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3
 ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
(22CH101)

DEPARTMENT CSE, CSD, ADS, IT

BATCH/YEAR 2022-2023/II

CREATED BY CHEMISTRY DIVISION

DATE 01/11/2023

4
 Table of Contents
Topics Page No.
S.No.
1 Course Objectives 7
2 Syllabus 8

3 Course outcomes 9

4 CO-PO mapping 10

5 Lecture Plan 11
6 Activity Based Learning 12

7 Unit –IV Smart Materials 14

4.1 Smart Materials 15

4.2 Introduction 17

4.3 Terminologies 17

4.4 Classification of polymer 19

4.5 Smart Polymeric materials 22

4.6 Piezoelectric Polymers 24

4.7 Electro Active polymers 27

4.8 Biodegradable polymers 29

4.9 Composites 32

4.10 Fibre-reinforced plastic (FRP) 37

4.11 Kevlar 38

4.12 Introduction to Shape Memory Alloys 42

5
 Table of Contents
Topics Page No.
S.No.
4.13 Shape memory effect 44
4.14 Functional properties of SMAs 47
4.15 Nitinol(Ni-Ti) alloys 48
4.16 Applications of SMA 51
4.17 Introduction to Chromogenic materials 53
4.18 Types and applications of Chromogenic
54
Materials
8 Practice Quiz 63
9 Assignments 64
10 Part A Questions and Answers 65
11 Part B Questions 74
12 Supportive Online Certification Courses 75
13 Real Time Applications 76
14 Content Beyond the Syllabus 80
15 Do it yourself 84
16 Prescribed Textbooks and Reference Books 90
17 Mini Project suggestions 91

6
 COURSE OBJECTIVES

Objectives:

The goal of this course is to achieve conceptual understanding of the

applications of chemistry in engineering and technology. The syllabus is
designed to:

•To understand the water quality criteria and interpret its applications in water
purification.

• To gain insights on the basic concepts of electrochemistry and implement its

applications in Chemical Sensors.

• To acquire knowledge on the fundamental principle of energy storage devices

and relate it to Electric Vehicles.

• To identify the different types of smart materials and explore its applications
in Engineering and Technology.

• To assimilate the preparation, properties and applications of nanomaterials in

various fields.

7
22CH101-ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY L T P C 3024

8
 COURSE OUTCOMES

COs Outcomes

Interpret the water quality parameters and explain the various

CO 1
water treatment methods.

CO 2 Construct the electrochemical cells and sensors.

Compare different energy storage devices and predict its

CO 3
relevance in Electric Vehicles.

Classify different types of smart materials, their properties and

CO 4
applications in engineering and technology.

Integrate the concepts of nano chemistry and enumerate its

CO 5
applications in various fields.

9
 Course Outcome mapping with POs / PSOs

PO PO PO1 PO1
COs PO1 PO2 PO 4PO5 PO 6 PO7 PO 8 PO10
3 9 1 2

CO1 2 1 2

CO2 2 2 2

CO3 2 1 2

CO4 2 1 2

CO5 2 2 2

10
 LECTURE PLAN
S. No. Topics to be covered No. of Proposed Actual CO Taxonomy Mode of
periods date lecture level delivery
date

04/11/23 CO4 K2 PPT

Polymers – Definition
– Classification –
1 1
smart polymeric
materials

piezoelectric 06/11/23 CO4 K2 PPT

polymers -
preparation,
2 properties and 1
applications of
polyvinylidene
fluoride (PVDF)
Electroactive 08/11/23 CO4 K2 PPT
polymer:
preparation,
3 1
properties and
applications of
polyaniline (PANI)

Biodegradable 10/11/23 CO4 K2 PPT

polymer –
preparation,
4 1
properties and
applications of
polylactic acid (PLA).

15/11/23 CO4 K2 PPT

Polymer composites -
5 Definition, 1
Classification –FRP

16/11/23 CO4 K2 PPT

6 FRP’s - Kevlar 1

Shape Memory Alloys 18/11/23 CO4 K2 PPT

7 – Introduction, 1
Shape memory effect
Functional properties 20/11/23 CO4 K2 PPT
of SMAs –Nitinol(Ni-
8 Ti) alloys – 1
applications.

Chromogenic 21/11/23 CO4 K2 PPT

materials –
9 Introduction – Types 1
and applications.
11
 ACTIVITY BASED LEARNING

• Activity based learning helps students express and embrace their curiosity.

• Once the students become curious, they tend to explore and learn by themselves.

