minerals

Article
Development of Process Flow Sheet for Recovering Strategic
Mineral Monazite from a Lean-Grade Bramhagiri Coastal Placer
Deposit, Odisha, India
Deependra Singh 1,2, *, Bighnaraj Mishra 2 , Ankit Sharma 2 , Suddhasatwa Basu 1,3
and Raghupatruni Bhima Rao 1,2,4

1 Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad 201002, India; [email protected] (S.B.);
[email protected] (R.B.R.)
2 IREL (India) Limited, Mumbai 400028, India; [email protected] (B.M.); [email protected] (A.S.)
3 Department of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi 600036, India
4 Formerly CSIR-Institute of Minerals and Materials Technology, Bhubaneswar 751013, India
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: The present investigation deals with the development of a process flow sheet for recovering
strategic mineral monazite concentrate from a lean-grade offshore placer deposit of the Bramhagiri
coast along the southeast coast of Odisha, India.In the present study, both dry and wet processes are
investigated to improve the recovery and purity of monazite. The results of the pre-concentration
studies reveal that by using multi-stage spiral concentrators, the Total Heavy Minerals [THM] have
been upgraded to 97.8% with a monazite content of 0.33% from a feed sample containing 4.72% total
heavy minerals and 0.01% monazite content. The beneficiation studies revealed that the feed was
initially subjected to a high-tension separator, and the non-conducting fraction of the high-tension
roll was further subjected to magnetic separation. The magnetic product was again subjected to
a flotation process followed by cleaning of the flotation product using a magnetic separator. This
magnetic product contains 98.89% monazite with 84% recovery and 0.28% yield from a spiral product
containing 0.33% monazite and qualifies for extracting rare earths. It is worth recovering monazite
mineral from even lean-grade deposits, as it is a source of uranium, thorium, and rare earth elements
Citation: Singh, D.; Mishra, B.;
and is very high in demand for humankind due to technological advancements. In view of this,
Sharma, A.; Basu, S.; Rao, R.B.
monazite recovery is not to be considered for the economic profitability of the process but for
Development of Process Flow Sheet
strategic requirements.
for Recovering Strategic Mineral
Monazite from a Lean-Grade
Keywords: monazite; rare earths; flow sheet development; flotation; place deposits
Bramhagiri Coastal Placer Deposit,
Odisha, India. Minerals 2024, 14, 139.
https://doi.org/10.3390/min14020139

Academic Editor: Kenneth N. Han 1. Introduction

Received: 12 July 2023 Monazite is a vital phosphate mineral of thorium and rare earths [(Ce, La, Nd, Th, Y)
Revised: 11 January 2024 PO4 ]. It is radioactive due to the presence of uranium and thorium. Significant quantities of
Accepted: 12 January 2024 monazite are available in South Africa, Madagascar, India, Malaysia, Vietnam, and Brazil.
Published: 26 January 2024 The global monazite market size was at USD 53.38 million in 2021 and is poised to grow
from USD 54.61 million in 2022 to USD 65.5 million by 2030, growing at a CAGR of 2.3% in
the forecast period 2023–2030 [1]. Due to its strategic importance, the increasing demand for
rare earths in the energy, electronics, aerospace, and automobile industries has resulted in
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
various approaches to recovering monazite. It is one of the primary resources for obtaining
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
strategic and critical elements needed for multiple industrial applications. The clean energy
This article is an open access article
drive has increased the demand for neodymium-iron-boron (NdFeB) magnets sourced
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
from monazite mineral.
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
Geologically, placer monazite is classified under secondary deposits. These deposits
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ are formed and distributed by the combined action of rivers, ocean currents, and strong
4.0/). coastal winds. It occurs with other associated industrial placer heavy minerals such as

Minerals 2024, 14, 139. https://doi.org/10.3390/min14020139 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/minerals

Minerals 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 22
Minerals 2024, 14, 139 2 of 20

ilmenite, garnet, rutile, zircon, and sillimanite at very low concentrations and is recov‐
ilmenite,
ered as a garnet, rutile,The
by‐product. zircon, and sillimanite
beneficiation at very
processes lowrecovery
for the concentrations
of totaland is recovered
heavy minerals
as a by-product. The beneficiation processes for the recovery of
are specific, and dedicated flow sheets are adopted due to variations in mineral compo‐ total heavy minerals are
specific, and dedicated flow sheets are adopted due to variations
sitions. Processes for monazite beneficiation depend upon the nature and association of in mineral compositions.
Processes for monazite
valuable strategic beneficiation
and critical depend
industrial upon the
and gangue nature and
minerals association
present [2–5]. The of common
valuable
strategic and critical industrial and gangue minerals present [2–5].
extraction processes adopted for recovering monazite include multi‐stage cleaning using The common extraction
processes adopted for magnetism,
gravity, conductivity, recovering monazite include
and flotation. The multi-stage
literature cleaning
reveals that using gravity,
many re‐
conductivity, magnetism, and flotation. The literature reveals that
searchers have attempted to recover monazite from placer deposits for characterization many researchers have
attempted
studies only. to recover
A seriesmonazite from placer deposits
of mineral‐processing equipment, for characterization
such as high‐tension studiesroller
only. sepa‐
A se-
ries of mineral-processing equipment, such as high-tension roller separators,
rators, high‐intensity magnetic separators followed by low‐intensity magnetic separators, high-intensity
magnetic separators followed by low-intensity magnetic separators, gravity tables, etc., are
gravity tables, etc., are used to recover high‐grade monazite. The process of separation of
used to recover high-grade monazite. The process of separation of monazite used by all
monazite used by all the researchers is almost similar. Kwanho Kim et al. [3] attempted to
the researchers is almost similar. Kwanho Kim et al. [3] attempted to separate monazite
separate monazite from placer deposit using magnetic separation. In their study, they
from placer deposit using magnetic separation. In their study, they separated conducting
separated conducting and magnetic mineral ilmenite by using a low‐intensity magnetic
and magnetic mineral ilmenite by using a low-intensity magnetic separator [0.8T]. The
separator [0.8T]. The non‐magnetic mineral concentrate has been subjected to a
non-magnetic mineral concentrate has been subjected to a high-intensity magnetic separa-
high‐intensity magnetic separator [1.4T]. The magnetic fraction is the monazite mineral
tor [1.4T]. The magnetic fraction is the monazite mineral concentrate. The non-magnetic
concentrate. The non‐magnetic fraction is further subjected to a gravity separator fol‐
fraction is further subjected to a gravity separator followed by a high-intensity magnetic
lowed by a high‐intensity magnetic separator to obtain monazite concentrate. The study
separator to obtain monazite concentrate. The study of monazite chemistry and its distri-
of monazite chemistry and its distribution along the coast of the Neenda‐
bution along the coast of the Neendakara–Kayamkulam belt, Kerala, India, has also been
kara–Kayamkulam belt, Kerala, India, has also been carried out by Anita et al. [6]. The
carried out by Anita et al. [6]. The flotation process for fine-grained monazite has also been
flotation process
investigated usingfor fine‐grained
special reagents monazite
to depresshasotheralso been investigated
valuable minerals andusing gangue special rea‐
minerals
gents to depress other valuable minerals and gangue minerals to
to avoid co-flotation along with monazite concentrate [7–22]. The beneficiation process avoid co‐flotation along
with
for monazite
recovery concentrate
of placer [7–22].
monazite doesThe
notbeneficiation
require either process
a closed forcircuit
recovery of placer
or the mon‐
open circuit
azite does not require
comminution process. either a closed circuit or the open circuit comminution process.
The monazite
The monazite resources
resourcesininIndiaIndiaare
areshown
showninin Figure
Figure 1. 1. Figure
Figure 1A1A shows
shows thethe mona‐
monazite
zite occurrence in different states of India [23]. It reveals that monazite
occurrence in different states of India [23]. It reveals that monazite occurs all along occurs all along
the
the coastal
coastal belt belt
and and is restricted
is restricted to mostly
to mostly the southern
the southern part
part of of India.
India. It is from
It is seen seen Figure
from Fig‐1B
ure 1B
that that Andhra
Andhra PradeshPradesh State possesses
State possesses more (3.78more (3.78million
million ton (mt)) tonmonazite
(mt)) monazite
resources,re‐
sources, followed
followed by Odisha by(3.16
Odisha
mt),(3.16mt),
Tamilnadu Tamilnadu
(2.47 mt),(2.47mt),
Kerala (1.84Kerala
mt),(1.84mt),
West Bengal West(1.2
Bengal
mt),
(1.2mt),
etc. [24]. etc.[24].

