Current Issues in Tourism

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Measuring the impacts of travel influencers on

bicycle travellers

Kubra Asan

To cite this article: Kubra Asan (2021): Measuring the impacts of travel influencers on bicycle
travellers, Current Issues in Tourism, DOI: 10.1080/13683500.2021.1914004

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CURRENT ISSUES IN TOURISM
https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2021.1914004

Measuring the impacts of travel influencers on bicycle travellers

Kubra Asan
Department of Recreation Management, Sinop University, School of Tourism and Hotel Management, Sinop,
Turkey

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Social media influencer is one of the new concepts that emerged with the Received 5 January 2021
development of information technologies and new media. The study aims Accepted 31 March 2021
to explain the impacts of travel influencers on their followers in the
KEYWORDS
context of bicycle touring as a sustainable special interest tourism type. Special interest tourism;
For this, mixed methods research was performed by using exploratory travel influencers; influencer
design. In the first phase of the research, qualitative research was marketing; bicycle tourism;
carried out through in-depth interviews. A scale development study was mixed method-exploratory
carried out in light of the themes and codings acquired. In the second study
phase, a survey was conducted with 915 participants. As a result of the
analysis, the ‘Travel Influencers’ Impacts Scale’ emerged, which met the
validity and reliability criteria. According to the findings, the impacts of
traveller influencers on their followers can be categorized into four
categories: ‘informative effects, motivating effects, effects as a role
model, and communal effects.’ The study provides theoretical
contributions to understanding travel influencers as tourism actors and
to measuring their effects on their followers. Additionally, the study
provides some implications for public and private sector representatives
to establish cooperation with influencers or use the influencer
marketing approach.

1. Introduction
Social media, which has risen with technological developments, is among the defining features of
society. By providing people with the opportunity to interact and create content, social media has
created different concepts, life practices, communication norms, and concepts (Ge & Gretzel,
2018). Social media influencers, a concept that emerged with social media, are increasing in
number. Backaler (2018) defines social media influencers as ‘individuals who can influence the
actions/decisions of a loyal group of local online followers with regard to their particular area of
expertise’ (p.1). The concept of influencer includes other alternative terms such as ‘content
creator,’ ‘talent,’ ‘YouTuber,’ ‘blogger,’ ‘vlogger,’ ‘Instagrammer,’ and ‘phenomenon’ (Backaler,
2018; Brown & Hayes, 2008; Veirman et al., 2017). Marketers have developed the ‘influencer market-
ing’ approach by collaborating with influencers that have the power to influence consumer beha-
viours (Brown & Hayes, 2008; Ge & Gretzel, 2018; Gretzel & Yoo, 2013; Veirman et al., 2017). As
consumers are skeptical of traditional marketing methods, they are likely to pay more attention to
and be influenced by influencers, with whom they can communicate via social networks (Lou &
Yuan, 2019; Xiao et al., 2018).
In tourism as a metaphor of social life, the effects of communication technologies have been
observed intensively. Individuals can produce content about their travel experiences or plans and

CONTACT Kubra Asan [email protected]

Supplemental data for this article can be accessed https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2021.1914004.
© 2021 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
2 K. ASAN

share them with the masses. In this regard, it is possible to see travel influencers in the tourism area.
A travel influencer is considered an opinion leader among the external factors that affect the behav-
iour of tourists according to the traditional approach (Kotler et al., 2006). However, Ong and Ito
(2019) point out that influencers are more than just an opinion leader. Influencers do not only
provide information about products from the perspective of consumers but also experience these
products (Ong & Ito, 2019, p. 134). Influencers stamp their posts with personal aesthetic touches
and personality twists, which usually create an enjoyable experience (Lou & Yuan, 2019).
In the literature, travel influencers are primarily conceptualized as an attractive and credible
source of information in tourist decision-making processes (Ay et al., 2019; Book & Tanford, 2019;
Gretzel, 2018). Few studies focusing on destination marketing revealed that travel influencers had
an impact on behavioural intention variables, such as tourist purchasing decisions, and destination
image (Li et al., 2015; Ong & Ito, 2019). However, in practice, there are travel influencers on social
media who are interested in many types of special interest tourism and have a large number of fol-
lowers. So, apart from destination marketing, the effects of influencers can be examined within the
scope of different tourism services and activities. Moreover, due to the nature of tourism mobility,
the effects of travel influencers may differ from those stated in the literature on influencer marketing.
Travellers can have a wide sphere of influence through their online posts, blogs, and social media
pages. In this context, further research on influencers’ followers can provide detailed and new
insights into tourist behaviours. In fact, the number of followers, subscriptions, likes, or comments
can measure their impact quantitatively. However, more detailed insights into the nature of this
impact are needed. On the other hand, although some studies examine online reviews (Book
et al., 2018; Book & Tanford, 2019), no study directly explains the impacts of travel influencers on
their followers. Therefore, this study aims to understand the influencer impact and to develop a
valid measurement tool to measure travel influencers’ impacts in the context of bicycle touring.
Influencers with expert knowledge can be more effective in niche tourism areas (Gretzel, 2018).
Therefore, bicycle touring was selected as an application area of the study as it was considered that
bicycle travellers had observable effects on their followers. Bicycle touring is increasing in popularity
and has been the subject of both special interest tourism and outdoor recreation (Coghlan, 2012;
Lamont & Buultjens, 2011; Lamont & Ross, 2019). In this regard, the study focuses on travel influen-
cers travelling between regions or countries by their bicycles.
The mixed-method with the exploratory design was used in the study. Initially, qualitative
research was conducted with active cyclists who were social media followers of cycling travel
influencers. Then, quantitative research was applied to obtain generalizable results in light of the
findings. This study, which focuses on understanding the role of influencers in tourism and recrea-
tion, is intended to provide an original contribution to the literature as well as a basis for future
online tourist behaviour modelling. Also, the study includes implications for policymakers and
sector practitioners by raising awareness about travel influencers.
The study begins with a literature review conceptualizing travel influencer and their effects on
their followers. The literature review continues with an outline of the bicycle touring concept as a
sustainable and niche tourism type, the field of application of the study. Then, in the research meth-
odology section, the processes carried out in the qualitative and quantitative phases of the research
are presented in detail. Also, findings are presented under two titles as qualitative and quantitative,
according to the research phases. The discussion is presented before the conclusion, and the study
ends with theoretical and practical implications, as well as limitations and future directions.