• To evoke curiosity in students the following activities are given

Semantic Mapping Mind Mapping

Example:

12
 Think-Pair-Share
Q.No. 1 Piezoelectric What my partner What do we
What are the smart materials/ has written? share?
materials used by us Electro active
every day life? materials/
Biodegradable
materials

1.
2…etc.
Q.No. 2 Applications
of these materials

Q.No. 3 Does all

smart materials are
eco friendly? If so
why

13
 UNIT - IV

SMART MATERIALS

14
4.1 Smart Materials:
Smart materials are the materials that can significantly alter one or more of their inherent
properties in response to its environment. The several external factors to which the smart materials
are sensitive to stress, temperature, moisture ,pH, electric field, magnetic field. It can respond in
various ways, by altering colour or transparency, becoming conductive, permeable to water or by
changing shape.

Smart Materials

Significant Features of Smart Materials:

⮚Materials which can think on their own & have
❖ Mental alertness
❖quick perception
❖speedy activity
❖Effectiveness
❖spirited liveliness
❖Intelligence
⮚Smart materials can respond to a change & are
❖able to receive information(sensing the problem)
❖able to analyze & decide(processing the information)
❖ able to act on the decision(actuating the process)

15
TYPES OF SMART MATERIALS:
Different types of Smart Materials are
⮚ Shape Memory Alloys
⮚ Piezoelectric Materials
⮚Magnetostrictive Materials
⮚Magneto-Rheological Fluids

TYPES OF SMART
MATERIALS
Shape memory
Piezoelectric

Magnetostrictive

Magnetostrictive

Applications of Smart Materials

⮚Smart switches & actuators
⮚Safety device, fuse, alarms
⮚ Artificial limbs, blood vessels & muscles Adhesive tapes/bands (time bound adhesive property
/painless removal/healing property)
⮚ Food packaging industry-wrappers
⮚Smart spoons ( Temperature sensitive polymers)
⮚Smart nose & tongue ( recognition characteristics)
⮚Smart clothes ( Adaptive to temperature changes)
⮚Aircraft which will incorporate "smart materials” that will allow the wings of a craft to change shape
for optimal flying conditions.

16
4.2 Introduction
The word ‘polymer’ was introduced by the Swedish chemist Jone Jakob Berzelius. In Greek, the
two words ‘poly’ means many and ‘meros’ means parts or units. Christian Friedrich Schonbein, in
the year 1847, produced cellulose nitrate out of cellulose-nitric acid reaction. Leo Hendrik
Baekeland, during 1907, produced the first synthetic plastic Bakelite (phenol-formaldehyde
resin).
Polymers are essential and used in our daily life. It finds many applications like various industries
and medical fields because they possess good mechanical strength, thermal stability, chemical
resistance, resistant to corrosion, easy to fabricate and safe to use. Polyurethanes are emerging
as next-generation artificial heart valves because of their durability. Blended polymers are used
as light-emitting devices because of their flexibility and lightweight. Biopol (Polyhydroxybutyrate)
has a wide range of uses such as packaging, shampoo bottles, disposable razors, disposable
cups, surgical stitches, surgical pins, disposable knives, etc., because of its biodegradability. The
discovery of the electrical conductivity of polyacetylene has paved the way for electronic
industries. (Hideki Shirakawa, Alan Heeger, and Alan MacDiarmid received the Nobel Prize in
Chemistry in 2000 for their research on conductive polymers).

4.3 Terminologies:

4.3.1 Monomer:

The term ‘monomer’ combines the prefix mono-, which means ‘one’, and the suffix-mer, which
means ‘part’. A monomer is a small molecule that reacts with a similar molecule to form a larger
molecule.

E.g. Vinylchloride, tetrafluoroethylene, etc.

4.3.2 Polymers:- Polymers are macromolecules (large molecule) formed by the

repeated linking of large number o f small molecules called polymers
E.g. Polyethylene, Polyvinylchloride etc.

17
Example 1: Polyethylene is a polymer formed by the repeated linked of large number of
ethylene molecules.

Example 2: PVC is a polymer formed by the repeated linking of large number of Vinyl
Chloride molecules

4.3.3 Polymerisation:
•Polymerisation is a process by which two or more identical or different types of
monomers combine with or without eliminating small molecules such as water,
methanol, etc to form a macromolecular substance.
E.g. 1. Polyvinylchloride formed by the combination of vinyl chloride monomers.
2. Bakelite formed by the different types of repeating units of phenol and
formaldehyde monomers.