Figure 1.
Figure 1. Monazite
Monaziteresources
resourcesinindifferent
differentstates
statesofofIndia
India[23,24]. (A)(A)
[23,24]. Monazite
Monazite occurrences in India.
occurrences in In-
(B) Monazite content in million tons in each state of India. Number in Map: 1.
dia. (B) Monazite content in million tons in each state of India.Number in Map: 1. Bramhagiri, Bramhagiri, 2.
Chatrapur,
2. Chatrapur, 3.
3. Gopalpur,
Gopalpur, 4. 4.Barua, 5. Bhavanapadu,
Barua, 5. Bhavanapadu, 6. Kalingapatnam,
6. Kalingapatnam, 7. Srikurmam,8.
7. Srikurmam, 8. Koyyam,
Koyyam,
9. 9. Kandalavalasa,
Kandalavalasa, 10. Bhimunipatnam,
10. Bhimunipatnam, 11. Kakinada, 12. 11. Kakinada,
Suryalanka, 12. Suryalanka,14.13.
13. Sevalapattiteris, Se‐
Nadu-
valapattiteris 14.
valakurichiteris, 15.Naduvalakurichiteris,
KudiralMozhiteris, 16. 15. KudiralMozhiteris,
Viayapuramteris, 16. Viayapuramteris,
17. Navaldi, 18. Navipalyur, 17.19.
Navaldi, 18. Navipalyur, 19. Kudankulam, 20. Manavalakurichi, 21. Vayakkalur,
Kudankulam, 20. Manavalakurichi, 21. Vayakkalur, 22. Chavara, 23. Kayamkulam, 24. Arattupuzha, 22.
Chavara,
25. 23. Kayamkulam,
Thotapalli, 26. Ponnani, 27. 24. Arattupuzha, 25. Thotapalli, 26. Ponnani, 27. Ratnagiri.
Ratnagiri.

Monazite is considered the principal source of rare earths, although it occurs in trace
mineral concentrations in Indian placer deposits. It has unique mineralogy and mineral
liberation
liberation characteristics.
characteristics.About
About12.47
12.47million
milliontons
tonsofofmonazite
monazite(containing ~55%–60%
(containing ~55–60% total
rare earth
earth elements
elementsoxide)
oxide)resource
resourceisisavailable
availableininthe
thecoastal
coastalbeach placer
beach sands
placer of of
sands Kerala,
Ker‐
Minerals 2024, 14, 139 3 of 20

Minerals 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 22

Tamil Nadu, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Gujarat, and in the inland placers
of Jharkhand, West Bengal, and Tamil Nadu [23].
Hence,
ala, Tamil Nadu,an attempt
Odisha, is made
Andhra inMaharashtra,
Pradesh, the presentand investigation
Gujarat, and into therecover
inland high-grade monazite
placers of Jharkhand, West Bengal, and Tamil Nadu [23].
from lean-grade offshore sand of the Bramhagiri coastal deposit. The literature reveals that
Hence, an attempt is made in the present investigation to recover high‐grade mona‐
so
zite far,
fromno researcher
lean‐grade offshoreorsand
industry has attempted
of the Bramhagiri to recover
coastal deposit. monazite
The literature re‐ and recommended
aveals
flowsheet
that so far,with mass balance
no researcher or industryfrom such a low
has attempted concentration.
to recover monazite and Hence,
rec‐ research work on
ommended a flowsheet with mass balance from such a low concentration.
such a new project can benefit the nation by satisfying the demand for rare earths and Hence, re‐
search work on such a new project can benefit the nation by satisfying the demand for
meeting strategic
rare earths and meetingrequirements. Generalized
strategic requirements. Generalized typical flow
typical flow sheets
sheets from In‐from Indian Rare Earth
(India)
dian RareLimited for Limited
Earth (India) the recovery of individual
for the recovery heavy
of individual minerals
heavy mineralsand and recovery
re‐ of monazite are
covery of in
shown monazite
Figure are2.
shown in Figure 2.

Minerals 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 22

(a) Flow sheet for recovery of individual heavy minerals

Wt% Grade% Recovery%

IREL OSCOM CRUDE 0.55 52.3 87.5

Wt% Grade% Recovery% MONAZITE
0.525 50.06 87.21

FLOATEX DENSITY
Drying SEPARATOR

HTRS 3‐Electrode 2 Roll

NON COND REPASS
ESPS‐ 1.5 PASS N
COND REPASS
To Rutile Wt% Grade% Recovery%
Circuit
0.44 68.04 77.27
RARE EARTH DRUM
To Garnet MAG SEPARATOR‐1
Circuit Wt% Grade% Recovery%

Wt% Grade% Recovery% 0.242 74.06 76.78

0.23 76.64 76.4 RARE EARTH DRUM
MAG SEPARATOR‐2

SCREEN, 250 micron

Wt% Grade% Recovery%

0.209 80.38 72.0

RARE EARTH ROLL

MAG SEPARATOR‐1
Wt% Grade% Recovery%

0.19 84.55 68.0

RARE EARTH ROLL

MAG SEPARATOR‐2
Wt% Grade% Recovery%

0.179 85.62 64.0

INDUCED ROLL
MAG SEPARATOR‐1,2,3

Wt% Grade% Recovery%

0.152 96.44 61.4

MONAZITE

(b) Flowsheet for recovery of monazite

Figure 2. Typical flow sheet from IREL (India) Limited for (a) recovery of individual heavy miner‐
Figure 2. Typical flow sheet from IREL (India) Limited for (a) recovery of individual
als and (b) recovery of monazite.
heavy minerals
and (b) recovery of monazite.
2. Materials and Methods
2a. Sample location and collection: A bulk offshore back dune sand sample of about 15
tons was collected in a grid pattern using the auger method along Brahmagiri beach sand
placer deposit stretches for 15 km from Sipasurubili via GiralaNala to Village Bhabuni‐
aand Bramhagiri with an average width of 1.91 km in Puri district, Odisha. The details of
the sample location are shown in Figure 3. A representative 100 kg sample was drawn out
from the bulk 15 tons of samples for size and mineralogical data.
2b. Characteristics of the sample: The collected sample is free‐flow sand, and it contains
Minerals 2024, 14, 139 4 of 20

2. Materials and Methods

2a. Sample location and collection: A bulk offshore back dune sand sample of about 15 tons
was collected in a grid pattern using the auger method along Brahmagiri beach sand
placer deposit stretches for 15 km from Sipasurubili via GiralaNala to Village Bhabuniaand
Bramhagiri with an average width of 1.91 km in Puri district, Odisha. The details of the
sample location are shown in Figure 3. A representative 100 kg sample was drawn out
from the bulk 15 tons of samples for size and mineralogical data.
2b. Characteristics of the sample: The collected sample is free-flow sand, and it contains
heavy minerals like ilmenite, rutile, garnet, zircon, sillimanite, and monazite. The gangue
mineral is mainly quartz. A trace amount of shell is present in the bulk sample. The bulk
density of the sample is 1.5 gm/cc, and the average true density is around 2.8 g/cc. The
total heavy mineral content in the bulk sample is 4.7%.
2c. Concentration methodology: A typical graphical presentation of the experimental
setup for recovering monazite minerals and the experimental procedure for recovering
Minerals 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 ofthe
22
monazite mineral concentrate is shown in Figure 4. The bulk sample of 15 tons in a batch
of 30 kg was subjected to sequential spirals [Compact Turbo (CT) spiral from MT Mineral
Technologies as rougher concentrator and High Gradient (HG8) spiral from MT Mineral
Mineral Technologies
Technologies as cleanerasconcentrator]
rougher concentrator and total
for obtaining Highheavy
Gradient (HG8)In
minerals. spiral from15%
all cases, MT
Mineral Technologies as cleaner concentrator] for obtaining total heavy minerals.
by weight of solid concentration was subjected to a spiral without any wash water. The In all
cases, 15% by weight of solid concentration was subjected to a spiral without any
total heavy minerals were estimated using the standard sink float method, using an organic wash
water. bromoform
liquid The total heavy
of 2.89minerals were estimated using the standard sink float method,
specific gravity.
using an organic liquid bromoform of 2.89 specific gravity.