2. Literature review
2.1. Travel influencers
Using communication technologies and new media, travellers easily share their experiences with
people from all over the world without time and space constraints. With their posts, they create
 CURRENT ISSUES IN TOURISM 3

content on destinations, routes, tour packages, services offered by tourism businesses, and their
extraordinary experiences. Travellers with a large number of followers can be effective in their fol-
lowers’ tourism planning and purchasing decisions. In this regard, these travellers are defined as
travel influencers due to their ability to influence the decisions of prospective travellers and followers
(Hanifah, 2019; Kaur, 2018). With the increasing need for social media research in the tourism
academy, travel influencers began to be researched. The literature review indicates that travel
influencers have a number of potential effects. These effects are presented in detail in the following
section.

2.1.1. Travel influencer as an information source

Travellers influencers inform their followers about unknown destinations, geographies, cultures, and
travel formalities such as passport, visa, transportation services, foreign exchange transactions as
well as issues not included in formal tourist information sources. Thus, they are accepted to be
effective in their followers’ decisions as a reliable source of information (Ay et al., 2019; Book &
Tanford, 2019; Gretzel, 2018). Book and Tanford (2019) suggest that touristic online reviews have
an informative influence on their followers. Accordingly, informative influence can be explained
as seeking information and experience from others, getting others’ opinions, and collecting infor-
mation to choose the best alternative.
In this regard, especially because it is very easy to produce and spread false information in digital
media, credibility has become one of the most important features for influencers. Xiao et al. (2018)
explored the perceived credibility of YouTube influencers based on the factors of trustworthiness,
social influence, argument quality, and information involvement. Lou and Yuan (2019) suggested
that a credibility model included trustworthiness, expertise, similarity, and attractiveness variables.
Additionally, Jang et al. (2020) pointed out that the total number of followers was an important indi-
cator of credibility. Moreover, Pop et al. (2021) emphasized that social media influencers’ trustworthi-
ness serves as a highly important aspect to successfully influence tourists’ destination decision
making. This study proved that consumer trust in social media influencers had a positive effect on
each phase of travel decision-making that including desire, information search, evaluating alterna-
tives, purchase decision, satisfaction, and experience sharing.

2.1.2. Travel influencer’s attractiveness

Another feature of influencers is their attractiveness and likeability. These two concepts used inter-
changeably refer to a source’s physical attractiveness and likeability (McGuire, 1985). According to a
more recent explanation, attractiveness can be expressed as a person’s tendency to be influenced by
the personality of influencers or, the degree of the friendship of an influencer in the eyes of the fol-
lower (Xiao et al., 2018, p. 5). Also, attractiveness can be considered a sub-factor included in influen-
cers’ source reliability models (Lou & Yuan, 2019). Unlike traditional marketing methods, influencers
can deliver messages to their target audiences about products in their unique style (Childers et al.,
2019). Therefore, the attractiveness of reliable influencers can be explained by the unique communi-
cation style and content they have. Chatzigeorgiou (2017) researched influencer marketing in rural
tourism and pointed out that young followers were influenced by the unique experiences and activi-
ties offered by influencers. In addition, Ge and Gretzel (2018) pointed out that influencers in tourism
had unique affordances and communication cultures. Moreover, according to Yılmaz et al.’s (2020)
study, travel influencers stated that the content they create was unique and compatible with their
personal tastes and preserved their unique characteristics. Thus, their uniqueness can be considered
an important source of attractiveness for travel influencers.
Another factor that draws attention in Xiao et al.’s (2018) conceptualization of attractiveness is the
similarity between the way a follower thinks and gazes and the way influencers do. Book and Tanford
(2019) argued that perceived similarity increased the influence of online reviews. This seemingly con-
tradictory situation can be illuminated by categorizing influencers in different ways. For example,
Backaler (2018) categorizes influencers as ‘celebrity influencers,’ ‘category influencers,’ and ‘micro-
4 K. ASAN

influencers.’ McQuarrie et al. (2013) describe influencers as ‘grassroots influencers’ and ‘designated
celebrities.’ Accordingly, it can be predicted that the attractiveness for each category or even the
subject of the influencer can vary. For example, uniqueness can stand out for celebrity influencers
including actors, sportspeople, or artists. On the other hand, homophily which refers to the tendency
of followers to bond with influencers who are similar to them can be more attractive for grassroots
influencers, who are ordinary consumers lacking professional experience and not holding an insti-
tutional position. Consequently, attractiveness can be explained depending on different dynamics,
such as the number of followers, influence domain, or the subject of influence.