18
4.4 Classification of polymers:
Polymers are classified in different ways, as given below:

19
Polymers are classified into four main categories. They are as follows:
(1) Based on the source. (Origin)
(2) Based on the structure.
(3) Based on the Intermolecular Forces
(4) Based on the mode of synthesis

(1) Based on the source (Origin)

On the basis of source or origin, the polymers are sub-classified into two types. They
are:

(a)Natural Polymers : The polymers which are isolated from natural materials such
as plants and animals are called natural polymers.
(Eg) (i) Starch, (ii) Cellulose, (iii) Proteins, (iv) Nucleic acid, (v) Natural rubber.

(b) Semi-synthetic Polymers: A Semi-synthetic polymers is also a natural polymers,

which undergoes some chemical modification, to improve its properties is called Semi-
synthetic polymers.
(Eg) (i) Cellulose Acetate, (ii) Cellulose nitrate.

(c) Synthetic Polymers: The polymers which are prepared artificially in the
laboratories are referred to as synthetic polymers (or) man- made polymers.
(Eg) (i) Polyethylene, (ii) Teflon, (iii) Nylon, (iv) PVC, (v) Polyester, (vi) Polystyrene.

(2) Based on the structure:

Based on the structure, the polymers are classified as follows:
(a) Linear polymers: In Linear polymers, the monomeric units are linked together to
form a long straight chain. (Eg) Polyethylene, polyester
(b) Branched chain polymers: Monomers join together to form a long straight chain
with some branched chains of different lengths. (Eg) Glycogen
(c) Cross-linked polymers: In this type of polymers, monomers are linked together
to form a three-dimensional network. (Eg) Bakelite, Formaldehyde resin

21
Polymers based on the structures
(3) Based on the Intermolecular Forces:
Based on the Intermolecular forces, the polymers are classified as follows:
(a) Elastomers : Elastomers are rubber-like solid polymers, that are elastic in nature.
(Eg) Rubber (Natural / Synthetic)
(b) Fibers : Strong, thread like in nature, high tensile strength , less elasticity and can
easily be woven in to fabrics. (Eg) Silk, Nylon
(c) Thermoplastic polymers : Thermoplastic long-chain polymers in which inter-
molecules force holds the polymer chains together.
These polymers are softened on heating and hardened
on cooling.(Eg) PVC, Polyethylene
(d) Thermosetting polymers : These polymers greatly improve the material’s
mechanical properties. It provides enhanced chemical
and heat resistance. (Eg) Bakalite

(4) Based on the mode of synthesis

Based on the Intermolecular forces, the polymers are classified as follows:
(a)Addition Polymers: These type of polymers are formed by the repeated addition of
monomer molecules. (Eg) Polyethylene, PVC.

(a)Condensation Polymers: These polymers are formed by the combination of

monomers, with the elimination of small molecules like
water, alcohol etc. (Eg) Nylon-6,6 , polyesters.

22
4.5 Smart Polymeric materials
Smart polymers, also called stimuli-responsive polymers or intelligent materials, are
designed materials that have one or more properties that can be significantly changed in
a controlled fashion by external stimuli such as stress, temperature, moisture, pH,
electric or magnetic fields.

Factors sensitive to smart polymers

4.5.1 Examples of Smart polymeric materials:

•Synthetic spider web: This material is not only five times stronger than steel, but
also has great elasticity. Its potential uses include: bulletproof clothing, artificial skin for
burns or waterproof adhesives.

Synthetic spider web

•Shrilk: Its main component is chitin, a carbohydrate found in krill shells. Its
decomposition time is only two weeks and it also works as a stimulant for plant growth

Shril
k
23
Graphene: Its potential uses are almost unlimited: batteries with more
autonomy, Cheaper, photovoltaic solar cells, faster computers, flexible electronic
devices, more resistant buildings, bionic limbs, etc.

Graphene

4.5.2 Types of Smart Polymeric Materials:

• Piezoelectric materials

•Shape memory materials

•Chromo active materials

•Electro active materials

•Biodegradable materials

24
4.5.3 Applications of Smart polymers:
Smart polymers appear in highly specialized applications and everyday products alike. They
are used for sensors and actuators such as artificial muscles, the production of hydrogels,
biodegradable and to a great extent in biomedical engineering.

Applications of Smart polymers

4.6 Piezoelectric Polymers:

Piezoelectric polymers are polymers that can generate electric charges on the surface
under pressure/strain thus convert mechanical energy into electrical energy.