Figure 3. Sample
Figure 3. Sample location
location map
map [Odisha
[Odisha State,
State, PuriDist,
PuriDist, Bramhagiri
Bramhagiri Mandal,
Mandal,Sipasurubili
Sipasurubililocation].
location].

The total heavy mineral concentrate obtained using the spiral concentrator was sub-
jected to an electrostatic separator (Carrara HTR400 from MT Mineral Technologies) at
100 ◦ C. Ilmenite is a conducting and magnetic mineral, whereas rutile is only a conducting
mineral. To separate ilmenite and rutile, a temperature above 60 ◦ C is essential at corona
stat. Hence, a 100 ◦ C temperature has been maintained to ensure that the effective tempera-
ture of >60 ◦ C is maintained in the process. After several stage cleanings, the conducting
fraction is stored separately for titanium-bearing minerals. The non-conducting mineral
concentrate was further subjected to a magnetic separator using the Rare Earth Drum
Magnetic Separator (REDMS fromCarpco with 250 mm dia. drum). The magnetic fraction
was further subjected to another magnetic separator using the Rare Earth Roller Magnetic
Separator (RERMSfromSvenko with 6-inch dia. roll). A corona stat plate (Coronastat
Minerals 2024, 14, 139 5 of 20

HTS from Ore Kinetics) and Induced Roll Magnetic Separators (IRMS from MT Mineral
Technologies with 160 dia. roll) were also used to recover monazite.
Figure 3. Sample location map [Odisha State, PuriDist, Bramhagiri Mandal, Sipasurubili location].

Figure 4. Graphical presentation of the experimental setup for recovering monazite minerals.
Figure 4. Graphical presentation of the experimental setup for recovering monazite
In another case, the magnetic fraction was subjected to batch conventional flotation
minerals.
using a Denver laboratory model cell. In the flotation experiment for the recovery of
The total
monazite, sodiumheavy mineral
silicate concentrate
(1.2 kg/t) was usedobtained using the
as a depressant spiral concentrator
to depress was
the quartz. Oleic
subjected
acid to anwas
(1.2 kg/t) electrostatic
used as the separator
collector,(Carrara
and pineHTR400 from MT
oil (0.6 kg/t) was Mineral
used as aTechnologies)
frother. The
at 100 °C.conditions
operating Ilmenite iswere:
a conducting and magnetic
pH 9, conditioning time–5mineral,
min andwhereas rutile is time–5
froth collection only a min.
con‐
ducting mineral. To separate ilmenite and rutile, a temperature above 60 °C
The froth, which contains monazite mineral concentrate, was further subjected to a magnetic is essential at
corona stat. Hence, a 100 °C temperature has been maintained to ensure
separator to enrich the monazite mineral concentrate using the RERMS magnetic separator.that the effective
temperature ofmodal
Mineralogical >60 °C is maintained
analysis in the
was carried outprocess. After several
on the closed-size stage cleanings,
fractions, concentrates,the
conducting
and fractionfrom
tailings obtained is different
stored unit
separately
operations forby using
titanium‐bearing minerals. Size
a binocular microscope. The
non‐conducting
analyses mineral
were carried outconcentrate was further
using IS standard sieves.subjected to a magnetic separator using
the Rare Earth Drum Magnetic Separator (REDMS fromCarpco with 250 mm dia. drum).
3. Results and Discussions
3.1. Physical, Chemical, Mineralogical, Structural, and Wettability Characteristics
The physical, chemical, mineralogical, structural, and wettability characteristics of
beach sand minerals of the Bramhagiri coast are given in Table 1. The data indicate six
major to minor minerals in the sample, such as ilmenite, garnet, sillimanite, zircon, rutile,
and monazite. It is very clear from the data that all the minerals have higher specific gravity
than 2.6 sp.gr (quartz mineral), and hence, a bulk total heavy mineral concentrate can
be achieved using gravity concentration. In gravity concentration, particle shape, crystal
system, chemical composition, crystal structure, etc., of all these six minerals do not have
much influence as far as gravity concentration is concerned. Ilmenite and rutile minerals
have conducting properties and, hence, can be separated from the total heavy minerals by
using high-tension roll separators. Among these two minerals, only ilmenite is magnetic,
and hence, it can be separated from rutile by using magnetic separators. Sillimanite has the
lowest contact angle compared to other minerals, and hence, it has the highest flotability
character at pH 9 in the presence of oleic acid as a collector and frother [24]. Moreover,
sillimanite adsorbs the oleic acid and promotes the flotation of sillimanite. Hence, it
can be separated from zircon and monazite. Monazite is weakly magnetic compared to
zircon. Hence, monazite and zircon minerals can be separated using magnetic separation.
These are the general physical beneficiation aspects for the recovery of individual heavy
minerals. In practice, it takes different routes and needs different processes forthe recovery
of high-grade minerals.
Minerals 2024, 14, 139 6 of 20

Table 1. Physical, chemical, mineralogical, structural, and wettability characteristics of beach sand
minerals of Bramhagiri coast.

Mineral Garnet Ilmenite Monazite Rutile Sillimanite Zircon

# Order
of 2 1 6 4 3 5
abundance(1–6)
# Chemical R3 R2 (SiO4 )3 FeTiO3 (La,Ce)PO4 TiO2 Al2 SiO5 ZrSiO4
Composition
## Crystal system Isometric, Trigonal Monoclinic Tetragonal Orthorhombic Tetragonal
Hexa-octahedral
## Particle shape Rounded to Elongated, Rounded to Smooth curves Flaky, Crystalline
sub-rounded smooth curves sub-rounded sub-rounded fibrous, angular, sub-rounded
sub-rounded needle
# Size range, µm 75–600 75–600 75–150 75–600 75–600 75–600
# Specific 4.11 4.45 to 4.54 4.6–5.4 4.18 to 4.25 3.20 to 3.25 4.60 to 4.70
Gravity, g/cc
# Hardness, Mohs scale 6.5 to 7.5 5.5 to 6.0 5–5.5 6.0 to 6.5 6.0 to 7.0 7.5
# Magnetic property Tesla-T Moderately Magnetic Paramagnetic, Strongly Diamagnetic Diamagnetic
magnetic 1.5 Tesla paramagnetic
# Electrical Non-Conducting Conducting Non- Conducting Non- Non-
Conductivity Conducting Conducting Conducting
# Contact angle degree 24.5◦ 80◦ 60 ± 5◦ 32◦ 21–30◦ >90◦
## PZC @pH 7 3.8 5.3 6.3 5.5 5.1
#Floatability Not- Not- Floatable Not- Weakly- Not-
Oleic acid@ 9 pH Floatable Floatable Floatable Floatable Floatable
#IR Spectra Two peaks at Flat in the IR Two peaks at Peak at around Peak at Peak in the
around 900 and range 946 and 1041 cm−1 . 1177 cm−1 . region
1000 cm−1 . 988 cm−1 . 900–1050 cm−1
#: present study; ##: references [24,25].

Physical and chemical characteristics: The size analysis of the bulk sample given in Table 2
indicates that the sample contains a d80 passing size of 380 µm. The bulk sample size is
coarse and free-flow sand. Distinctly, the sand is more liberated from below 212-micron
size fraction.

Table 2. The size analysis of the bulk feed sample.