2.1.3. Travel influencer as the motivational factor in the creating travel-related intention
Travel influencers, beyond being a reliable and attractive source of information, can influence their
followers’ behaviours. Travel influencers are motivated by positive reactions, such as inspiring their
followers and having precedence over other users, and the work they do benefits themselves with
respect to exploring new places, making friends, and promoting cultural exchange (Yılmaz et al.,
2020). Therefore, they can offer motivational content that drives people to participate in tourism
mobility.
Tourism marketing professionals are aware of the potential impact of travel influencers on their
target audience. Travel influencers are points of contact as a model of electronic word of mouth in
tourism marketing campaigns. Destination management organizations, tour operators, accommo-
dation, catering, and transportation companies cooperate with influencers in promoting their pro-
ducts (Gretzel, 2018; Yılmaz et al., 2020). Ong and Ito (2019) evaluated the effectiveness of social
media influencer marketing campaigns executed by DMOs in Singapore consumers. The authors
stated that the influencer campaigns created a direct positive effect on the behavioural intentions
of consumers. Moreover, the study revealed that influencer marketing campaigns that provided
engagement with target audiences had positive effects on the destination image. Also, Li et al.
(2015) asserted that travel influencers shaped the destination image in both cognitive and
affective dimensions with the content they produced. In this regard, it is seen that influencers are
effectiveness marketing actor. Apart from destination marketing, they can be effective in the market-
ing of tourism products and services and in increasing tourism mobility.

2.1.4. Travel influencer in the new socialites

Travel influencers may have some functions beyond being a marketing actor. Their posts/messages
are found more meaningful by their followers as they can establish special bonds or socialites with
them. In this regard, parasocial interaction, defined as the illusion of a face-to-face relationship with a
media actor, can occur between the influencer and the follower (Colliander & Dahlen, 2011). In
addition to parasocial interactions expressing one-way and symbolic communication, influencers
can also build new socialites.
Urry (1995) explains that with the postmodern era, traditional institutions such as religion, family,
and neighbourhood have been replaced by ‘new socialities’ that are patterned around people’s
special interests, where they can freely participate and leave. Virtual communities are platforms
that these new socialites can easily build (Delanty, 2003). It is possible to see these new types of
virtual special interest socialites in tourism and recreation areas (Hardy et al., 2012). In this regard,
Brown & Hayes, 2008 pointed that influencers build communities called decision-maker ecosystems,
which revolve around a decision-maker. Similarly, Wang (2012) claims that people who come
together on travel blogs establish cybercommunities by engaging in social interactions. A travel
blog community provides a channel for users to share their comments on a specific destination
or tourism product (Wang, 2012, p. 240). Travel influencers stand out in these existing networks
or establish a similar communication network through special channels. Also, Book et al. (2018)
revealed that the travel reviews on online platforms created social influence. In their subsequent
study, Book and Tanford (2019) explained this social influence in two factors, namely normative
and informational influence, by using Social Influence Theories. Normative influence is about
 CURRENT ISSUES IN TOURISM 5

wanting to improve one’s own image, fulfilling expectations, avoiding disapproval, and feeling press-
ured to follow reviewers’ advice (Book & Tanford, 2019, p. 66). However, this study was conducted
with the participants of a travel forum (cruise forum). Influencers have similar effects, but their
impacts on their followers can differ as they have professional purposes.
Consequently, travel influencers need to be examined not only from marketing but also from
sociological and social psychological perspectives. In addition, influencers in tourism may have
different effects than those indicated in the influencer marketing literature depending on their tra-
veller characteristics. Further research is needed on the impacts of travel influencers on their fol-
lowers. Thus, the present study focused on the impacts of travel influencers on their followers in
the context of bicycle touring.

2.2. Bicycle touring

Bicycle touring is a sub-branch of bicycle tourism, which includes short or long rides for touristic and
recreational purposes. Travellers who travel around the world by their bicycles can also be con-
sidered within bicycle touring. Cycling travellers correspond to independent cyclist tourists in the
cyclist tourist classification proposed by Lamont and Buultjens (2011). Independent cycling tourists
spend their entire holidays using their bicycles as the main means of reaching their destination.
Bicycle touring is a sustainable, niche tourism type that provides potential social, environmental,
and economic outcomes for both participants and local communities (Ritchie et al., 2010). Besides
bikes have not greenhouse gas emissions, cycling activities create environmental awareness in indi-
viduals and direct people to sustainable behaviour (Han et al., 2017). The demand for bicycle touring
is increasing all over the world. Also, bicycle touring is encouraged with supply facilities such as Euro-
Velo – The European Cycle Route Network- and national cyclist networks. In many parts of the world,
especially in Europe, Australia, and the USA, bicycle tours are offered as a recreational/touristic
product with the necessary equipment, accompanied by expert guides (Lee & Huang, 2014). With
the facilitation of visa and passport procedures, the increase in transportation opportunities such
as planes and trains, and ticket campaigns, travellers have started to travel to different countries
or continents on their bicycles (Lin et al., 2020). Besides, the bicycle and equipment industry that
has improved significantly in recent years is encouraging travellers to travel by their bicycles by
allowing them to easily find the supplies they need. The widespread use of e-bikes has increased
the demand for bicycle tours with participation the elderly people and tourists who want to experi-
ence the scenery rather than physical exercise (Lin et al., 2020; Pröbstl-Haider et al., 2018).
Cycling influencers can be considered the opinion leaders for independent tour bikers or rec-
reational cyclists. In addition to magazines such as Cyclist and Bikemag, Adventure Cycling Associ-
ation (2014) recommends following the social media accounts of successful and prominent cyclists
or bicycle travellers. Social media followers of these travellers are predicted to be potential (or
effective) bicycle tourists or at least cycling sympathizers. In this context, cyclists, who have
gained many followers by sharing their experiences on social media, blogs, and websites and
who potentially influence them, constitute an example of travel influencers.