Criteria for polymers to exhibit piezoelectricity:

The presence of permanent molecular dipoles
The ability to orient or align the molecular dipoles
The ability to sustain the dipole alignment once it is achieved
The ability of the material to undergo large strains when it mechanically stressed

24
Applications of piezoelectric polymers:
• Piezoelectric motors
•Sensors in medical sectors
•Microphones
•Piezoelectric igniters

Applications of piezoelectric polymers

4.6.1 Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF):

•PVDF is a semi-crystalline, specialty plastic material belonging to the fluoropolymer
family. It is a highly non-reactive thermoplastic fluoropolymer, produced by the
polymerisation of vinylidene fluoride.

Synthesis: Polyvinylidene
fluoride
❑ PVDF is synthesised by the polymerisation of Vinylidene fluoride in the presence of
suitable catalysts.

25
Properties:
•Some of the most characteristic features of PVDF are
• It has a excellent abrasion resistance
• It has a Piezoelectric, pyroelectric properties, Good thermal stability and high crystallinity
•It is resistance to ultraviolet light (UV) , high energy radiation, most chemicals and solvents
•It has high dielectric strength
•It has Low water absorption; absorbs less than 5% water at room temperature

Applications:
• The unique property of piezoelectricity, makes it a good material for transducers in devices
such as headphones, microphones, and sonic detectors.
•As piezoelectric films with commercial adhesives.
•Pyroelectric sensor and laser beam profile sensor and also in filtration and separation
equipment, etc.
•PVDF membrane can be used as separators in lithium-ion batteries
• It is used as a Filaments for additive manufacturing
•It is used in Wire and cable isolators
•It is used in the Water treatment membranes, Biomedical, artificial membranes
Food and pharmaceutical processing.

Applications of PVDF
PVDF films

Headphone
PVDF membrane

PVDF binder for Li-ion

battery

26
4.7 Electro Active polymers
•Electro active polymers or EAP’s are polymers that exhibit a change in size or shape, when
stimulated by an electric charge. It has a very simple structure comprises of films (elastomers)
sandwiched by two compliant electrodes made of a flexible and elastic materials, and can operate
as an electric control generator and actuator. Electro active polymers are lighter, cheaper and can
be made in many different forms. Electro-active polymer can operate in room condition for a long
time. Exhibits high mechanical energy density

4.7.2 Polyaniline (PANI):

Polyaniline (PANI) is one of the most studied conducting polymer or electro activpolymers due to
its high electrical conductivity. It belongs to a semi-flexible rod polymer family (kind of organic
polymer which may be converted to conducting polymers by appropriate oxidations or doping)
and produced as bulk powder, cast films or fibers. Polyaniline (PANI) is high temperature
resistance, good environmental stability, and excellent electrical conductivity

Polyanili
ne

Synthesis

Aniline Polyaniline

•Polymerized from the inexpensive aniline, poly-aniline can be found in one of the three idealized
oxidation states.
•Leucoemeraldine - white/clear and colourless
•Emeraldine – green/blue colour
•Pernigraniline – blue/violet colour 27
Properties:
•The change in the colour of polyaniline associated with different oxidation states
can be used in devices such as sensors and electro chromic devices.
•These are environmentally stable and inert.
•These are optically active.
•Its electrical conductivity lies between the metals Cu and Ag.
•Good catalytic character with photoactivity.
•Lightweight and flexible material.
Applications:
•In sensors, transistors, microchips.
•Used in intelligent packaging (based on colour change, the spoilage of food items
can be known).

Applications of Polyanline

Food Micro Chips

packaging

28
4.8 Biodegradable polymers:
Every Polymer is biodegradable. They degrade in mass, strength and molecular weight with time.
Most of the polymers have a period of 100-1000 years to degrade fully. The specialty of
biodegradable polymers are, they degrade quickly compared to non-biodegradable polymers and their
byproducts are eco-friendly (biocompatible) such as CO2, water, methane and inorganic compounds
or biomass that is easily scavenged by microorganisms.
Biodegradable plastic states that "A plastic designed to undergo a significant change in its chemical
structure under specific environmental conditions. Biodegradable polymers are the degradable plastics
in which degradation results from the action of naturally occurring microorganisms such as bacteria,
fungi and algae.

