between Magnetic Field Intensity and Magnetic Flux Density
In a magnetic material, magnetic flux density is expressed in terms of magnetic field
intensity as
B = 0 (H + M) = 0 (1 + m )H
= 0r H = H

where

 = 0r is called permeability of the medium, expressed in Henry per metre (H/m),

0 = 4  10−7 H/m is the permeability of free space, known as absolute permeability,

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
r = (1 + m ) = is the relative permeability of the medium, it is dimensionless.
0

11. Energy Density in a Magnetic Field

In a magnetic field with flux density B, the stored magnetic energy density is given by
1
wm = (B  H)
2
where H is the magnetic field intensity in the region. The total magnetic energy stored in a
region is obtained by taking the volume integral of the energy density, i.e.
1
Wm = 
wmd = 
 2
(B  H) d

12. Boundary Conditions for Magnetostatic Fields:

B1n = B2n States that Normal component of B is continuous across an interface. μ 1H1n = μ2H2n
H1t – H2t = Jsn States that the Tangential component of H field is discontinuous across an
interface where free surface current exist-amount the amount of discontinuity being equal to
the surface current density.
When conductivities of both media are finite, current are defined by volume current densities
and free surface currents don’t exist on interface hence j equal to zero, and the Tangential
component of H field is continuous across the boundary of almost all physical media; it is
discontinuous only when an interface with an ideal conductor or a super conductor is
assumed.

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CHAPTER 4: MAXWELL’S EQUATION
Maxwell Equations

Differential form integral form Significance

B 𝜕𝐵
 E = − ∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙 = − ∬ . 𝑑𝑠 Faraday’s Law
t 𝜕𝑡
∇×𝐻
𝜕𝐷 Ampere’s Circuital Law
𝜕𝐷 ∮ 𝐻. 𝑑𝑙 = − ∬(𝐽 + ). 𝑑𝑠
=𝐽+ 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝑡
∇.D = ρv ∯ 𝐷. 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 Gauss Law

∇.B = 0 ∯ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑠 = 0 No isolated magnetic charge

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CHAPTER 5: EM WAVE PROPAGATION

1. General wave equation for electromagnetic waves

The three-dimensional vector wave equation or Helmholtz equation in an absorbing medium
or lossy dielectric medium is defined as
𝜕𝐻 𝜕2 𝐻 𝜕𝐸 𝜕2 𝐸
∇2 𝐻 = 𝜇𝜎 + 𝜀𝜇 and ∇2 𝐸 = 𝜇𝜎 + 𝜀𝜇
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 2
2. Wave equation for perfect dielectric medium
In a perfect dielectric medium, the conductivity is zero, i.e. σ = 0.

2E
2E = 
t2

2H
and 2H = 
t2
These are the wave equations for perfect dielectric medium.
3. Wave equation for Time-Harmonic Fields
The standard form of wave equations for time harmonic fields (in phasor form) are defined as

2Es − 2Es = 0

and 2Hs − 2Hs = 0

Where 𝛾 is a complex constant called the propagation constant.

4. Propagation Constant
For a medium with permittivity ε, permeability μ, and conductivity σ, the propagation
constant is given by

 = j (  + j )

Propagation constant is expressed in per meter (m–1). It can be also defined as

𝛾 = 𝛼 + jβ
where 𝛼 is the attenuation constant, and β is the phase constant.
5.1. Propagation Constant in lossy dielectrics

 = j (  + j )

and 𝛾 = α + jβ
where α is the attenuation constant, and β is the phase constant.

  2 
=  1+ − 1
2 
 22 


  2 
and =  1+ − 1
2 
 22 


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5.2. Intrinsic Impedance
𝒋𝝎𝝁 𝒋𝝎𝝁
𝜼= =
𝜸 √𝒋𝝎𝝁(𝝈 + 𝒋𝝎𝜺)

j
or =
( + j)

Thus, the intrinsic impedance is complex quantity.

