EXPERIMENT NO.

- 1

Aim
To prepare a temporary mount of a leaf peel to show stomata.
Theory

 Plants need oxygen for respiration and carbon dioxide for

photosynthesis. The exchange of gases in plants occurs through the
surface of stems, roots and leaves.
 On leaves there are plenty of small tiny pores called stomata.
 Through these pores, plants can also lose water by the process called
transpiration.
 To avoid excess loss of water, the stomata pores closes and when
gases are required, these pores open.
 This opening and closing of pores is monitored by guard cells.

Materials Required
Freshly plucked leaf of Rheo or Tradescantia, petri dish, slide, coverslip,
needle, forceps, brush, dropper, watch glass, filter paper, glycerine, safranin
solution and microscope.

Procedure

1. Take a freshly plucked leaf (Rheo or Tradescantia).

2. Stretch the leaf with its dorsal (lower) part facing upwards.
3. Break the leaf by applying suitable pressure so that the epidermis
projects from the leaf.
4. Cut the epidermis and put it in a petri dish.
5. Take a watch glass, add few drops of water and a drop of stain in it.
6. Transfer the small piece of epidermis from petri dish into the watch glass
with the help of brush.
7. Allow the peel to remain in the stain for 2-3 minutes, so that it can take
up the stain.
8. With the help of brush transfer the stained peel into a petri dish with
water to remove the extra stain.
9. Now take a clean slide and place it on a filter paper. In the centre of the
slide put a drop of glycerine and transfer the stained peel from petri dish
on the slide.
10. Gently hold the coverslip with the needle and place it on the peel. Avoid air
bubbles formation.
11. Use the filter paper to clean the excess stain, water or glycerine that comes
out from the coverslip sides.
12. Ensure that the slide is clean and place it under the microscope. First view it
under low power (10X) and then under high power(45X).
13. Record your observations.

.
 .

Observations

1. In an epidermal peel we see single layer of cells.

2. In between the epidermal layer small spots are seen.
3. When focused under powerful microscope the stomata pores are clearly
seen.
4. Each stomata pore has two kidney-shaped cells called guard cells.
5. Each guard cell has one nucleus and many chloroplasts.
6.

Conclusion
Epidermal layer of leaf peel has many stomata pores. Each stomatal pore has two
kidney shaped guard cells, in dicots plants. Each guard cell has one nucleus and
many chloroplasts.

Precautions

1. While removing the epidermal peel, ensure that you pluck the thinner
scrap of leaf.
2. Do not overstain the peel.
3. Avoid air-bubbles formation while placing the coverslip.
4. The peel should not be folded.
5. The slide should be clean and dry before placing it under microscope.
 EXPERIMENT No.- 2

Aim
To show experimentally that light is necessary for photosynthesis.
Theory

 Plants prepare their food by the process called photosynthesis. To make

food, plants need CO2 water, chlorophyll and light/sunlight. In absence
of any of these plants cannot prepare their food.
 Plants can prepare their food in blue light.
 The rate of photosynthesis depends on all three factors i.e.—light,
temperature, availability of components, i.e.,— CO 2 and H20.

Materials Required
A healthy potted plant, beaker, a pair of forceps, tripod stand, wire gauze, bunsen
burner, black paper, paper clips, iodine solution, alcohol, water bath etc.

Procedure

1. Take a healthy potted plant and keep it in a dark room for 48 hours so
that all the starch gets used up.
2. Now cover one leaf of a plant with a black paper using paper clip.
3. Keep this plant in sunlight for about six hours.
4. Pluck two leaves from the plant, one that is covered and the other one
that is uncovered.
5. Dip the leaves in boiling water for a few minutes.
6. Now immerse the leaves in a beaker containing alcohol.
7. Carefully place this beaker in water bath and heat it till the alcohol
begins to boil.
8. Observe the colour of the leaves and solution.
9. Wash the leaves with lot of fresh water.
10. Now dip the leaves in iodine solution for a few minutes.
11. Now observe the colour of leaves and compare them.
Observations

1. When leaves are boiled in alcohol, the alcohol solution becomes green
and the leaves become colourless.
2. When iodine solution is added on the leaves
(a) a leaf covered with black paper showed no colour changes with
iodine solution.
(b) another leaf which was not covered with black paper when dipped in
dilute iodine solution, the colour of leaf changed to blue-black.