Applications of biodegradable polymers:

❑Biodegradable polymer for ocular, tissue engineering, vascular, orthopedic, skin adhesive & surgical
glues and gene therapy.
❑Bio degradable drug system for therapeutic agents such as anti tumor, antipsychotic agent, anti-
inflammatory agent.
❑Polymeric materials are used in and on soil to improve aeration, promote plant growth and health.
❑Many biomaterials, especially heart valve replacements and blood vessels, are made of polymers like
Dacron, Teflon and polyurethane.
4.8.1 Classification of Biodegradable polymers:

29
4.8.2 Poly-lactic acid (PLA)
❑Poly –lactic acid (PLA) is one of the most promising biopolymer produced from
non toxic renewable and naturally occurring organic acid-lactic acid.
❑It is thermoplastic with good mechanical property profile, high biocompatibility
and biodegradability properties.
❑Latic acid monomers can be produced from100% renewable resources, like corn
and sugarbeets.
❑Therefore, PLA can be produced and used in an environmentally friendly cycle.

Poly-lactic acid

Synthesis:
Poly Lactic acid prepared by different polymerization process from lactic acid
including poly-condensation, ring opening polymerization and by direct methods
like azeotopic dehydration and enzymatic polymerization.

Ring opening
polymerization
 Properties of Poly (lactic acid)
•It is a linear and thermoplastic polymer.
•It has around 37% crystalline in nature
•Its glass transition temperature is in the range of 50-80o C.
•Melting point-In the temperature range of 70-180 o C
•It can be processed into fibers.
•Soluble in chlorinated solvents, dioxane, benzene and THF.
•Based on its chiral nature, available in l and d forms.
•It is a biodegradable polymer.

Application of Poly (lactic acid)

•As poly (lactic acid) is biodegradable, it is used in many biomedical implants in the form of
plates, pins, rods and screws
•It is also used in other biomedical applications like sutures (commonly called stitches), dialysis
medium, drug delivery devices, etc.
•Its biodegradability made it suitable for disposable items such as food packaging, compost
bags, tableware, cups, etc.
•It is used in the preparation of fibers which are used to make disposable garments, hygiene
production etc.

Application of Poly (lactic acid)

31
 COMPOSITES
4.9 INTRODUCTION
Each class of basic engineering materials like metals, high polymers and ceramics has its own
outstanding and distinct characteristics as well as limitations. However very stringent
requirements of supersonic aircraft, gas turbines and high temperature reactors have forced
to develop a new class of materials called “composites”.
The composite materials are generally made by placing the dissimilar materials together to
work as a single mechanical unit. The properties of new materials so produced are different in
kind and scale from those of any constituents. Thus, it has become possible to incorporate or
alter properties. More than that, it introduces a combination of properties like high strength
and stiffness at elevated temperatures.
Metals for instance, lose their strength at elevated temperatures. High polymeric materials in
general can withstand still lower temperatures. Ceramics, due to their brittleness are
unsatisfactory structural materials. This led to the exploration of combinations of metals and
polymers with ceramics, resulting in composites having required properties that seem to be
the future hope.

Composites:
A materials system composed of two or more physically distinct phases whose combination
produces aggregate properties that are different from those of its constituents.
Generally, one material forms a continuous matrix while the other provides the reinforcement.
Examples: Concrete reinforced with steel
Epoxy reinforced with graphite fibers.
Plastic molding compounds containing fillers, Rubber mixed with carbon black. Composite
materials have a profound place in engineering and high-tech applications. They have an
essential place in the engineering material world. In general, composite materials consist two of
phases or components inside them.

32
One of these phases is ‘matrix’ that givesthe general shape and bulk of composite material.
Matrix materials in composites can be metals, ceramics or polymers. The other component in
composite materials is called the ‘secondary phase’ or ‘reinforcement phase’ added to the
matrix to give reinforcement. With this reinforcement, composite materials have their superior
properties.
Concrete is a composite building material made from a mixture of sand, gravel, crushed rock,
or other aggregates (coarse and fine) held together in a stone like mass with a binder such as
cement and water. Hardened concrete has a high compressive strength and a very low tensile
strength. Steel bars added to concrete which can resist high stretching forces to form
reinforced concrete.
Thus, using composites, it is possible to have such a combination of properties like high
strength and stiffness, corrosion resistance and ability to withstand extremely high-
temperature conditions.

33
Characteristics of composite:
• The importance of composite materials over metals and polymers are given below.
• Higher specific strength.
• Lower specific gravity.
• Higher specific stiffness.
• (Specific modulus is a materials property consisting of the elastic modulus per mass
density of a material. It is also known as the stiffness to weight ratio or specific stiffness.
High specific modulus materials find wide application in aerospace applications where
minimum structural weight is required.)
• Lower electrical conductivity.
• Better corrosion and oxidation resistance.
• Good impact and thermal shock resistance.
• Can be fabricated easily.
• Better creep and fatigue strength.