5.3. Loss Tangent
This ratio is defined as the loss tangent or loss angle of the medium i.e.

  Es J
= = = conduction = tan 
  Es Jdisplacement

6. WAVE PROPAGATION IN LOSSLESS DIELECTRICS

6.1. Attenuation Constant
α=0
6.2. Phase Constant

 =  

6.3. Propagation Constant

Propagation constant in a medium is defined by
𝛾 = 𝛼 + jβ
The propagation constant in the lossless dielectric medium as

 = j 

6.4. Velocity of Wave Propagation

The velocity of wave propagation in a medium is given by

𝜔 𝜔 3 × 108
𝑉𝑝 = = =
𝛽 𝜔√𝜇𝜀 √𝜇𝑟. 𝜀𝑟
6.5. Intrinsic Impedance

𝝁 𝝁𝒓
𝜼 = √ = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝝅√
𝜺 𝜺𝒓
7. WAVE PROPAGATION IN PERFECT CONDUCTORS
7.1. Attenuation Constant


=
2
7.2. Phase Constant


=
2

7.3. Propagation Constant

Thepropagation constant in the good conductors as

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 
= +j
2 2
7.4. Velocity of wave propagation
 2
vp = =
 
2
7.5. Intrinsic Impedance
The intrinsic impedance
j j
= =
(  + j ) 
 1 +
j 
  

Since, σ ≫ ωε, i.e. ≪ 1. So, we can write

j
1+ 1

Hence, the intrinsic impedance in a good conductor reduce is obtained as

𝒋𝝎𝝁 𝝎𝝁 𝒋𝝅
𝜼=√ =√ 𝒆𝟒
𝝈 𝝈
7.6. Skin Depth
1 2
= =
 
8. WAVE PROPAGATION IN FREE SPACE
8.1. Attenuation Constant
α=0
8.2. Phase Constant
 =  00
8.3. Propagation Constant
 = j 00
8.4. Velocity of Wave Propagation
 1
vp = = = 3  108 m / s
 0 0 0 0
8.5. Intrinsic Impedance
0
0 = = 120  377
0
9. Average Power Flow in Uniform Plane Waves
1
Pav = Re[Es  Hs *]
2
Pav is time-average power density vector in a uniform plane wave which is expressed in Watt
per squared meter (W/m2).

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CHAPTER 6:REFLECTION & REFRACTION OF WAVES

1. Reflection and Transmission Coefficients

The ratio Er0/Ei0 is called reflection coefficient denoted by  and given by

Er0  − 1
= = 2
Ei0 2 + 1

The ratio Et0/Ei0 is called transmission coefficient denoted by  and given by

Et0 22
= =
Ei0 2 + 1

2. Standing Wave Ratio

The ratio of the maximum amplitude to the minimum of the total electric field |E t| is called
standing wave ratio, i.e.
|𝐸𝑡 |𝑚𝑎𝑥 1 + |𝛤|
𝑆= =
|𝐸𝑡 |𝑚𝑖𝑛 1 − |𝛤|
Important Point

• Both  and  are dimensionless and may be complex.

1+  = 

0 |  |  1

• Since
|  |  1, standing wave ratio (S) is always positive and greater than or equal

to unity, i.e. 𝑆≥1

3. Reflection and Transmission Coefficients for Parallel Polarization
The reflection and transmission coefficients for the parallel polarised wave are defined as
𝐸𝑟𝑜 𝜂2 cos 𝜃𝑡 −𝜂1 cos 𝜃𝑖
𝛤𝑃 = = and
𝐸𝑖𝑜 𝜂2 cos 𝜃𝑡 +𝜂1 cos 𝜃𝑖

𝐸𝑡𝑜 2𝜂2 cos 𝜃𝑡

𝜏𝑝 = =
𝐸𝑖𝑜 𝜂2 cos 𝜃𝑡 +𝜂1 cos 𝜃𝑖

4. Brewster Angle for Parallel Polarized Wave

The incident angle at which there is no reflection (i.e. E r0 = 0) is called Brewster angle. For
B
the parallel polarized wave propagating through lossless mediums, the Brewster angle is
expressed as
1 − 2 1 / 12
sin2 B =
1 − (1 / 2 )2