Inference

 During photosynthesis plants prepare starch.

 When the leaf is covered, it is not allowed to take sunlight and hence, no
starch was prepared in the leaf.
 Iodine solution becomes blue-black in presence of starch. On adding
iodine solution to covered leaf no colour change was observed. It
indicates that no starch was made by this leaf.
 Whereas the uncovered leaf got sunlight for 6 hours and when iodine
solution was added to it, the colour changed to blue-black.
 This proves that sunlight is required for photosynthesis.

Precautions

1. Select a small healthy, herbaceous potted plant.

2. Do not destarch the plant for more than 48 hours.
3. Choose a leaf and clip it carefully so that it does not break or crack from
the stem.
4. Alcohol is highly inflammable, be careful while boiling leaf in alcohol
using water bath.
5. Wash the alcohol from the leaves and then do the iodine test.
6. Satisfactory results will not be obtained if the plant is not completely de-
starched.
 EXPERIMENT No – 3

Aim
To show experimentally that carbon dioxide is given out during respiration.

Theory

 All living things show respiration.

 It is a chemical process that occurs inside the cell, hence called cellular
respiration.
 It involves the breaking down of food to release energy and carbon
dioxide.


 There are two types of respiration in animals: Aerobic and anaerobic
respiration.
 Aerobic respiration needs oxygen and anaerobic respiration occurs in
the absence of oxygen.

Materials Required
Two test tubes, a cork with two holes, two glass tubes, syringe, lime water.

Procedure

1. Take some freshly prepared lime water in two test tubes.

2. Fit cork with two holes in test tubes A and B.
3. Fix two glass tubes in this cork of test tube A as shown in the figure.
4. Exhale air into the tube and record your observations.
5. In another test tube B, which has lime water, pass air through syringe
and record your observations.
Observation

 In test tube A, the lime water turns milky sooner than in test tube B.

Conclusion

1. The exhaled air contains lot of CO2 which turns lime water milky.
2. This proves that during respiration we exhale CO 2 gas.

Precautions

1. The glass tube should be dipped in the lime water.

2. The lime water should be freshly prepared.
 EXPERIMENT No – 4

Aim

To study binary fission in amoeba and budding in yeast with the help of prepared
slides
(a) binary fission in Amoeba Experiment
(b) budding in yeast with the help of prepared slides.
Theory

 Reproduction: Plants and animals reproduces (i.e., create new

individuals) either by asexual method or by sexual method.
 Asexual reproduction: When an organism reproduces by single
organism, it is called asexual reproduction. The different ways of
asexual reproduction are fission, budding and regeneration in animals.

1. Binary Fission

 This is commonly seen in single celled animals. There are no gametes

or fertilisation. The cells divide many times through mitosis. Animals
like Amoeba reproduce in this manner.
 Amoeba is a tiny unicellular organism that has a porous cell membrane,
changes its shape constantly and encloses the cell organelles. The
genetic material replicate through amitotic division, the cell divides into
two equal sized daughter cells. The division of nucleus is called
amitosis because the stages of a typical mitotic division are not
observed in Amoeba.

2. Budding

 In this type of reproduction an outgrowth develops due to repeated cell

division on the parent cell that grows to form a bud. The fully grown bud
detaches from the mother’s body by forming a constriction at the base
and become new individual.
 Yeast are unicellular eukaryotic micro-organisms belonging to the
kingdom fungi (some are multicellular). They reproduce by budding.
Sometimes chain of cells remain attached to the parent cell. When
these cells get detached they form a new individual organism.
Materials Required

1. Prepared slides of Amoeba showing binary fission with different stages.

2. Prepared slides of yeast showing budding with different stages.
3. Compound microscopes 2-4.

(A) Binary Fission in Amoeba Procedure

1. Place the prepared slides of Amoeba showing different stages of

reproduction on the stage of the microscope.
2. Adjust the mirror of the microscope to focus maximum light on the
slide. Adjust the eye-piece of the microscope so that the slide is clearly
focussed and seen.
3. Draw diagrams of the stages of binary fission in Amoeba.