Size, µm Weight, % Cumulative, % Passing

850 - 100
600 27.92 99.47
300 40.22 71.55
212 24.81 31.33
150 3.43 6.52
106 2.68 3.09
90 0.33 0.41
75 0.53 0.08
−75 0.08 -
d80 passing size 380 µm

The mineral chemistry of monazite can be discussed using the data given in Table 3.
The data indicate that the U3 O8 content is almost similar for Tamilnadu and Kerala states
(0.33 to 0.35%), whereas for Odisha, the U3 O8 is 0.19% lower than for the Tamilnadu and
Kerala states. Other elements are closely varying. The ThO2 is 8.62 to 9.5%, P2 O5 is 27.6 to
 Minerals 2024, 14, 139 7 of 20

28.5%, La2 O3 is 12.42 to 12.7%, CeO2 is 27.85 to 28.5%, Pr6 O11 is 3.16 to 3.81%, Nd2 O3 is
10.48 to 11.58%, Sm2 O3 is 1.56 to 1.9%, Eu2 O3 is 0.02 to 0.08%, Gd2 O3 is 1.37 to 0.68%, Y2 O3
is 0.34 to 0.48%, and PbO is 0.2 to 0.27% and vary in Tamilnadu, Kerala, and Odisha states.

Table 3. Monazite analysis of different states of India.

Elements Tamilnadu Kerala Odisha Elements Tamilnadu Kerala Odisha

Weight, %
Minerals 2024, 14,
U3xOFOR
8
PEER REVIEW
0.35 0.33 0.19 Nd2 O3 10.73 10.48 11.58 8 of 22
ThO2 8.75 8.62 9.5 Sm2 O3 1.56 1.61 1.9
P2 O 5 27.9 27.6 28.5 Eu2 O3 0.02 0.026 0.08
Pr6O11 La2 O3 3.81
12.42 3.58
12.46 3.16
12.7 PbO
Gd2 O3 0.680.2 0.69 0.2 1.370.27
CeO2 28.5 27.9 27.85 Y2 O3 0.34 0.39 0.48
Pr6 O11 3.81
3.2. Mineralogical
3.58
Modal Analysis
3.16 PbO 0.2 0.2 0.27
The mineralogical modal analysis of the bulk feed sample and modal analysis of the
bulk 3.2.
feedMineralogical
sample in Modal
a close size range are shown in Figures 5 and 6. The data seen in
Analysis
Figure 5 reveal that the monazite
The mineralogical mineral
modal analysis concentration
of the is 0.01%
bulk feed sample by weight.
and modal analysisThe other
of the
minerals, such as ilmenite, sillimanite, and garnet, are in more or less
bulk feed sample in a close size range are shown in Figures 5 and 6. The data seen in range of concen‐
tration [1.56%,
Figure 1.53%,
5 reveal thatandthe 1.39%
monazite by mineral
weight,concentration
respectively].is The
0.01% presence
by weight. of rutile 0.05%
The other
and zircon
minerals,0.03%
suchby weight is
as ilmenite, recorded.
sillimanite, andThe quartz
garnet, mineral,
are in more orwhich is the
less range major gangue
of concentration
[1.56%,
mineral, 1.53%, for
accounts and 95.28%
1.39% byby weight, respectively].
weight. The presence
The data given in Figureof rutile
6 on0.05% and zircon
the mineralogical
modal 0.03% by weight
analysis of each is close
recorded. The quartz
size fraction mineral,
indicate thatwhich is the
the bulk major
feed gangue
sample mineral,
contains total
accounts for 95.28% by weight. The data given in Figure 6 on the mineralogical
heavy minerals containing ilmenite, garnet, monazite, rutile, zircon, and sillimanite. It modal
analysis of each close size fraction indicate that the bulk feed sample contains total heavy
can be clearly seen from Figure 6 that monazite mineral is concentrated only at the size
minerals containing ilmenite, garnet, monazite, rutile, zircon, and sillimanite. It can be
rangeclearly
of –150 +90 μm. Hence, it is very difficult to separate the monazite mineral, which
seen from Figure 6 that monazite mineral is concentrated only at the size range
is present
of –150–+90 mass
in the population
µm. Hence, of other
it is very minerals
difficult ranging
to separate thefrom 600 to
monazite below which
mineral, 75 μmissize
ranges.Monazite
present in theismassthe heaviest
population mineral
of other(5.4 sp. gr)ranging
minerals amongfrom all the
600other heavy
to below minerals;
75 µm size
hence, it can be recovered
ranges.Monazite during mineral
is the heaviest the gravity concentration
(5.4 sp.gr) among allalong with
the other all other
heavy heavy
minerals;
hence, it can
minerals.The be recovered
processes during the
for separating gravity concentration
monazite minerals from along with
other all other
heavy heavyde‐
minerals
pendminerals.The
on the particleprocesses
size, for separating
specific monazite
gravity, minerals from
conductivity, andother heavy minerals
magnetic depend
and surface char‐
on the particle
acteristics of minerals.size, specific gravity, conductivity, and magnetic and surface characteristics
of minerals.

FigureFigure
5. Mineralogical modal
5. Mineralogical analysis
modal analysisof
of(a) bulkfeed
(a) bulk feedsample
sample and
and (b) (b) distribution
distribution of heavy
of heavy min‐
minerals
erals in
in the bulkfeed.
the bulk feed.
 Minerals2024,
Minerals 2024,14,
14,139
x FOR PEER REVIEW 89 of
of2022

Figure6.6.Mineralogical
Figure Mineralogicalmodal
modalanalysis
analysisofofthe
thebulk
bulkfeed
feedsample
sampleinina aclose
closesize
sizerange.
range.
3.3. Gravity Concentration to Recover Total Heavy Minerals
3.3. Gravity Concentration to Recover Total Heavy Minerals
Gravity concentration is the primary step for recovering total heavy minerals from the
Gravity concentration is the primary step for recovering total heavy minerals from
bulk raw sand. Spiral concentrators are used to recover total heavy minerals. In this case, a
the bulk raw sand. Spiral
rougher concentration was concentrators are used
used in CT spirals. to recover
Cleaning total heavywere
and scavenging minerals. In this
performed
case, a rougher concentration was used in CT spirals. Cleaning
on HG8 Cleaner spirals to obtain 90–98% of Total Heavy Minerals [THM]. A summary and scavenging were
of
results obtained from a judicious combination of CT rougher spiral and HG8 Cleaner spiralA
performed on HG8 Cleaner spirals to obtain 90–98% of Total Heavy Minerals [THM].
summary of using
concentrators resultsa obtained
feed samplefrom a judicious
weighing combination
15 tons of the
of material, CT batch-wise
rougher spiral and HG8
operation to
Cleaner spiral concentrators using a feed sample weighing 15 tons of
recover total heavy minerals from raw sand, is shown in Table 4. The data given in Table 4material, the
batch‐wise
reveal operation
that overall, 97.8%to THM
recovercantotal heavy minerals
be achieved fromrecovery
with 68.4% raw sand,andis3.3%
shown in Table
yield from a4.
The data given in Table 4 reveal
feed sample containing 4.72% THM. that overall, 97.8% THM can be achieved with 68.4% re‐
covery and 3.3% yield from a feed sample containing 4.72% THM.
Table 4. Summary of results obtained from a judicious combination of CT rougher spiral and HG8
Table 4.spiral
Cleaner Summary of results obtained from a judicious combination of CT rougher spiral and HG8
concentrators.
Cleaner spiral concentrators.
Details Weight, % THM, Wt.% Recovery, %
Details Weight,% THM, Wt.% Recovery, %
Concentrate 3.3 97.80 68.4
Concentrate 3.3 97.80 68.4
Tailing 96.7 1.55 31.6
Tailing 96.7 1.55 31.6
Total
Total 100
100 4.72
4.72 100
100