Constituents of Composites:
Two essential constituents of composites are:
Matrix phase
Dispersed phase.

34
Matrix phase:
A continuous body constituent which encloses the composite and gives a bulk form is called
matrix phase.
The matrix acts as a medium which protects and binds the dispersed phase.
The matrix phase may be metals, ceramics or polymer. Composites using these matrixes are
known as metal matrix composites (MMC), ceramic matrix composites (CMC) and polymer matrix
composites (PMC) respectively. Polymer matrix materials used in composites are epoxy,
polyamide (nylons), phenols, silicons and polysulphones.

Dispersed phase:
The substance which is dispersed in the matrix phase is called the dispersed phase. It constitutes
the internal structure of the composite.

Reinforcing phase used in composites

Glass fibres, Carbon fibres, Aramid fibres, Particulates, Flakes, Whiskers etc., are the reinforcing
phase used in composites

35
Types of composites:

Composites classified based on the matrix and reinforcing type of material.

Composites can be classified into three main groups according to the matrix material, viz.,
polymer matrix composites (PMCs), metal matrix composites (MMCs) and ceramic matrix
composites (CMCs). Polymer materials have found extensive use as matrix materials in aerospace
applications. Only in the late seventies, metals and ceramics were explored as matrix materials.
MMCs offer higher ductility than CMCs and better environmental stability than PMCs. In addition,
MMCs offer considerable improvement in transverse strength, shear strength, electrical and
thermal conductivities and resistance to erosion and abrasion.

36
4.10 Fibre-reinforced plastic (FRP)
⮚Fibre-reinforced plastic (FRP) also called fibre-reinforced polymer, is a composite material made
of a polymer matrix reinforced with fibres.
⮚The fibres are usually glass (in fibreglass), carbon (in carbon-fibre-reinforced polymer), aramid,
or basalt. Rarely, other fibres such as paper, wood, or asbestos have been used.
⮚The polymer is usually an epoxy, vinyl ester, or polyester thermosetting plastic, though phenol
formaldehyde resins are still in use.

Fibre-reinforced plastic
FRP composites exhibit high specific strength and specific stiffness. Due to these advantageous
characteristics, FRP composites have been included in new construction and rehabilitation of
structures through its use as reinforcement in concrete, bridge decks, modular structures,
formwork, and external reinforcement for strengthening and seismic upgrade.
Additionally, FRP reinforcements offer a number of advantages such as corrosion resistance, non-
magnetic properties, high tensile strength, lightweight and ease of handling.
FRPs are commonly used in the aerospace, automotive, marine, and construction industries. They
are commonly found in ballistic armour and cylinders for self-contained breathing apparatuses.

37
4.11 Kevlar
⮚ Kevlar is a Du Pont trade name for poly p-phenyleneterephthalamide (PPD-T).
⮚It is an aramid, i.e. an aromatic polyamide polymer fiber with a very rigid molecular structure.
⮚Kevlar has unique combination of high strength, high modulus, toughness and thermal stability.
⮚It is used for high-performance composite applications where light weight, high strength and
stiffness, damage resistance, and resistance to fatigue, creep, and stress rupture are important. It was
developed for demanding industrial and advanced-technology applications

Kevlar has higher tensile modulus and strength than steel and possess high breaking tenacity. It also
has very high kinetic energy absorption. Kevlar 29 is used in industrial applications such as cables,
asbestos replacement, brake linings, and body armor. Kevlar 49 is considered to have the greatest
tensile strength of all the aramids, and is used in applications such as plastic reinforcement for boat
hulls, airplanes, and bikes.