3. Research methodology
The mixed-methods approach was adopted by using exploratory design. The exploratory design is
recommended to use when measures or instruments are not available and when the variables are
unknown (Creswell & Clark, 2017). Furthermore, the exploratory design is recommended in
tourism studies due to its ability to bring in new and deeper insight (Kwork, 2012; Manson et al.,
2010). The impact of travel influencers on their followers, which is examined in this study, is a
quite new research subject, and especially the attractiveness and social effects of travel influencers
are waiting to be discovered. Moreover, another purpose of the study is to develop a generalizable,
valid, and reliable travel influencer impact scale. Therefore, the mixed research method to be carried
6 K. ASAN

out with an exploratory design was deemed to be quite appropriate for the purposes of the study.
According to Creswell and Clark (2017), the exploratory design, which consists of two phases, begins
with qualitative research to learn about items, variables, constructs, and similar elements. In the
second phase, quantitative research is carried out to generalize and test this information. The
aims of the current study are in line with the phases of the design used. In Figure 1, the aims of
the study and the research phases are visualized.

3.1. Qualitative data collection

In the first phase of the study, an in-depth interview technique was used to explain the impacts of
cyclist travel influencers on their followers with the inductive approach. In-depth interviews are rec-
ommended in cases where the researcher does not have sufficient knowledge on the relevant
subject (Merriam, 2009). Due to the exploratory nature of the research, unstructured, in-depth inter-
views were conducted. The interviewees were selected by convenience sampling among active
cyclists who cycled for recreational or touristic purposes and their followers. Convenience sampling
is one of the most widely used techniques in qualitative studies as it is a fast and useful method
(Patton, 2002). Also, care was taken to include participants with different sociodemographic charac-
teristics such as age, gender, location, and educational background (please see Appendix for Inter-
viewees’ Profile). Unstructured interviews have no pre-set questions and the conversation continues
informally (Merriam, 2009). In this study basically, two questions were asked to guide the interviews,
but the interviewers were free to direct the conversation. In the interviews, the participants were first
asked whether they followed any Turkish cyclist travellers on social media or other online platforms,

Figure 1. Visual diagram of the methods.

 CURRENT ISSUES IN TOURISM 7

and if they did, whom they followed. This question helped determine the most known Turkish cyclist
influencers as well as select the interviewees. (The mentioned influencers were considered resource
persons to be consulted for data collection in the second phase of the study). Then, the participants
were asked how they were influenced by the travellers they followed. The interviews were termi-
nated when data saturation was reached. A total of nine interviews (average duration of 32 min)
were held in March and April 2019.

3.2. Qualitative data analysis

Interview recordings were decoded and subjected to thematic analysis using NVivo software. A
three-stage coding procedure that encompassed open coding, axial coding, and selective coding
was employed (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). Similarities and differences as well as cutting and sorting
techniques were used to identify the themes that emerged from the data (Lincoln & Guba, 1985).
Various strategies and methods were used to ensure reliability. Long-term interaction involves
building trust with participants in the field, learning about the culture, and controlling false infor-
mation arising from distortions made by researchers or informants (Creswell, 2016). In this regard,
the fact that the researcher has been an active cyclist for seven years and has had a long-term inter-
action with the field supports the credibility of the research. In qualitative research, it is important to
ensure verification through the control of research processes rather than objectivity (Lincoln & Guba,
1985). To ensure verification, the coding of the themes obtained in the study was performed by two
experts. Expert opinions were received for each code. Then, a consensus inquiry was made by using
the reliability analysis of Miles and Huberman (1994). This analysis can be named the intercoder
reliability (Reliability = consensus/consensus + disagreement), is frequently used in qualitative
research and its proposed value is at least 80% (Creswell & Clark, 2017; Miles & Huberman, 1994).
Accordingly, the intercoder reliability value was found to be 0.92. Experts suggested that a few
codes can take place in different themes. These codes were reconsidered according to the consensus
and the list of themes reached its final form.

3.3. Developing instruments

The codings under the themes obtained as a result of the first phase of the study were examined in
detail. Each coding was converted into a measuring item. For example, one of the codes under the
motivation theme was as follows: ‘Encouragement to go on a bicycle tour.’ This code was converted
into an instrument item as ‘Cyclist travelers I follow encourage me to go on a bicycle tour.’ The five-
point Likert scale was used as the item format to determine the participants’ levels of agreement
with the statements. Likert scale is a type of equidistant scale commonly used in instruments
measuring thoughts, beliefs, and attitudes (DeVellis, 2016). Accordingly, the 25 codings obtained
in the first stage of the research were transformed into 25 Likert-type items, and a draft scale was
created.
Expert opinion was consulted to determine the content validity of the draft scale. The draft was
submitted to eight experts, including academics and cyclists. According to Davis (1992) technic, each
item had judge by experts (1=not relevant, 2 = somewhat relevant, 3 = quite relevant, 4 = highly rel-
evant). Then, for each item, the content validity index was computed as the number of experts giving
a rating of either 3 or 4, divided by the total number of experts. The content validity index for items
was 80% above the acceptable value (Davis, 1992). Based on the opinions of the experts who made
examinations on each item, some items were revised, clear and unclear expressions were improved,
and some items were rewritten to be grammatically consistent. Thus, the draft scale was ready for
the pilot test. Also, descriptive questions were included in the questionnaire to understand the par-
ticipants’ level of interest in cycling. In addition to questions about age, gender, and educational
background, the participants were asked questions about their recreational or touristic bicycle use.
8 K. ASAN

In February 2020, a pilot test was conducted with the participation of 42 people in an online
cycling group. In the pilot test findings, item-total correlations were examined as suggested by
DeVellis (2016). Each item was related to each other at the suggested levels (between .3 and .7)
(Pallant, 2011). Consequently, it was decided that the measurement tool was ready for the main
data collection phase. The best source in determining the survey participants is the cyclist travel
influencers.