Observations

1. Amoeba is a protozoa that lives in water and has irregular shape.

2. In the centre of Amoeba dense nucleus is seen.
3. In second stage, Amoeba shows the nucleus division, i.e., karyokinesis.
4. In third stage, we can see the cell body division, i.e., cytokinesis.
5. In the fourth stage, two daughter cells of Amoeba are formed.

Conclusion
The given slides showed the division of a single cell body into two equal halves. The
division of nucleus and cell body are seen which led to the formation of two daughter
cells. Hence, the kind of reproduction seen in Amoeba is binary fission.

(B) Budding in Yeast

Procedure

1. Place the permanent/prepared slides of yeast showing different stages

of reproduction on the stage of microscope.
2. Make the adjustments in mirror of the microscope for focussing
maximum light on the slide.
3. Adjust the eye-piece so that the slide is clearly seen.
4. Draw diagrams of the stages of budding yeast cells.
Observations

1. Yeast is oval or spherical in shape.

2. It is a unicellular organism.
3. In the second stage, yeast shows a small growth on it called ‘bud’.
4. In the third stage, yeast shows that in some situations many such chain
of buds is seen on the parent cell. This process is called ‘budding’.
5. On maturity the buds get separated from parent cell to form and grow’
as a new organism. This process is called budding.

Conclusion
The given slides showed the small growth (bud) on yeast. These buds on maturity
separates from parent cell and grow as a new organism, hence, yeast shows
budding.

Precautions

1. Use microscope very carefully. Do not disturb its adjustments.

2. The slides shown under the microscope should not be disturbed.
3. Set the mirror of the microscope for better focus of light on the slide.
 EXPERIMENT No – 5

Aim
To identify the different parts of an embryo of a dicot seed (pea, gram or red kidney
bean).
Theory

 Seed: Seed is a small embryonic plant present in a safe coating of seed

coat, it stores food.
 Seed formation: The male gamete of plant, i.e., pollen grains and female
gamete of a plant, i.e., ovules fuse together to form seed. The seed
formation takes place due to fertilization, and it is the product of
reproduction in plants. The embryo of seed is formed from the zygote.
 Food in seed: The food is stored in the cotyledons of embryo in some
plants and in the endosperm, a special tissue outside the embryo in
other plants.
 Three basic parts of a seed:
1. An embryo
2. Nutrient for embryo
3. Seed coat.
 Embryo: The embryo of seed is an immature plant from which a new
plant can grow.
 The radicle that comes out of the embryo is the embryonic root. The
plumule is the embryonic shoot.
 Cotyledons: It is the seed leaf present in seed. If the embryo has one
seed leaf it is monocotyledon and if it has two seed leaves it is
dicotyledon.
 Epicotyl: The part of the embryonic stem above the point of attachment
of the cotyledon is the epicotyl.
 Hypocotyl: The area between the radicle and the place of origin of
cotyledons is termed as hypocotyl.
 Nutrients for the Embryo: Seed stores nutrients for the growth of an
embryo during germination. The nutrients/ stored food is in the form of
oil, fat and protein.
 Seed Coat: The seed coat protects the embryo from mechanical injury
and from drying out. It can be a paper thin as in case of peanut or may
be very thick e.g. coconut.

Materials Required
Water soaked seeds of pea, gram or red kidney beans, petridish, forcep, needle,
brush and simple microscope and slide.
Procedure

1. Take 8-10 soaked seeds of pea/gram/red kidney beans, place them on

wet cotton in petridish overnight. The seed coat becomes soft which
helps in the opening of the seeds.
2. With the help of forcep, slowly remove the seed coat and study different
parts of seed embryo.
3. Now, slowly remove the embryo axis with needle and place it on the
slide.
4. Observe these three parts of the seed obtained, record your
observations and draw diagrams.

Observations

1. The seed has a small pore called micropyle.

2. It is a dicot seed, i.e., the seed has two cotyledons.
3. The embryo axis shows radicle and plumule, (as shown in the figure),
the radicle is future root and the plumule is future shoot.
4. The food is stored in cotyledons.

Conclusion
The different parts of an embryo of a dicot seed were identified as plumule (future
shoot), radicle (future root), seed coat (outer covering) and cotyledons (food store)

Precautions

1. The best quality seeds should be used for study.

2. Soak the seeds overnight to make the seed coat soft.
3. Observe the parts under simple microscope/lens and record your
observations.
4. Remove the seed coat very gently.