Polymeric Kevlar
Aramid/kevlar Fibre-Reinforced Polymer Composites
The aramid fibers are most often used in composites having polymer matrices like epoxies and
polyesters. Since the fibres are relatively flexible and somewhat ductile, they may be processed by
textile operations. Aramid fiber (Kevlar) was the first organic fiber used as reinforcement in advanced
composites with better mechanical properties than steel and glass fibers. Aramid fibers are inherently
heat- and flame-resistant, which maintain these properties at high temperatures. The choice of resin
system for use with aramid fibers is an important one. Epoxy resins give better translation of fiber
properties than do polyesters, producing better shear strength and flexural properties but lower
impact resistance. Vinyl ester resins give both good shear strength and impact resistance.
38
Preperation of epoxy-kevlar composite laminates
This method made use of 300 g of Kevlar fiber mat as reinforcement phase
The matrix phase consist of pure bifunctional epoxy resin and hardener usually LY556 and
HY951mixed in the ratio 10:1 and completely homogenized.
The reinforcements and matrix material were added in 1.5:1 weight ratios while fabricating
different composite laminate configurations, the composite laminates were produced by
combining seven layers in different configurations and the hand layup technique was chosen
to make the composite laminates.
The production of each hybrid composite was initiated by placing a 30 cm × 30 cm frame over
a flat surface followed by placing a waxed thin mylar sheet over the frame.
The first layer of reinforcement fiber was placed on the mylar sheet. The epoxy resin mixed
with the hardener was laid over the exposed surface of the reinforcement fiber and distributed
evenly using a metal flat spatula. The second layer was placed over the resin, followed by a
rolling process. Care was taken to ensure that the fibers were oriented with the fibers of the
previous layers. The rollers were applied with even an pressure to ensure that the resin was
pressed and distributed within the fibers. The process was repeated until all of the seven
layers of the reinforcement fibers were placed one over the other. Another mylar sheet was
placed over the top layer of the composite. A uniform pressure was applied with the help of
concentrated weights placed over the top surface, and the wet laminate was made to cure at
atmospheric temperature for an about 24 h.

Hybrid composite of Epoxy resin-Kevlar fibre laminates

39
Properties:
Composites reinforced with para-aramid fibers (Kevlar) have
(i) low density
(ii) high strength and specific modulus
(iii) good tensile fatigue properties
(iv) low compressive strength and inter laminar shear strength
It is generally difficult to obtain both good diametric tolerance and shredding-free surfaces for
the composites reinforced with aramid/kevlar fibers. To prevent it, this type of composite
structure is preloaded by tensile stress and cut by shear force.
Applications:
(i) The use of these composites can reduce the weight by 30% comparing with glass fibre
composite materials.
(ii) To reduce weight and improve economic efficiency, generally, aramid composites have been
widely used in commercial aircraft and helicopters.
(iii) They also have found application in production of a composite toe cap.

Aramid/kevlar composite toe cap

(iv) Typical applications of these composites are in ballistic products (bulletproof vests and
armor), sporting goods, tires, ropes, missile cases, pressure vessels, and as a replacement for
asbestos in automotive brake and clutch linings, and gaskets.
(v) Common commercial uses include body armor, flame-resistant clothing, heat protective
gear, ropes and cables, rubber reinforcement, fiberoptics and thermoplastic pipes.

40
Did you know?

Similar to Kevlar FRP, there are Carbon-reinforced polymer composites are currently
being utilized extensively in sports and recreational equipment (fishing rods, golf clubs),
filament-wound rocket motor cases, automobile parts pressure vessels, and aircraft
structural components—both military and commercial, fixed wing and helicopters (e.g.,
as wing, body, stabilizer, and
rudder components)

41
 4.12 SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS (SMA)
A group of metallic alloys which shows the ability to return to their original shape or size when
they are subjected to heating or cooling are called shape memory alloys.

Generally, shape memory alloys are intermetallic compounds having super lattice structures and
metallic - ionic - covalent characteristics. Thus, they have the properties of both metals and
ceramics.

They are simple, compact highly safe and light in weight. bio - compatible. It
possess super elasticity, wear resistance and corrosion-resistance properties.
Examples of shape memory alloys

Ni – Ti alloy (Nitinol), Cu – Al – Ni alloy, Cu – Al – Ni alloy, Cu – Zn – Al alloy, Au – Cd alloy

Ni – Mn – Ga and Fe based alloys

Types of Shape memory alloys:

There are two types of shape memory alloys

(i)One - way shape memory alloy

(ii)Two - way shape memory alloy

A material which exhibits shape memory effect only upon heating is known as one-way shape
memory alloy.

A material which shows shape memory effect during both heating and cooling is called two-way
shape memory alloy.
Phases of shape memory alloys

Martensite and austenite are two solid phases in SMA

i)Martensite is relatively soft. It is easily deformable phase which exists at low temperature
(monoclinic)

ii)Austenite is a phase that occurs at high temperature having a crystal structure and high degree
of symmetry (cubic)
 Difference between Austenite and Martensite

Austenite Martensite
High Temperature state Low temperature state
Hard, firm Soft
Symmetric Less Symmetric
Inelastic Elastic
Resembles titanium Complex structure
Simple FCC structure Twinned and un-twinned structure
Thermal/Mechanical deformation Heat/stress induced transformation

4.13 Shape memory effect:

The change in shape of a material at low temperature by loading and regaining of

original shape by heating it, is known as shape memory effect. The shape memory effect
occurs in alloys due to the change in their crystalline structure with the change in
temperature and stress.