3.4. Quantitative data collection

The online survey technique was used in the second phase of the research to generalize the impacts
of cyclist travel influencers on their followers and to develop a valid and reliable scale. The online
survey technique is a method that is frequently used in understanding social media consumer
behaviour, beyond having features such as speed, flexibility, access to many people in less time,
and easy data entry (Evans & Mathur, 2018). Therefore, in the study, it was thought that it would
be effective to reach followers via digital way. Thus, the cycling travel influencers mentioned by
the interviewees in the qualitative research were contacted and asked for their support in collecting
data. The influencers shared the online survey link on their social media accounts and enabled their
followers to participate. Initially, 18 cyclist influencers were contacted, and during the research
process, this number increased to 25. These influencers are mostly travellers who have been on
long tours in different geographies of the world, are still on tour, or produce content on bicycle
touring. A total of 992 surveys were obtained at the end of the data collection process, which
was carried out in February–March 2020.

3.5. Quantitative data analysis

The data analyses were conducted using SPSS 21 and SmartPLS 3.0. The collected data were carefully
examined before analysis. There was no missing value in the data set. Questionnaires with outliers
detected by univariate (standardized z values) and multivariate analysis (Mahalanobis values) were
removed from the data set (Tinsley & Brown, 2000). The analysis continued with a total of 915 ques-
tionnaires. For normal distribution analysis, skewness – kurtosis values (-/+ 2) and normal probability
plot were examined, and it was seen that the data were distributed normally (Cameron, 2004; Hair
et al., 2010).
A principal component analysis (PCA) was used to determine the construct validity of the scale.
Due to its ability to explain variance at the highest level, the PCA is frequently used in scale devel-
opment studies (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2011). The Kaiser – Meyer – Olkin (KMO) measures were 0.84,
above the recommended value of 0.60 (Pallant, 2011, p. 187) as a prerequisite for the PCA. Also, Bar-
tlett’s test of sphericity suggested that the data were suitable for conducting the PCA. The number of
factors was determined by considering the factors with an eigenvalue above 1. Two items, with high
factor load values (over .10), on different factors, closer than 0.10 were taken out of the analysis
because of having co-morbid factor loads (Hair et al., 2010). DeVellis (2016) suggests an oblique
rotation approach that allows correlation between factors when a scale represents concepts that
have not been studied before. Accordingly, Direct Oblimin, one of the oblique techniques, was
used as a factor rotation technique.
A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was used to verify the factor structure. The partial least
squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM), method was used in confirmatory factor analysis.
The PLS modelling method based on variance, makes minimal demands in terms of a sample size to
validate a model compared to other techniques and has ability to model latent constructs as either
formative or reflective (Chin, 1998). Additionally, The PLS modelling has the advantage to explain the
variance of the unobserved construct by minimizing the error terms and maximizing the R2 values of
the endogenous constructs (Hair et al., 2014, p. 14). The PLS modelling is frequently used in
 CURRENT ISSUES IN TOURISM 9

hospitality and tourism researches and is also recommended for confirmatory research (Ali et al.,
2018; Benitez et al., 2020).

4. Results
4.1. Qualitative research findings
After the thematic analysis of the interview data, four themes were obtained: informative effect,
motivating effect, effects as a role model and communal effect. The themes were named considering
the codes provided from the collected data and the concepts indicated by the literature.
According to the first theme of ‘informative effect,’ cyclist travel influencers inform their followers
on various topics. One of the interviewees (P6) emphasized that traveller influencers gave infor-
mation about new destinations:
I see many places from their posts for the first time.

According to the statements of the interviewees, the travellers provide information about current
destinations as well as the cultural, historical, geographical, socioeconomic, and demographic
characteristics of new destinations. These findings support the literature conceptualizing travel
influencer as a source of information (Ay et al., 2019; Book & Tanford, 2019; Gretzel, 2018).
Besides, they also explain little-known issues related to travel procedures such as visa applications,
foreign exchange transactions, border crossings, and purchasing transportation services to carry
bikes and other equipment. According to the interviewees, travellers’ posts about their bikes and
equipment are also very useful. For example, an interviewee (P9) stated:
The equipment they use sets an example for us. For example, while buying a sleeping bag, a person can say,
‘Gürkan (Genç) also used this sleeping bag, if it is enough for Gürkan, it’ll work for me, too’.

According to these findings, it is understood that cycling influencers’ trustworthiness and exper-
tise in travel procedures or technical issues come to the fore. The literature points to the trustworthi-
ness and expertise of influencers in explaining their credibility (Lou & Yuan, 2019).
Secondly, under the theme of ‘motivating effects,’ it was understood that travel influencers’ posts
motivate the interviewees to take a bicycle tour. One interviewee (P8) referred to this situation as
follows:
They excite you … when you see their photos … beautiful views, nature, different geographies … you’ll aspire to
cycle.

Another interviewer (P2) explains that she is motivated to cycle in a recreational sense, in casual
life:
I can’t cycle like them … But they are encouraging me for weekend activities. As I see their posts, I tell myself
‘let’s ride a bike, and do as much as you can.