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Figure: Oblique Incidence of Parallel Polarized Wave at the Interface between Two
Lossless Dielectrics
5. Reflection and Transmission Coefficients for Perpendicular Polarization
The reflection and transmission coefficients for perpendicular polarized wave are given by
Er0 2 cos i − 1 cos t
⊥ = =
Ei0 2 cos i + 1 cos t
Et0 22 cos i
and ⊥ = =
Ei0 2 cos i + 1 cos t

6. Brewster Angle for Perpendicular Polarized Wave

For the perpendicular polarized wave propagating through lossless mediums, the Brewster

B⊥
angle, is expressed as
1 − 12 / 2 1
sin2 B ⊥ =
1 − (1 / 2 )2

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CHAPTER 7:TRANSMISSION LINES

1. Transmission Line:

For a transmission line with primary constants R, L, C and G, the propagation constant is given
by

 = series impedance × shunt admittance

= (R + jL)(G + jC)

Or 𝛾= 𝛼 + jβ
2. For a transmission line with primary constants R, L, C and G, the characteristic impedance is
defined as
series impedance R + jL
Z0 = =
shunt admittance G + jC

3. The input impedance can be expressed as:

 Z + Z0 tanh l 
Zin = Z0  L 
 Z0 + ZL tanh l 
Points to Remember
1. For a short circuited transmission line, ZL = 0, the input impedance is

(Zin )sc = Z0 tanh  l

2. For open circuited line, ZL = , the input impedance is given by

(Zin )oc = Z0 coth l

3.From the above two results, we have

(𝑍𝑖𝑛 )𝑠𝑐 (𝑍𝑖𝑛 )𝑜𝑐 = 𝑍0 2 and 𝑍0 = √(𝑍𝑖𝑛 )𝑠𝑐 (𝑍𝑖𝑛 )𝑜𝑐

4. For matched line, ZL = Z0, the input impedance is
Zin = Z0
4. Reflection Coefficient:
ZL − Z0
0 ≤ 𝛤𝐿 ≤ 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 L =
ZL + Z0

5. The propagation constant of a lossless transmission line is obtained as

 = (R + jL)(G + jC)

= (0 + jL)(0 + jC)

= j LC

or  = j = j LC
thus, the attenuation and phase constants of transmission line is given by

 = 0,  =  LC

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6. The characteristic impedance of a lossless transmission line is obtained as

R + jL 0 + jL L
Z0 = = =
G + jC 0 + jC C
7. The velocity of propagation in a lossless transmission line is given by
 1
vp = =
 LC
8. The input impedance for a lossless line is obtained as
 Z + Z0 tanh l  𝑍𝐿 +𝑗𝑍0 tan 𝛽𝑙
Zin = Z0  L = 𝑍0 [ ]
 Z0 + ZL tanh l  𝑍0 +𝑗𝑍𝐿 tan 𝛽𝑙

9. The propagation constant of a distortion less transmission line is obtained as

 = (R + jL)(G + jC)

 jL   jC 
= RG 1 +   1+
 R  G 

𝑗𝜔𝐶 𝑗𝜔𝐿
= √𝑅𝐺 √(1 + 𝐺
) (1 + 𝑅
) = 𝛼 + 𝑗𝛽

Thus, we obtain the attenuation and phase constants as

 = RG

 =  LC

10. The characteristic impedance of a distortion less line is obtained as

R + jL
Z0 =
G + jC

R(1 + jL / R)
=
G(1 + jC / G)

R L
= =
G C
11. Standing wave ratio is defined as the ratio of the maximum voltage (or current) to the
minimum voltage (or current) of a line having standing waves.