AAflow
flowsheet
sheetdrawn
drawnwith withaamassmassbalance
balancefrom fromaafeedfeedweighing
weighing15 15tons
tonsofofmaterial
material
and
andthe
thebatch-wise
batch‐wise operation
operation to recover
recover total
total heavy
heavyminerals
mineralsfromfromrawrawsand sandusing
using a
a ju‐
judicious combination
dicious combination of CT of CT rougher spiral and HG8 Cleaner spiral concentrators
and HG8 Cleaner spiral concentrators is shown is shown
ininFigure
Figure7.7.It It
can bebe
can clearly seen
clearly seenfrom Figure
from 7 that
Figure by using
7 that one CT
by using onerougher spiralspiral
CT rougher and twoand
HG8
two Cleaner
HG8 Cleaner spirals, a product
spirals, containing
a product 97.04%97.04%
containing THM with THM33.3%with recovery and 1.62%
33.3% recovery and
yield
1.62%can be achieved.
yield The middlings
can be achieved. obtainedobtained
The middlings from these fromspirals
thesewere subjected
spirals to furtherto
were subjected
processing using HG8
further processing spirals
using HG8in two stages
spirals in [roughing
two stagesand cleaning],
[roughing andcleaning],
and a productand wasa
achieved
product was achieved containing 98.6% THM with 35% recovery and 1.68% yield. Ittois
containing 98.6% THM with 35% recovery and 1.68% yield. It is important
mention
importanthere
tothat the physical
mention here that observations
the physicalofobservations
middlings ofofthe CT rougher
middlings of thespiral (which
CT rougher
contain
spiral (which contain almost feed‐grade 4.4% THM possessing critical minerals zircon,
almost feed-grade 4.4% THM possessing critical minerals such as ilmenite, such as
and monazite
ilmenite, at lower
zircon, size ranges)
and monazite at and
lowerthesize
tailings of the
ranges) and HG8
the spiral (which
tailings of thealsoHG8 contain
spiral
the samealso
(which feed-grade
contain 4.36%
the sameTHM) have been
feed‐grade 4.36%considered
THM) have as feedstock containing
been considered more of
as feedstock
the lighter heavy minerals like sillimanite and the pyribole group of minerals.
 68.4% recovery and 3.3% yield from a feed sample containing 4.72% THM. Typical mi‐
crophotographs of these mineral concentrate grains are shown in Figure 8. Figure 8
shows that the total heavy minerals obtained using these two spirals contain ilmenite,
Minerals 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
rutile, garnet, zircon, sillimanite, and monazite. The mineralogical modal analyses 10 of of
CT22
spiral feed and the overall product obtained from all spirals and tailings are given in Ta‐
Minerals 2024, 14, 139 9 of 20
ble 2 and shown in Figure 9. The spiral feed data contain 0.01% monazite, which has been
enriched tomore
containing 0.33%,ofand
the values
lighterlost in tailings
heavy mineralsarelike
0.0003% by weight.
sillimanite and the pyribole group of
minerals.
The overall product obtained from these two concentrates contains 97.8% THMwith
68.4% recovery and 3.3% yield from a feed sample containing 4.72% THM. Typical mi‐
crophotographs of these mineral concentrate grains are shown in Figure 8. Figure 8
shows that the total heavy minerals obtained using these two spirals contain ilmenite,
rutile, garnet, zircon, sillimanite, and monazite. The mineralogical modal analyses of CT
spiral feed and the overall product obtained from all spirals and tailings are given in Ta‐
ble 2 and shown in Figure 9. The spiral feed data contain 0.01% monazite, which has been
enriched to 0.33%, and values lost in tailings are 0.0003% by weight.

Figure 7. Flow sheet with the mass balance to recover total heavy minerals from raw sand using a
Figure 7. Flow sheet with the mass balance to recover total heavy minerals from raw sand using
judicious combination of CT rougher spiral and HG8 Cleaner spiral concentrators [feed 15 tons
a judicious combination of CT rougher spiral and HG8 Cleaner spiral concentrators [feed 15 tons
material, batch‐wise operation].
material, batch-wise operation].

The overall product obtained from these two concentrates contains 97.8% THMwith
68.4% recovery and 3.3% yield from a feed sample containing 4.72% THM. Typical mi-
crophotographs of these mineral concentrate grains are shown in Figure 8. Figure 8 shows
that the total heavy minerals obtained using these two spirals contain ilmenite, rutile,
garnet, zircon, sillimanite, and monazite. The mineralogical modal analyses of CT spiral
feed and the overall product obtained from all spirals and tailings are given in Table 2 and
Figure 7. Flow sheet with the mass balance to recover total heavy minerals from raw sand using a
shown incombination
judicious Figure 9. The
of spiral feed data
CT rougher spiralcontain
and HG80.01% monazite,
Cleaner which has been
spiral concentrators enriched
[feed 15 tons
to 0.33%, and values lost in tailings
material, batch‐wise operation]. are 0.0003% by weight.

Figure 8. Spiral concentrate (Total Heavy Mineral Grains).

Figure 8.
Figure 8. Spiral
Spiral concentrate (Total Heavy
concentrate (Total Heavy Mineral
Mineral Grains).
Grains).
Minerals 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 22
Minerals 2024, 14, 139 10 of 20

Figure
Figure9.9. Mineralogical
Mineralogicalmodal
modalanalysis
analysisdata
datawere
wereobtained
obtainedfrom
fromfeed,
feed,CT
CTrougher
rougherspiral,
spiral,and
andHG8
HG8
spiral cleaner concentrators.
spiral cleaner concentrators.

3.4.Dry
3.4. DryProcess
ProcessforRecovering
forRecoveringMonazite
MonaziteMineral
Mineral Concentrate
Concentrate
Dry beneficiation
Dry beneficiation studies
studies were
were carried
carriedout
outusing
usingaaspiral
spiralconcentrator
concentratorfeed
feedcontaining
contain‐
0.33%
ing monazite
0.33% monaziteby by
using a high-tension
using a high‐tension separator
separatorusing a Corona
using a Coronastat roller
stat separator,
roller separa‐
rarerare
tor, earth drum,
earth drum,andand
rarerare
earth roller
earth magnetic
roller separators;a
magnetic Corona
separators;a statstat
Corona plate separator
plate sepa‐
and final cleaning using an induced magnetic separator were used for
rator and final cleaning using an induced magnetic separator were used for the recovery the recovery of
monazite mineral concentrate. The detailed results are presented in Table
of monazite mineral concentrate. The detailed results are presented in Table 5a–h.The 5a–h.The results
of a high-tension
results separator
of a high‐tension using a using
separator Corona stat roll stat
a Corona on spiral
roll onconcentrate, which contains
spiral concentrate, which
0.33% monazite, have been upgraded to 1.77% monazite in the non-conducting
contains 0.33% monazite, have been upgraded to 1.77% monazite in the non‐conducting fraction.
The conducting
fraction. fraction is
The conducting totallyistitanium-bearing
fraction minerals.minerals.
totally titanium‐bearing
Conductingfractions
Conducting fractionsand
andnon‐conducting
non-conductingfractions
fractionsare
areseparately
separatelyfedfedto
toaarare
rareearth
earth
drum magnetic separator. There is significant observation to achieve
drum magnetic separator. There is significant observation to achieve monazite content monazite content
using aa conducting
using conducting separator.
separator.The Thenon-conducting
non‐conductingfraction hashas
fraction been upgraded
been upgradedto a to
non-
a
magnetic fraction, which is 9.92% monazite by weight. The non-magnetic fraction has been
non‐magnetic fraction, which is 9.92% monazite by weight. The non‐magnetic fraction
further subjected to a rare earth roller magnetic separator, and the results obtained indicate
has been further subjected to a rare earth roller magnetic separator, and the results ob‐
that the magnetic fraction contains 52.3% monazite by weight (Figure 10).
tained indicate that the magnetic fraction contains 52.3% monazite by weight (Figure 10).
Table 5. Dry beneficiation studies on recovery of monazite mineral concentrate from total heavy
mineral concentrate [containing 0.33% monazite] obtained using a gravity separator using spiral
concentrator [feed containing 0.01% monazite].

(a) Results of high-tension separator using Corona stat roll.

Details Weight, % Monazite, % Recovery, %
Conducting fraction 82.73 0.03 7.5
Non-Conducting fraction 17.27 1.77 92.5
Total 100 0.33 100
Minerals 2024, 14, 139 11 of 20

Table 5. Cont.