According to this, it is understood that influencers’ posts encourage, inspire, and direct followers
to dream. Similarly, Yılmaz et al. (2020) emphasize that travel influencers inspire their followers. In
this study, by sharing beautiful scenery and nature images, travellers direct their followers to aes-
thetic experiences. Moreover, followers can be motivated to do cycling activities, which can be
defined as a recreational and touristic product category. Therefore, it has been observed that
these effects lead followers to tour, in other words, to participate in tourism mobility.
Thirdly, according to the statements of the interviewees, influencers influence travellers as a role
model. Many interviewees stated that they admired travellers as they can go on challenging tours.
Accordingly, these cycling travellers can be considered a symbol of the ‘It is possible to do even if it is
very hard’ idea (P9, P5, P4). The interviewees noted that touring abroad for a long time with so much
equipment was a physically, psychologically, and economically exhausting activity. Travellers who
can do this are seen as a role model. Travellers broaden their followers’ horizons by going on
10 K. ASAN

challenging tours. Moreover, the ability to perform these activities at low costs can impress their fol-
lowers. For example, an interviewee (P5) refers to a traveller as follows:
There was a man who started cycling from France … He impressed me very much … To earn his keep on the
road, he does dishwashing at the restaurants … He’s out of the system. You say to yourself, ‘See, such a life is
possible’.

According to this interviewee, travellers manage to leave behind their routine lives. So, the travel-
ler influencers show their followers that different lifestyles are also possible. The studies in the
influencer marketing literature have attributed the attractiveness of influencers to either their
similar characteristics with their followers or their unique/extraordinary experiences compared to
ordinary people (Chatzigeorgiou, 2017; Xiao et al., 2018). In this study, it can be interpreted that
cyclist travel influencers attract their followers with their hard and challenging, in other words,
unique/extraordinary experiences. In this context, it is observed that followers are willing to
imitate traveller influencers. Consequently, it is understood that travellers can be a role model by
both performing challenging activities and showing alternative lifestyles.
As the last theme, the influencers support cycling societies. The interviewees emphasized that
influencers work with non-governmental organizations on issues such as cycling transportation
and help cyclists to make their voices heard. Travellers also produce useful projects for cycling com-
munities. One interviewee (P8) exemplifies this situation as follows:
Gürkan Genç supports students who want to tour with Young Explorers Project.

Similarly, the interviewees stated that travellers can be more actively involved in bicycle festivals
and communities. People participating in touring events, festivals, and organizations come together
and form communities (Shipway et al., 2016). Cycling travellers, by being members of these commu-
nities, can support the spread of cycling culture and the participation of more people in these social
formations. In addition to all these, followers can easily interact with travellers thanks to the oppor-
tunities provided by new media environments. These statements were categorized into the category
of the ‘communal effects’ of cycling travel influencers. As a result, besides the social relationship
between followers and influencers, there are also social relationships between cycling communities
and influencers. In the study, the effects of travellers on these social relationships have been concep-
tualized as ‘communal effects.’

4.2. Quantitative research findings

In the second phase of the study, 915 usable questionnaires obtained using the survey technique
were examined. The questionnaire also included questions about the profile of the followers.
Briefly, their profiles can be summarized as follows: The participants’ average age is 39 (min:17,
max:73), most of the participants are male (76.9% male, 23.1% female), and nearly 80% of the par-
ticipants have either a bachelor’s degree or a higher degree. Additionally, the participants were
asked whether they participated in recreational cycling tours (entertainment, travel, or exercise
tours that take less than 24 h) or touristic cycling tours (bicycle tours or festivals that take longer
than 24 h and include overnight stays). Accordingly, 48.5% of the participants stated that they per-
formed touristic tours, and 57.9% stated that they went on recreational tours. In this regard, it is seen
that more than half of the followers are active cyclists.
A PCA and a CFA were applied to the quantitative data collected on influencer impacts. The
findings can be seen in Table 1. Firstly, as a result of the PCA, a structure consisting of four
factors with 23 items was obtained. The explained variance was 0.54. According to Dunteman
(1989), a value over 0.40 for the explained variance is acceptable for social sciences. Therefore,
the explained variance in this study was above the acceptable level.
A CFA was used with the partial least squares (PLS) method to verify the factor structure obtained.
Firstly, factor loads, which indicate the scale’s convergent validity, were examined. As can be seen in
 CURRENT ISSUES IN TOURISM 11

Table 1. PCA and CFA results.

Factors and
items Explained Standard Item-total Factor Standard t-
(n=915) Variance Eigenvalues Mean Deviation correlation Loads loads values
Motivation 40.51 9.31 4.63
They make you dream of making a bicycle tour. 4.62 .64 .61 -.67 .75 30.82
They encourage me to go on a bicycle tour. 4.65 .60 .63 -.90 .82 48.51
They inspire you to make a bicycle tour. 4.72 .56 .62 -.76 .80 42.76
They excite people for a bicycle tour. 4.67 .59 .65 -.68 .83 56.55
They give self-confidence in cycling. 4.58 .68 .63 -.75 .83 65.00
They encourage you to make a bicycle tour. 4.52 .73 .67 -.63 .79 48.41
Information 10.71 2.46 4.45
They inform about travelling abroad (visa, 4.19 .92 .46 .70 .73 38.02
transfer, foreign exchange transactions, etc.).
They set an example with the bicycles and 4.48 .74 .50 .65 .76 43.17
equipment they use.
They show new destinations. 4.70 .56 .49 .64 .74 43.21
They inform about destinations (cultural, 4.57 .64 .59 .70 .78 51.97
geographical, socio-economic info etc.).
They offer practical solutions to the difficulties 4.45 .74 .60 .69 .80 50.95
that can be encountered during tours.
They give technical information about bicycles 4.09 .96 .60 .57 .76 47.32
and cycling
They inform about routes 4.39 .78 .54 .67 .81 58.79
(driving route, camping
facilities, food and beverage
facilities, etc.).
Role model 6.06 1.39 4.53
They carry out tours that are not thought to be 4.49 .80 .54 .39 .71 25.20
possible.
They become icons / models for their followers. 4.42 .79 .58 .57 .78 44.85
They are indicators of the development of tour 4.47 .76 .54 .50 .73 30.71
cycling.
They expand new horizons for their followers. 4.65 .58 .64 .72 .82 64.47
They exhibit an alternative / outside the system 4.60 .69 .58 .62 .75 39.05
lifestyle.
Communal 5.01 1.15 3.90
They are useful for cycling-related civil society 4.09 .97 .63 .62 .84 79.28
They draw attention to social 4.06 .98 .63 .78 .80 58.13
responsibility issues.
They increase the demand for 3.76 1.13 .59 .66 .78 53.375
bicycle festivals/events.
Mutual communication (online, face to face, 4.13 .93 .60 .42 .75 43.02
etc.) can be established.
They become references for sponsors. 3.45 1.18 .52 .56 .73 39.86
Total 54.49
All scale items were measured using a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 for ‘strongly disagree’ to 5 for ‘strongly agree’.