Vmax Imax 1 + L
S= = =
Vmin Imin 1 − L

11.1. Impedance Matching Techniques

Most load impedances are typically large and line impedances are small so
we have to use additional elements for matching
•Series –λ/4– Quarter wave transformer

Z,02
The Z0 line has a termination = Zin of the λ/4 line of ZL load =
ZL
Therefore, Z '0 = Z0 .ZL

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• With the use of the quarter wave transformer the line is completely matched but the load is not
completely matched but the miss match is reduced as compare without the λ/4
transformer.
12.2. Shunt–Stub Matching
A stub is a short circuit line of lt length placed at ls distance from the load such that the
function impedance is Z0 and the line is matched, from that point towards the source.
Design of a stub
• Identity a position on the line from the load where Z(x) = Z 0 ± jx then x value is ‘/s’
is position of stub

  ZL 
ls = tan−1  
2  Z0 
 
• At this stub position an equal and opposite reactance is placed in shunt that cancels
existing reactance so that the junction impedance.
• This junction impedance is Z 0 as the cancelling reactance is designed form a short–
circuit line of ‘lt’ length

  ZL Z0 
lt = tan−1  
2  ZL − Z0 
 
• For the miss–matched region to be small ‘ls’ should be as close to the load as
possible

Figure: Matching with a single stub tuner

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CHAPTER 8: RECTANGULAR WAVEGUIDE

1. Transverse Electromagnetic (TEM) Modes

In TEM mode, the electric and magnetic fields are transverse to the direction of wave
propagation with no longitudinal components, i.e.
Ez = Hz = 0
2. Transverse Electric (TE) Modes
In TE mode, the electric field is transverse to the direction of propagation (no longitudinal
electric field component), while the magnetic field has both transvers and longitudinal
components, i.e.
Ez = 0, Hz ≠ 0
3. Transverse Magnetic (TM) Modes
In TM mode, the magnetic field is transverse to the direction of propagation (no longitudinal
magnetic field component), while the electric field has both transverse and longitudinal
components, i.e. Hz = 0, Ez ≠ 0
4. For TMmn mode in a rectangular waveguide, the propagation constant is defined as
2 2
 m   n  2
=   +  b  −k
 a   

Where k =   . Following are the three-special case of different values of k, m, and n.

Case 1: cut-off
2 2
 m   n 
If k2 = 2 =   + 
 a  b

Then,  = 0 or  = 0 = 

The value of  that causes this called the cut off angular frequency c ; that is,

No propagation takes place at this frequency.

Case 2: Evanescent
2 2
 m   n 
If k2 = 2    + 
 a  b

Then, = =0

In this case, we have no wave propagation at all. These non propagating modes are said to
be evanescent.
Case 3: Propagation
2 2
2 2  m   n 
If k =      + 
 a  b

Then,  = j,  = 0

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So, the phase constant  becomes

2 2
 m   n 
 = k2 −   −b
 a   

This is the only case in which propagation takes place because all field components will have

the factor e−z = e− jz .

5. The cut-off frequency for TEmn and TMmn mode in rectangular waveguide is given by:
2 2
c 1  m   n 
fc = = + 
2 2   a  b

2 2
1 m n 
=  a  + b 
2     

6. The cut-off wavelength of TEmn and TMmn mode in rectangular waveguide is given by
1
vp  2
c = = =
fc 2 2 2 2
1 m n m n 
  + b   + b 
2   a    a  

7. The phase constant β for TEmn and TMmn mode is also given by
2
f 
 =   1 −  c 
f

2
f 
 =  1 −  c 
f

8. The intrinsic wave impedance for TEmn mode is given by


TE =
2
f 
1− c
f

The intrinsic wave impedance of TMmn mode is obtained as

2
f 
TM = ' 1 −  c 
f 

9. Guided Wavelength:

g =
2
f 
1− c
f 

10. Phase velocity:

v
p =
2
f 
1− c
f 

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11. Group velocity:
1
vg =



2
f 
= v 1 −  c 
f 

12. vpvg = v′2

13. The resonant frequency for TMmnp mode in a waveguide resonator is given by
2 2 2
1  m   n   p 
fr =   +  + 
2   a  b   c 

2 2 2
1 m n p
=   +  + 
a
2    b
  c

14. The resonant frequency for TEmnp mode in a waveguide resonator is given by
2 2 2
1m n p
f=   +  + 
a
2    b
  c

15. The resonant wavelength for TEmnp mode in a waveguide resonator is given by
2
r =
2 2 2
m n p
 a  + b +  c 
     

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CHAPTER 9: CIRCULAR WAVEGUIDE

1. Circular Waveguide: A circular waveguide is a tubular circular conductor. Figure shows

circular waveguide of radius a and length z, placed in cylindrical coordinate systems.