(b) Results of magnetic separator using rare earth drum magnetic separator
[Feed 5a Conducting fraction]
Details Weight, % Monazite, % Recovery, %
Magnetic fraction 94.7 0.0009 2.8
Non-Magnetic fraction 5.3 0.55 97.2
Total 100 0.03 100
(c) Results of magnetic separator using rare earth drum magnetic separator
[Feed 5a Non-Conducting fraction]
Details Weight, % Monazite, % Recovery, %
Magnetic fraction 82.2 0.005 0.2
Non-Magnetic fraction 17.8 9.92 99.8
Total 100 1.77 100
(d) Results of magnetic separator using rare earth roller magnetic separator
[Feed 5c Non-Magnetic fraction]
Details Weight, % Monazite, % Recovery, %
Magnetic fraction 17.9 52.3 94.6
Non-Magnetic fraction 82.1 0.65 5.4
Total 100 9.9 100
(e) Results of HTRS separator on rare earth roller magnetic product [feed 5d Magnetic fraction]
Details Weight, % Monazite, % Recovery, %
Conducting fraction 20.0 5.7 2.1
Non-Conducting fraction 80.0 64.0 97.9
Total 100 52.3 100
(f) Results of REDMS separator on HTRS roller Non-Conducting fraction [feed 5d Non-Magnetic fraction]
Details Weight, % Monazite, % Recovery, %
Magnetic fraction 52.3 54.20 44.5
Non-Magnetic fraction 47.7 74.06 55.5
Total 52.3 64.00 100
(g) Results of magnetic separator using rare earth roller magnetic separator
[feed 5f Non-Magnetic fraction]
Details Weight, % Monazite, % Recovery, %
Magnetic fraction 95.2 75.88 97.6
Non-Magnetic fraction 4.8 37.60 2.4
Total 100 74.06 100
(h) Results of magnetic separator using induced roller magnetic separator
[feed 5g Magnetic fraction]
Details Weight, % Monazite, % Recovery, %
Magnetic fraction 95.2 75.88 97.6
Non-Magnetic fraction 4.8 37.60 2.4
Total 100 74.06 100
Minerals 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 22
Minerals 2024, 14, 139 12 of 20

Figure10.
Figure Dryprocess
10.Dry processfor
forrecovery
recovery of
of monazite
monaziteflow
flowsheet
sheetwith
withthe
themass
massbalance
balancefrom a lean-grade
from a lean‐grade
shoreplacer
shore placerback
backdune
dune sand
sand sample.
sample.
Minerals 2024, 14, 139 13 of 20

It is a very important observation to mention here that the monazite grains are finer
in size than other valuable minerals. This observation is supported by the present data
shown in Figure 6. It is a fact that the finer range of minerals cannot be separated effectively
from the other population of heavy minerals. In view of this, an attempt is made to use
an electrostatic separator plate type, which is designed for the recovery of fine-conducting
minerals. Thus, to purify the monazite from other associated titanium minerals, an attempt
is made to use a plate separator. It may be necessary to explain the principle of operation
of the electrostatic separator, which is being used for fine particles. In the coastal area,
where the mineral separation plants are commissioned to recover all individual heavy
minerals, the humidity is very high, which results in the fine particles absorbing the
humidity instantly and retaining the moisture along the surface of the mineral and among
the inter-space of mass of minerals.
The results of the high-tension roller separator [HTRS] on the rare earth roller magnetic
product [Table 5d] are given in Table 5e. A Roll Magnetic Separator [RMS] is a roll-type
dry magnetic separator with twin rollers, one with a fixed magnet having a high field
intensity and gradient. Ore particles are conveyed to the magnetic field by means of a
belt fixed to the separator. The performance of Roll Magnetic Separators is found to be
superior as compared to other magnets as they make it possible to separate very fine
low-magnetic minerals with a high recovery. The data obtained from the roller magnetic
separator indicate that monazite product can be enriched to 64% monazite by weight in the
non-conducting fraction. However, the value loss is around 5% monazite in the conducting
fraction. The non-conducting fraction has been further processed using a rare earth drum
magnetic separator [REDMS; Table 5f], which separates magnetic particles by attracting
them due to high magnetic field strength and separates them from the non-magnetic
particles. The magnetic fraction has been enriched to 74.06% monazite [Table 5f] from a
feed containing 64% monazite. However, the monazite mineral losses are significantly high.
A total 54.2% monazite by weight is found to be present in the magnetic fraction. In the
present investigation, magnetic particles cannot be firmly held until they are carried out of
the magnetic field.
The non-magnetic fraction of REDMS, which contains 74.06% monazite by weight
[Table 5f], has been further subjected [Table 5g] to a Rare Earth Roller Magnetic Separator
[RERMS]. Magnetic roll separators are effective for the concentration of dry granular
materials with particle sizes in the range of 75 microns to millimetres. It is observed from
the results [Table 5g] that there is no significant effect on the enrichment of monazite content
even though the particle ranges are within the specification of the unit. It has enriched from
74.06 to 75.88% monazite content. The reason may be that as the magnetic roll generates
very little static charge on the surface, there is a maximum carryover of coarse particles into
the magnetic fraction. Thus, it could not produce a good grade and recovery of valuable
monazite minerals. Hence, further experiments were carried out on the induced roller
magnetic separator, and the results are given in Table 5h.
The Induced Roll Magnetic Separator (IRMS) is used for the continuous separation of
smaller paramagnetic particles, and it is also used for mineral purification in a wide range
of applications in the mineral processing industries. The high magnetic field in an Induced
Roll Magnetic Separator is created via electromagnetism.In operation, the material is fed
from a hopper or vibratory feeder at a controlled rate onto the high-intensity magnetic
roll. Paramagnetic material is attracted onto the roll face or is deflected towards the roll.
Non-magnetic material is released from the face at a normal trajectory.Captured magnetic
material is discharged off the roll face at a point of lower magnetic intensity, aided by a
brush. The data obtained from induced rollers reveal that enrichment of monazite from
75.88% to 77.85% monazite mineral concentration has been achieved in a magnetic fraction
[Table 5h]. However, the loss of the value of 38.42% monazite is noticed in the non-magnetic
fraction. It may be noted here that the magnetic separation of monazite minerals is based
on a three-way competition between [1] magnetic forces, [2] gravitational or inertial forces,
and [3] inter-particle attractive and repulsive forces. Thus, the combination of these forces
Minerals 2024, 14, 139 14 of 20

determines the outcome of any given magnetic separation and is much affected by the
nature of the feed, such as size distribution, magnetic susceptibility, and other physical and
chemical characteristics. In view of these factors involved, as expected, further enrichment
with reference to monazite concentration could not take place. It can be clearly seen from
the data presented in the flowsheet with the mass balance drawn for recovery of total
monazite in Figure 10. It is observed from the flowsheet that the end product obtained
contains 77.85% monazite with 40% recovery and 0.19% yield from a series of electrostatic
separators and magnetic separators, which is a totally dry process. It may be noted here
that Kwanho Kim and SoobokJeong [26] studied the separation of monazite from Korean
placer deposit using magnetic separation and achieved an end product containing the
total rare earth oxide (TREO) (%) of the REE-bearing mineral monazite concentrates which
reached 45.0%. Asnani et al. [26] studied the recovery of monazite from red sediments of
badlands topography of the southeast coast of India and its characterization for industrial
applications and found that 67% recovery was achieved by using a series of dry magnetic
separators. Moumar et al. [5] studied monazite recovery using magnetic and gravity
separation of medium-grade zircon concentrate from a Senegalese heavy mineral sands
deposit and concluded that a monazite grade containing 4.5% with 40% recovery could
be possible by using a combination of gravity and magnetic separators. Since magnetic
separation alone does not produce the desired grade of monazite, an attempt is made for
flotation of the magnetic product.

3.5. Judicious Combination of Dry and Wet Processes to Recover Monazite Concentrate
The feed sample weighing 15 tons contains 0.01% monazite and has been subjected to
a spiral, and the product obtained contains 0.33% monazite. A high-tension separator using
a corona stat roll has been used on the spiral product to separate titania minerals initially in
the conducting fraction, and the non-conducting minerals, which contain 1.77%monazite,
have been enriched to 9.92% monazite by using a rare earth drum magnetic separator
and, further, have been upgraded to 52.3% monazite by using a rare earth roller magnetic
separator. These data have been reported earlier in Table 5d.
Since the end product was obtained using a totally dry process using high-tension
separators, magnetic separators are not satisfactory. An alternate method using flotation
followed by magnetic separation studies has been further carried out on a feed sample
containing 52.3% monazite.
In this second approach, instead of a high-tension separator, the flotation process
has been attempted to recover fine-grained monazite. It is a known fact and industrially
accepted that flotation is a process for fine-particle separation [27–32]. In view of this, an
attempt is made in the present investigation to float monazite by using a flotation process.
A few researchers also attempted to recover monazite minerals from other associated
minerals by using a flotation process [8–22,32]. The results of the beneficiation studies
using the flotation process to enrich the monazite content are presented in Table 6a–g.