Table 1, factor loadings are above the suggested value of 0.70 (Chin, 1998; Hulland, 1999). As seen in
Table 2, all AVE values of all constructs were over the minimum value of 0.50, and all t-values over
1.96 were approved as significant values (Chin, 1998; Hair et al., 2010).
The Fornell-Larcker criterion was applied to determine the discriminant validity of the measure-
ment. According to the Fornell-Larcker criterion, for each of two constructs, the AVE (shared variance
within) should greater than the squared correlation between constructs (shared variance between).
This criterion implies that items share more variance with their intended underlying construct than
the individual constructs share with another construct (Hair et al., 2019). As seen in Table 2, the
square root of AVE for each construct was greater than the levels of correlations involving the con-
struct (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). Also, the heterotrait-monotrait (HTMT) ratio of correlations proposed
by Henseler et al. (2015) was examined. The HTMT statistic contrasts the indicator correlations
between constructs with the correlations within indicators of the same construct (Hair et al.,
2019). The HTMT value was below 0.90, as recommended and it indicated that the constructs
12 K. ASAN

Table 2. Reliability and validity.

Corelations and the square roots of the
AVE* HTMT
α CR AVE 1 2 3 4 1 2 3
Information .895 .912 .597 .773
Motivation .845 .919 .654 .490 .809 .542
Communal .781 .890 .618 .636 .408 .786 .732 .463
Role model .895 .859 .605 .589 .603 .570 .759 .689 .708 .676
*The diagonal elements (in bold) represent the square roots of the AVE of each construct. The off-diagonal elements represent
the correlations among constructs and correlation is significant at the 0.01 level.

were conceptually similar (Gold et al., 2001). Besides, the correlation coefficients between factors
were below 0.90, proving that there was no multicollinearity in the measurement (Tabachnick &
Fidell, 2011).
Regarding the reliability of the scale, Cronbach’s α, Composite reliability (CR), and AVE were exam-
ined (Table 2). As stated above, AVE values were quite high. A good level of Cronbach’s α value is
over 0.80 for both factors and the overall scale (Hair et al., 2010). Also, the CR measures were over
the minimum value of 0.70, which indicated that the items were representative of the latent con-
structs and the internal consistency was adequate (Hair et al., 2010). Also, the goodness of fit
values of the measurement model was examined. The goodness of fit values (SRMR:0.059;
NFI:0.864) was at the recommended level (Hair et al., 2010; Schumacker & Lomax, 2016). As a
result of all analyses, it was revealed that the measurement met the validity and reliability
requirements.

5. Discussion
The results show that cycling traveller influencers inform their followers about destinations, travel
procedures, routes, cycling, and equipment. In the literature, travel influencers are emphasized as
a source of information. Indeed, travel influencers are effective in their followers’ decisions as a
reliable source of information (Ay et al., 2019; Book & Tanford, 2019; Gretzel, 2018). As a result,
the informative effect of influencers observed in this study supports the literature. Moreover,
travel influencers are informative not only about destination selection but also about technical
issues, such as travel formalities and equipment. This situation points out that the expertise and
trustworthiness features of influencers can come to the fore.
Secondly, it has been understood that cyclist influencers motivate and encourage their followers
to go on cycling tours. Yılmaz et al. (2020) argued that travel influencers tended to inspire people. In
this context, apart from their informative effects, it is quite meaningful that influencers who share
their emotional and aesthetic experiences during their travels create positive effects on their fol-
lowers and motivate them to go on bicycle tours. The literature particularly draws attention to
the leading role of influencers in destination marketing (Li et al., 2015; Ong & Ito, 2019). According
to this study, a bicycle tour activity in itself can be considered a touristic product within the concept
of tourism mobility. Therefore, travel influencers are empirically proven to have a wider influence
scope beyond destination marketing.
Another impact revealed was the communal effect. With the transformation of tourism into life-
styles, tourism is no longer an activity carried out only during holiday seasons (Franklin & Crang,
2001). Communities established in or related to tourism activities can continue in daily life, as
well. Similarly, it is possible to see communities formed around cycling activities (Shipway et al.,
2016). Also, travel influencers support cycling communities created by their followers. Wang
(2012) argued that as a cybercommunity, people came together in travel blog communities and
engaged in social interactions. Similarly, Brown and Hayes (2008) suggested that influencers could
build online communities. On the other hand, online communities can be an extension or reflection
 CURRENT ISSUES IN TOURISM 13