• A plane wave propagating through a circular waveguide results in TE and TM modes.

• The vector Helmholtz wave equation for a TE and TM wave travelling in a z-direction in a
circular waveguide is given as,
∇2Hz = 0 and ∇2Ez = 0

2. TE Modes in Circular Waveguide: Helmholtz equation of Hz in circular guide is given as

∇2Hz = γ2 ∙ Hz
TEmn modes in circular waveguide
 P' r 
Er = Eor Jn  nm  sin (n ) .e− jz
 a 
 

 P' r 
E = E0 Jn'  nm  cos (n ) .e− jz
 a 
 

Ez = 0

E0  P' .r 
Hr = − .Jn'  nm  cos (n ) .e− jz
Zg  a 
 

Eor  P' .r 
H = .Jn  nm  sin (n ) .e− jz
Zg  a 
 

 P' r 
Hz = H0z Jn  nm  cos (n ) .e− jz
 a 
 

Er E
Zg = =− = represent characteristic wave impedance in the guide,
H Hr

when n = 0, 1, 2, 3 and m = 1, 2, 3, 4,…..

The first subscript n represents, number of full cycles of field variation in one revolution
through 2π radian of φ, while second subscript m indicates the number of zeros of E φ i.e.,

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(
Jn' Pnm
'
)
r / a along the radius of a guide.

′ 2
𝑃𝑛𝑚
𝛽 = √𝜔 2 𝜇𝜀 − ( )
𝑎

' '
Pnm Pnm
h= =   , fc =
a 2a 

The phase velocity, group velocity and guide wavelength remains same as that of rectangular
waveguide.
3. TM Modes in Circular Waveguide: The TMnm modes in a circular guide are defined as H z =
0. But Ez ≠ 0, in order to transmit energy in the guide.
Helmholtz equation in terms of Ez in circular guide is
∇2Ez = γ2Ez
The field equation for TMnm modes are given as
P r 
Er = Eor  nm  cos (n ) .e− jz
 a 

P r 
E = E0 Jn  nm  sin (n ) .e− jz
 a 

P r 
Ez = E0z Jn  nm  cos (n ) .e− jz
 a 
E0  P .r 
Hr = .Jn  nm  sin (n ) .e− jz
Zg  a 
Eor '  Pnmr 
 cos (n ) .e
− jz
H = .J 
Zg n  a 
Hz = 0
Pnm
h= , n = 0, 1, 2, 3 and m = 1, 2, 3, 4
a
Key Points
' P
Pnm
• For TE wave h = and h = nm for TM waves
a a
2 2a
• c = =
h '
Pnm
'
• TE11 is the dominant mode in circular waveguide for TE 11, Pnm = 1.841 So λc
2a 2 2a
for TE11 = also for TM wave c = =
1.841 h Pnm
Note: TEM mode cannot exist in circular waveguide.

4. Power Handling Capacity: For rectangular waveguide:(in watt)

2
 E  f 
Pmax = 27  d  1 −  c 
 fmax  f 

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where, Ed = Dielectric strength of material, fc = Cut off frequency for TE 10 mode, f =
Operating frequency, and fmax = Maximum frequency

• For circular waveguide:

 f  
2
2 1 −  c11  kW
Pmax TE11 = 1790a

  f  

 f  
2
2 1 −  01  kW
Pmax TE01 = 1805a

  f  

5. Power Transmission in Circular Waveguide or Coaxial Lines

For a loss less dielectric:
2 a
1  + E  r dr d
2 2
P0 =
2Zg    Er 
0 0

Zg 2 a
 2
+ H  r dr d
2
P0 =
2    Hr 
0 0

𝐸𝑟 𝐸𝜙
where, 𝑍𝑔 = =− = Wave impedance in guide, a Radius of the circular guide,
𝐻𝜙 𝐻𝑟

• The average power transmitted through a circular waveguide for TE np modes is given by