Table 6. Beneficiation studies including wet and dry processes on recovery of monazite mineral
concentrate from total heavy mineral concentrate [containing 0.33% monazite] obtained using a
gravity separator using spiral concentrator [feed containing 0.01% monazite].

(a) Results of high-tension separator using corona stat roll

Details Weight, % Monazite, % Recovery, %
Conducting fraction 82.73 0.03 7.5
Non-Conducting fraction 17.27 1.77 92.5
Total 100 0.33 100
Minerals 2024, 14, 139 15 of 20

Table 6. Cont.

(b) Results of magnetic separator using rare earth drum magnetic separator
[Feed Table 6a Conducting fraction]
Details Weight, % Monazite, % Recovery, %
Magnetic fraction 94.7 0.0009 2.8
Non-Magnetic fraction 5.3 0.55 97.2
Total 100 0.03 100
(c) Results of magnetic separator using rare earth drum magnetic separator
[Feed Table 6b Non-Conducting fraction]
Details Weight, % Monazite, % Recovery, %
Magnetic fraction 82.2 0.005 0.2
Non-Magnetic fraction 17.8 9.92 99.8
Total 100 1.77 100
(d) Results of magnetic separator using rare earth roller magnetic separator [Feed Table 6c Non-Magnetic fraction]
Details Weight, % Monazite, % Recovery, %
Magnetic fraction 17.9 52.3 94.6
Non-Magnetic fraction 82.1 0.65 5.4
Total 100 9.9 100
(e) Results of flotation studies using conventional cell [Feed Table 6d Magnetic fraction]
Details Weight, % Monazite, % Recovery, %
Concentrate -froth 70.9 72.3 98.1
Tailing 29.1 3.4 1.9
Total 100 52.3 100
(f) Results of 2nd stage flotation studies using cleaner conventional cell [Feed Table 6e Concentrate- froth fraction]
Details Weight, % Monazite, % Recovery, %
Concentrate -froth 74.4 95.67 98.5
Tailing 25.6 4.20 1.5
Total 100 72.25 100
(g) Results of magnetic separator using rare earth roller magnetic separator [Feed Table 6f Concentrate- froth fraction]
Details Weight, % Monazite, % Recovery, %
Magnetic fraction 96.6 98.89 99.9
Non-Magnetic fraction 3.4 3.50 0.1
Total 100 95.67 100
(h) Summary of selected tailings for recirculation to recover monazite mineral.
Reference No Product details Weight, % Monazite, % Recovery, %
6b Non-Magnetic fraction 4.40 0.55 7.3
6d Non-Magnetic fraction 2.54 0.65 5.3
6e Flotation Tailing 0.16 3.40 1.6
6f Flotation Tailing 0.10 4.20 1.3
6g Non-Magnetic fraction 0.01 3.50 0.1
Total Total 7.21 0.70 15.6

The rare earth roller magnetic separator magnetic fraction product containing 52.3%
monazite has been subjected to conventional flotation. The froth product has been enriched
Minerals 2024, 14, 139 16 of 20

to 72.3% [monazite Table 6e] from a feed sample containing 52.3% monazite [Table 6d]. This
froth concentrate has been further subjected to cleaner flotation cells, and experiments were
carried out without any addition of chemicals. The flotation product achieved contains
95.67% monazite [Table 6f]. This may be due to the fact that flotation froth products
Minerals 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
may
17 of 22
contain both weakly magnetic monazite minerals, paramagnetic monazite minerals, etc.
Moreover, since this monazite grade is not acceptable by industries, this product has to
be cleaned using high-intensityhigh-gradient magnetic separators. In view of this, this
arator
productand
was achieved
cleanedaby grade
usingcontaining
a rare earth98.89%
rollermonazite
magnetic[Table 6g]. All
separator andthe non‐magnetic
achieved a grade
fractions and flotation tailings [Table 6b,d–g] containing 0.70% monazite
containing 98.89% monazite [Table 6g]. All the non-magnetic fractions and flotation with an tailings
overall
7.21% weight were preserved for further recovery of monazite. It is important
[Table 6b,d–g] containing 0.70% monazite with an overall 7.21% weight were preserved for to discuss
the effect
further of oleicofacid
recovery addition
monazite. It to water. Thetononpolar
is important endeffect
discuss the of theofoleic
oleicacid
acid molecule
addition tois
hydrophobic. As a result,
water. The nonpolar end ofwhen a drop
the oleic acidofmolecule
an oleic is
acid solution is placed
hydrophobic. on the
As a result, surface
when of
a drop
the
of anwater, the oleic
oleic acid acidismolecules
solution placed on the form a thinoflayer
surface as thethe
the water, alcohol evaporates.
oleic acid moleculesInform
this
process, the ‘oleic acid adsorbed monazite’ can be floated very easily when
a thin layer as the alcohol evaporates. In this process, the ‘oleic acid adsorbed monazite’ compared to
other minerals associated with monazite, and hence, a flotation process
can be floated very easily when compared to other minerals associated with monazite, and has been at‐
tempted on the magnetic
hence, a flotation process fractions.
has been attempted on the magnetic fractions.
The flow sheet with the mass balance drawn on the recovery of total monazite is
shown in Figure 11. It It is
is observed
observed fromfrom the
the flowsheet
flowsheet that thethe end
end product
product obtained using
flotation contains 95.7% monazite with 84% recovery and 0.29% yield.

Figure
Figure 11.
11. Process
Process flow
flow sheet
sheet for
for the
the recovery
recovery of
of monazite
monazite with
with mass
mass balance
balance on
on aa lean‐grade
lean-grade shore
shore
placer sample.
placer sample.

On cleaning this product by using a rare earth roller magnetic separator, the overall
magnetic
magnetic product
product achieved
achieved contained
contained 98.89%
98.89% monazite
monazite with
with 83.9%
83.9% recovery
recovery and
and 0.28%
0.28%
yield. Thus,
Thus, the
the inclusion
inclusion of
of aa flotation
flotation followed
followed byby magnetic
magnetic separation
separation processes is
recommended
recommended to to industries
industries for
for the recovery
recovery of fine monazite from a lean‐grade
lean-grade offshore
placer deposit.
It is important to justify the present investigation
investigation to recover
recover monazite
monazite from
from a very
lean grade (0.01% monazite) by using judicious combinations of gravity, high-tension high‐tension
separators, magnetic
separators, magnetic separators,
separators, flotation,
flotation, and
and cleaning
cleaning using a magnetic separator;the
product achieved
achieved contains
contains98.89%
98.89%monazite.
monazite.Because
Becauseofofmultiple
multiple combinations
combinationsof of
physical
phys‐
separation
ical unitsunits
separation and handling a largeatonnage
and handling of material,
large tonnage the reproducibility
of material, of monazite
the reproducibility of
monazite at any unit operation is found difficult. However, it is worth recovering mona‐
zite mineral, which is a source of uranium and thorium as well as rare earth elements and
is very high in demand for humankind due to advancements in technologies. In view of
this, the recovery of monazite is not to be considered for the economic profitability of the
process. However, it is observed in each mineral sand industry, in the particle size of
Minerals 2024, 14, 139 17 of 20

at any unit operation is found difficult. However, it is worth recovering monazite mineral,
which is a source of uranium and thorium as well as rare earth elements and is very high in
demand for humankind due to advancements in technologies. In view of this, the recovery
of monazite is not to be considered for the economic profitability of the process. However,
Minerals 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 22
it is observed in each mineral sand industry, in the particle size of beach sand minerals,
even though it is very wide from 600 to 50 µm size range, the effective particle size range
available varies for each mineral occurrence, which can clearly be seen from Figure 12.
seen from Figure
Similarly, 12.Similarly,
the equipment usedthe equipment
in the beach sandusedmineral
in the beach sandtomineral
industry recoverindustry
individual to
recover individual minerals is designed in a very wide size range from 600
minerals is designed in a very wide size range from 600 to 50 µm, but the effective operating to 50 μm, but
the effective
of unit operating
operations of industries
in the unit operations in theits
are having industries
own sizeare having itswhich
limitations, own size
can limita‐
also be
tions,
seen in which
Figure can12.also be though
Even seen in the
Figure 12. Even
present though the
investigators arepresent investigators
interested in discussingare the
in‐
terested
effectivein discussing
size the effective
range relation betweensize
the range relation between
unit operations the unit
and mineral size operations and
ranges, because
mineral
the datasize are ranges,because
under the control theof
data
theare under theof
Department control
atomicofenergy,
the Department of atomic
it is not possible to
energy, it is not possible to publish the sensitive data. But at reader
publish the sensitive data. But at reader can understand the relationship between thecan understand the
relationship
mineral particle between the mineral
size and equipmentparticle sizesize
particle andlimits
equipment particlesand
in the beach sizeindustry
limits indata
the
beach sandinindustry
presented data presented in Figure 12.
Figure 12.