of face-to-face communities (Hardy et al., 2012). In this regard, the study has empirically demon-
strated that travel influencers have communal impacts.
Finally, it was concluded that influencers were considered role models by some of their followers.
Travel influencers impress their followers and broaden their horizons by going beyond the usual
limits of life. This impact can be interpreted as ‘admiration.’ This transforms travel influencers into
an iconic value. And, it was seen that some followers idealized travel influencers and tried to be
like influencers. Accordingly, the attractiveness of travel influencers can be explained by their extra-
ordinary and unique experiences, according to the literature (Chatzigeorgiou, 2017; Ge & Gretzel,
2018). On the other hand, extraordinary experiences are closely related to the nature of tourism
(Wang, 1999). Therefore, travel influencers’ extraordinary experiences can be considered a unique
feature of the travel influencer. Another important point is that followers can refer to influencers
to make sense of their own lives. For example, the statement, ‘travel influencers exhibit an alterna-
tive/outside-the-system lifestyle’ can be interpreted as that the participants not only idealize the way
influencers live but also disapprove of their own lifestyles. Touristic or recreational consumption
behaviours can be considered a means of positivization of life (Han, 2015). Accordingly, traveller
influencers can lead their followers to touristic and recreational activities as well as lead to an indirect
insight experience.

6. Conclusions
Mixed-method research was conducted to understand the impact of cyclist traveller influencers in
Turkey. According to both qualitative and quantitative research results, the impacts of cycling traveller
influencers on their followers can be explained into four factors: informative impacts, motivating
impacts, impacts as a role model, and communal impacts. Accordingly, travel influencers inform their
followers about travel procedures and destinations with their expertise and trustworthiness. Also,
travel influencers motivate their followers to participate in touristic mobility by sharing their experiences
in an aesthetic way. In addition, travel influencers’ challenging, extraordinary, and unique experiences
broaden their followers’ horizons. Finally, travel influencers establish social bonds not only with their
followers but also travel communities, and they support touristic socialites. The following section pre-
sents the theoretical and practical implications developed in light of the obtained results.

6.1. Theoretical implications

The new media is more than just a communication channel: it has become an important social space
with its own norms and actors. Travel influencers are generally examined as a source of information
or as a factor affecting the image of a destination (Book & Tanford, 2019; Gretzel, 2018; Ong & Ito,
2019). However, due to the current technological developments and new media communications
that have spread to all areas of life, travel influencers should be considered new actors of remarkable
importance in the tourism sector.
In this study, it was concluded that, in addition to their informative and motivating effects, travel
influencers can support specific tourism communities and become a role model for followers. In this
study, the ‘Travel Influencers’ Impact Scale’ was tried to be created in the context of cyclist influen-
cers. Thus, a valid and reliable instrument was obtained to measure the impacts of travel influencers.
The findings of the study provide important theoretical contributions in terms of tourism communi-
cation and influencer marketing. Moreover, travel influencers, beyond being marketing collabor-
ators, are social actors. Therefore, the study can be an important reference for understanding
tourism communities.
Also, the research provides contributions to the use of mixed methods design in the field of
tourism. Especially niche tourism types can have many qualities waiting to be discovered. In this
regard, qualitative methods are needed to provide in-depth insights. On the other hand, quantitative
research methods are required to obtain a generalizable theoretical framework. Consequently, the
14 K. ASAN

explanatory-mixed method, which enables moving from specific to general, provides a solution to
generate comprehensive and integrated theories.

6.2. Practical implications

The results of the research are beneficial for businesses that consider using the influencer marketing
approach or for public and private sector representatives who consider contacting travel influencers.
The motivating effect of cycling travellers on their followers can increase their involvement in tourist
events. They can encourage their followers to be open to new and different experiences. In this
context, travel influencers can be an important reference for the promotion of new destinations
as well as tourism products, experiences, and activities. As with cycling activities, each tourism
type has its unique technical characteristics. Influencers are also effective collaborators in the mar-
keting of equipment. Cycling travel influencers are role models for some followers, who follow their
examples and go on bicycle tours like them. In this regard, influencers’ posts and comments about
the touristic products they have tried and the destinations they have visited determine their fol-
lowers’ attitudes. Moreover, influencers can create new micro-niche markets thanks to the
content they produce. Even if influencers do not engage in cooperation with businesses, businesses
and brands may still need to follow travel influencers and the trends they set. Consequently, under-
standing travel influencers and inviting them as partners in their marketing efforts will make a sig-
nificant contribution to businesses and brands.
Cycling influencers may also discover new destinations by creating routes and generate demand
for these routes through their online activities. Therefore, influencers have functions of not only
affecting the destination image but also developing a new destination. From this point of view,
cooperation can be made with influencers on the development of new destinations and new
tourism products. Also, online route network applications such as Gaia GPS, Strava, and Wicilok
can be a good tool for discovering grassroots influencers.
Travel influencers can also be consulted to increase the positive social effects of tourism. In the
context of bicycle touring, travel influencers support the cycling community culture. Thus, more
and more people become involved in cycling activities, and new public spheres are emerging
where cycling-related problems can be discussed and solved. Also, travel influencers know a great
deal about travel communities. Therefore, travelling influencers can be important collaborators in
participatory tourism planning.

6.3. Limitations and future directions

In the study, it was tried to develop a scale to measure the impacts of travel influencers. The study
was carried out in the context of bicycle touring. Further research is needed to determine the validity
and reliability of the scale in different tourism areas. The impacts of influencers can be examined in
more detail, especially in other types of special interest tourism. Therefore, the ‘Travel Influencers’
Impact Scale’ can be employed in different types of special interest tourism in the future. On the
other hand, qualitative research methods can also be used to understand whether themes differ
in different tourism types.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

ORCID
Kubra Asan http://orcid.org/0000-0002-8739-3585
 CURRENT ISSUES IN TOURISM 15

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