2 2 a
1 − ( fc / f )  2 2
P0 =
2    Er + E  r dr d

0 0

• For a TMnp modes

2 a
1  2 2
P0 = .   Er + E  r dr d
2 1 − ( fc / f )
2
0 0


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CHAPTER 10: ANTENNA

1. Basic Antenna Elements:

Following are some basic antenna elements:
1.1. Alternating Current Element or Hertzian Dipole:
It is a very short linear antenna in which the current along its length is approximately
constant.
1.2. Short Dipole:
It is a linear antenna whose length is less then  / 10 and the approximate current

distribution is triangular.
1.3. Short Monopole:
It is a linear antenna whose length is less than  / 20 and the approximate current

distribution is triangular.
1.4. Half Wave Dipole:
It is a linear antenna whose length is  / 2 and the current distribution is sinusoidal.

1.5. Quarter Wave Monopole:

It is a linear antenna whose length is  / 4 and the current distribution is sinusoidal.

2. Basic Antenna Elements:

2.1. Effective Length or Transmitting Antenna:
1 H
(L eff )T
x
=
I0  −H
I(z)dz

2.2. Effective Length of Receiving Antenna:

Voc
(L eff )R x
=
E
Effective length of an antenna is always less than the actual length.
2.3. Radiation Intensity: It is defined as the power radiated in a given direction per unit
solid angle, i.e.
r2E2
U(, ) = r 2 Pavg =
20

Where
0 = intrinsic impedance of the medium, ()

r = radius of the sphere, (m)

Pavg = Average power

E = electric field strength, (V/m)

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2.4. Directive Gain: Directive gain is defined as the ratio of radiation intensity in that
direction to the average radiation intensity, that is,
U(, ) U(, ) 4
Gd (, ) = = = U(, )
Uav Prad / 4 Prad

2.5. Directivity: It is defined as the ratio of the maximum radiation intensity to the average
radiation intensity, i.e.

max U ( ,  )
D= = Gd,max
Uav

2.6. Power Gain: The power gain of an antenna is defined as

4
Gp = U(, )
Pt

where Pt is the total input power given by

Pt = Prad + Pl

Where Prad is the radiated power, and Pl is ohmic losses in the antenna
2.7. Antenna Efficiency: It is defined as that ratio of radiated power to the total input
power, i.e.

Prad Prad Gp
= = =
Pt Prad + Pl Gd

2.8. Effective Area: The effective area of a receiving antenna is the ratio of the time-
average power received Pr ( or delivered to the load) to the time average power density

ave
of the incident wave of antenna, i.e.

Pr
A=
ave

This expression can be further generalised as

2
Ae = G (, )
4 d
3. Power Flow from Hertzian Dipole
The time-average radiated power from a Hertzian dipole is defines as
2
I20   dl 
Prad =
3   

NOTE: The radiated power in free space is given by

2
 dl 
Prad = 40   I20
2



4. Radiation Resistance of Hertzian Dipole:

The radiated power in a Hertzian dipole is equivalent to the power dissipated in an imaginary
resistance Rrad by current I = I0 cos t . i.e.

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2
Prad = IrmsR rad
1 2
= I R
2 0 rad
In free space, intrinsic impedance is 0 = 120 , so the radiation resistance in free space is

given by
2
 dl 
2
Rrad = 80  


5. RADIATION FROM SHORT DIPOLE ( d  (  / 10) ) :

The radiation resistance of the short dipole antenna is given by:

1
(Rrad )short dipole =
4
 (Rrad )current element
2
 dl 
= 202  

2
 d
202  


6. RADIATION FROM SHORT MONOPOLE ( d  (  / 20) )

The radiation resistance of the short monopole antenna is given by

1
(Rrad )short dipole = (R )
2 rad short dipole
2
 dl 
= 102  

7. Radiation Resistance of Half Wave Dipole Antenna
The Radiation resistance for the half wave dipole antenna can be given directly as
2 Prad
Rrad =
I20
2  (36.54I20 )
=  73
I20

8. Radiation Resistance of Quarter Wave Monopole Antenna

The radiation resistance for the quarter wave monopole antenna can be given directly as
2 Prad
Rrad =
I20
2  (18.28I20 )
=  36.54
I20