Figure 12. Beach sand particle size range and beach sand mineral processing particle size limit.
Figure 12. Beach sand particle size range and beach sand mineral processing particle size limit. (A)
(A) Beach sand general size range and normally available effective size range and (B) beach sand
Beach sand general size range and normally available effective size range and (B) beach sand min‐
mineral
eral processing
processing equipment
equipment general
general particle
particle size range
size range limit limit for operation
for operation and,
and, in in practice,
practice, the
the limit
limit of particle size for mineral processing equipment used in the
of particle size for mineral processing equipment used in the industry. industry.

3.6. Characterization of Monazite

Monazite grain size and shape images are shown in Figure 13a, and the size analysis
of monazite is shown in Figure 13b. It can be seen from Figure 13a that the monazite grains
are sub-rounded to rounded, which indicates that the monazite grains are travelled via
different transport media such as streams, rivers, and wind and are concentrated at the
coast. Interestingly, the monazite grains are finer in size, which can be seen from Figure 13b.
The data indicate that the d80 passing size of monazite grains is 150 microns.
 of monazite is shown in Figure 13b. It can be seen from Figure 13a that the monazite
grains are sub‐rounded to rounded, which indicates that the monazite grains are trav‐
elled via different transport media such as streams, rivers, and wind and are concen‐
trated at the coast. Interestingly, the monazite grains are finer in size, which can be seen
Minerals 2024, 14, 139 from Figure 13b. The data indicate that the d80 passing size of monazite grains is 15018 ofmi‐
20
crons.

Figure 13. (a) Monazite grain shape and (b) size analysis of the product.
Figure 13. (a) Monazite grain shape and (b) size analysis of the product.

The monazite
The monazite sample
sample analysis
analysis isis given
given in
in Table
Table 7.
7. The
The data
data given
given in
in Table
Table 77 indicate
indicate
that the monazite contains more cerium oxide, and hence, it can be concluded
that the monazite contains more cerium oxide, and hence, it can be concluded that that the
the
monazite of the Bramhagiri source is cerium monazite. This observation has been
monazite of the Bramhagiri source is cerium monazite. This observation has been published pub‐
lished
by by Deependra
Deependra Singh
Singh et al. inettheir
al. instudy
their study
on theon the textural
textural and chemical
and chemical characteris‐
characteristics of
tics of lean‐grade placer monazite of the Bramhagiri Coast, Odisha,
lean-grade placer monazite of the Bramhagiri Coast, Odisha, India [32]. India [32].

Table 7.
Table 7. Monazite
Monazite sample
sample analysis,
analysis, purity:
purity: 96.3%
96.3% by
by Wt.
Wt.

Constituents
Constituents Percentage
Percentage Constituents
Constituents Percentage
Percentage
P2O5 27.4 Y2O3 0.42
P2 O5 27.4 Y 2 O3 0.42
La2O3 12.8 Tb4O7 0.11
La2 O3 12.8 Tb4 O7 0.11
CeO2 27.5 Dy2O3 0.28
CeO2 27.5 Dy2 O3 0.28
Pr 6O11 3.1 ZrO2 0.4
Pr
Nd 6O
2O113 3.1
10.8 ZrO
Al2O 23 0.4
0.2
Nd
Sm22OO33 10.8
2.1 AlTiOO
2 32 0.2
0.3
Eu22O33
Sm 0.06
2.1 SiO2 2
TiO 0.9
0.3
Gd
Eu22OO33 0.71
0.06 CaO
SiO2 1.1
0.9
Fe2O
Gd O3 0.28
0.71 MgO
CaO 0.72
1.1
2 3

Fe O
2 3 0.28 MgO 0.72
The rare earth element (REE) geochemistry of monazites of the Bramhagiri coastal
sand deposit has been studied using the ICP method. The average LREE concentration is
The which
57.07%, rare earth element
is more (REE)
than geochemistry
the HREE. As perofthemonazites
Atomic of the Bramhagiri
Minerals Divisioncoastal
(AMD)sand
re‐
deposit hasthe
ports [32], been studied
Odisha usingsand
coastal the ICP method.
contains U3OThe average
8 0.161% andLREE
ThOconcentration
28.348%. The is LREE
57.07%, is
which is more
more than than the
actinides (ThHREE.
+ U), As per the
which Atomic
indicates Minerals
that Division (AMD)
the provenance reportsin[32],
for monazite the
the Odisha
study area coastal sand contains
is garnet‐bearing U3 O8 0.161%
paragenesis rocksand
suchThO ∑LREE
8.348%. The and
as2charnockites is more than
metapelitic rock
actinides (Th
(khondalite). + U), which indicates that the provenance for monazite in the study area is
garnet-bearing paragenesis rocks such as charnockites and metapelitic rock (khondalite).

4. Conclusions
The present investigation on developing a process flowsheet for recovering monazite
from a lean-grade offshore placer deposit of Bramhagiri, Odisha, India, has given the
following conclusions.
• The bulk raw sand weighing 15 tons contains 0.01% monazite. By using judicious
CT spirals and HG8 spirals, the end product achieved from the spiral contains
0.33% monazite.
Minerals 2024, 14, 139 19 of 20

• The first approach for recovery of monazite is by using high-tension separators and
magnetic separators—a dry process resulting in a product achieved containing 77.85%
monazite with 40% recovery and 0.19% yield.
• In the second approach, by introducing the flotation process on the non-conducting
and magnetic fraction, the end product achieved contained 95.7% monazite with 84%
recovery and 0.29% yield.
• On cleaning this flotation product by using a rare earth roller magnetic separator, the
overall magnetic product achieved contains 98.89% monazite with 83.9% recovery and
0.28% yield from a spiral product containing monazite 0.33%.
• Thus, the inclusion of a flotation process followed by cleaning of the flotation product
by using magnetic separation is recommended to the industries for the recovery of
high-grade monazite from a lean-grade offshore placer deposit containing 4.72% total
heavy minerals in which the monazite content is 0.01%.
• The d80 passing size of monazite is 150 microns, and this monazite contains more
LREE in which cerium rare earth is significant. Thus, this monazite has significant
industrial applications.
• Because of multiple combinations of physical separation units and handling a large
tonnage of material, the reproducibility of monazite at any unit operation is found
difficult. However, it is worth recovering monazite mineral, which is a source of
uranium and thorium as well as rare earth elements and is very high in demand for
humankind due to advancements in technologies. In view of this, the recovery of
monazite is not to be considered for the economic profitability of the process.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, R.B.R.; methodology, D.S.; software, A.S.; validation, S.B.;
formal analysis, A.S.; investigation, D.S.; resources, B.M.; data curation, S.B.; writing—original draft
preparation, D.S.; writing—review and editing, R.B.R.; visualization, R.B.R.; supervision, S.B.; project
administration, B.M.; funding acquisition, D.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement: Data are contained within the article.
Acknowledgments: The authors are thankful to the organization for the encouragement to carry
out the experiments and for publication. One of the authors is expressing his deep gratitude to his
research supervisors and is encouraged to write this paper for publication. He also expresses his
sincere thanks to his organization for financial support to carry out this work and for publication.
Conflicts of Interest: Deependra Singh, Bighnaraj Mishra, Ankit Sharma and Raghupatruni Bhima
Rao were employed by the IREL (India) Limited. The remaining authors declare that the research
was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as
a potential conflict of interest.

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