9. Array Factor
The array factor of the two-element array is defined as
1 
AF = 2 cos  ( d cos  +  )  e j /2
 2 

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So, the normalized array factor of the two-element array is given by

 d cos  +   
AF = cos   = cos  
 2  2

In the H-plane,  =  / 2 , and the normalized array factor becomes

 d cos  +   
AF = cos   = cos  
 2  2

9.1. Array Factor

Array factor of an N-element array is defined as
N
sin
AF = 2

sin
2
where  = d cos  + 

Following are some important points about an N-element array

Important Points
Since AF has the maximum value of N, the normalized AF is obtained by dividing AF

by N, i.e.
N
sin
1 2
AF =
N 
sin
2
The principal maximum occurs when  = 0 , i. e

0 = d cos  + 


or cos  = −
d

When AF = 0, AF has nulls (or zeros); i.e.

N
= k, k = 1, 2, 3, …
2
Where k is not a multiple of N.
A broadside array has its maximum radiation directed normal to the axis of the array,
i.e.  = 0,  = 90 so that  = 0 .

And end-fire array has its maximum radiation directed along the axis of the array, i.e.

 = 0,  =  0  so that  =  −dd 

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10. FRIIS EQUATION
The Friis Transmission equation relates the power received to the power transmitted between
2D2
two antennas separated by R  , D is the largest dimension of either antenna.

2
Pr    G G
=  G0t G0r = 0t 0r2
Pt  4R   4R 
  
 
Above equation is known as the Friis Transmission Equation, and it relates the power P r
served to the receiver load) to the input power of the transmitting antenna P r The term
2
 4R 
   is called the space loss factor, and it takes into account the losses due to the
 
spreading of the energy by the antenna.

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CHAPTER 11: OPTICAL FIBRE

1. Block diagram of Optical Communication system:

The optical fibre communication system

2. Total internal reflection

The angles of incidence ϕ1 and refraction ϕ2 are related to each other and to the
refractive indices of the dielectrics by Snell’s law of refraction which states that:
n1 sin ϕ1 = n2 sin ϕ2

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Figure: Light rays incident on a high to low refractive index interface (e.g. glass-air):
(a) retraction; (b) the limiting case of retraction showing the critical ray at an angle ϕci
(c) total internal reflection where ϕ>ϕc
Or:
sin 1 n2
=
sin 2 n1
From above equation, the value of the critical angle is given by:
n2
sin c =
n1
When the angle of refraction is 90° and the refracted ray emerges parallel to the
interface between the dielectrics, the angle of incidence must be less than 90°. This is
the limiting case of refraction and the angle of incidence is now known as the critical
angle ϕc.
3. Acceptance angle
For rays to be transmitted by total internal reflection within the fiber core they must
be incident on the fiber core within an acceptance cone defined by the conical half
angle θa. Hence θa is the maximum angle to the axis at which light may enter the fiber
in order to be propagated, and is often referred to as the acceptance angle for the
fiber.
4. Numerical aperture
the NA is defined as;
1

(
NA = n0 sin a = n12 − n22 ) 2

Where n1 is core refractive index and n2 is cladding refractive index, θ a is the

acceptance angle.
n12 − n22
=
2n12

n1 − n2
 For   1
n1

Hence combining above equations, we can write:

1
NA = n1 (2 )2

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5. Step index fibres
The refractive index profile may be defined as:

n r  a ( core )
n (r ) =  1
n2 r  a ( cladding)

The total number of guided modes or mode volume Ms for a step index fibre is related

to the V value for the fibre by the approximate expression:

𝑉2
𝑀𝑠 ≃
2
6. Single-mode fibers

Thus single-mode propagation of the LP01 mode in step index fibers is possible over

the range:

0  V  2.405

Where V is normalized frequency.

7. Cut off wavelength

The cut off wavelength λc given by:
an1 1
c =
Vc
( 2 )2

where Vc is the cut off normalized frequency. Hence λc is the wavelength above which
a particular fiber becomes single-mode.
For step index fiber where Vc = 2.405, the cut off wavelength is given by
V
c =
2.405

****

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