∙ While loading, twinned martensite becomes deformed martensite at low temperature.

∙ On heating, deformed martensite becomes austenite (shape recovery) and upon cooling
it gets transformed to twinned martensite (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Material crystalline arrangement during shape memory effect

Explanation:

Shape Memory effect describes the effect of restoring the original shape of a plastically
deformed sample by heating it. This phenomenon results from a crystalline phase change
known as thermoelastic martensitic transformation. At temperatures below the transformation
temperature, shape memory alloys are martensitic. In this condition, their microstructure is
characterized by self-accommodating twins. The martensitic is soft and can be deformed quite
by de-twinning. Heating above the transformation temperature recovers the original shape and
converts the material to its high strength, austenitic, condition. The transformation from
austenite to martensite and the reverse transformation from martensite to austenite do not
take place at the same temperature.

Mechanism:

One Way Shape Memory Effect (OWSME):

Consider a single crystal in parent phase (T ≤ Mf)(a). The single crystal is cooled to a
temperature below Mf (b). Then, martensite are formed in a self-accomodation manner(c).
Thus, if an external stress is applied, and if the stress is high enough, it will become a single
variant of martensite under stress. Such a high mobility of the Twin Boundary, in which a single
variant of martensite change into the twin orientation by shear. When the specimen is heated
to a temperature above Af, reverse transformation occurs. The reverse transformation induced
by heating recovers the inelastic strain; since martensite variants have been reoriented by
stress, the reversion to austenite produces a large transformation strain having the same
amplitude but the opposite direction with the inelastic strain and the SMA returns to its original
shape of the austenitic phase (d). This phenomenon is called One–Way Shape Memory Effect.
(OWSME).
Macroscopically Mechanism of One Way Shape Memory Effect: (a) Marten- site, (b) Loaded and Deformed in
martensite phase T≤ Mf, (c) Heated above T G As (austenite),(d) Cooling to martensite T≤ Mf.

Two Way Shape Memory Effect (TWSME):

The two-way shape-memory effect is the effect that the material remembers two different shapes:
one at low temperatures, and one at the high temperature. A material that shows a shape-memory
effect during both heating and cooling is said to have two-way shape memory. This can also be
obtained without the application of an external force (intrinsic two-way effect). The reason the
material behaves so differently in these situations lies in training. Training implies that a shape
memory can "learn" to behave in a certain way. Under normal circumstances, a shape-memory alloy
"remembers" its low-temperature shape, but upon heating to recover the high-temperature shape,
immediately "forgets" the low-temperature shape. However, it can be "trained" to "remember" to
leave some reminders of the deformed low-temperature condition in the high-temperature phases.

Macroscopically Mechanism of Two Way Shape Memory Effect: (a) Martensite state, (b) Several
deformation with an irreversible amount, (c) Heated, (d) Cooled.
4.14 FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS:

1. SMAs exhibit changes in electrical resistance, volume and length during the
transformation with temperature.

2. The mechanism involved in SMA is reversible (austenite changes to martensite and

vice versa.)

3. Stress and temperature have a great influence on martensite transformation.

4. Pseudo elasticity:

Pseudo - elasticity occurs in shape memory alloys when it is completely in austenite

phase (temperature is greater than Af austenite finish temperature). Unlike the shape
memory effect, Pseudo-elasticity occurs due to stress induced phase transformation
without change in temperature. The load on the shape memory alloy changes austenite
phase into martensite (Fig. 3.7) As soon as the loading decreases the martensite begins
to transform to austenite and results in shape recovery. This phenomenon of
deformation of a SMA on application of large stress and regaining of original shape on
removal of the load is known as pseudo elasticity. This pseudo elasticity is also known as
super elasticity.

Where,

Ms : Temperature at which austenite starts to

transform to martensite upon cooling

Mf : Temperature at which transformation of

austenite to martensite is complete upon cooling

As : Temperature at which martensite begins to

transform to austenite upon heating

Af : Temperature at which transformation of

Load diagram of pseudo elastic effect martensite to austenite is complete upon heating
5. Hysteresis:

The temperature range for the martensite to austenite transformation which takes place
upon heating is somewhat higher than that for the reverse transformation upon cooling.
The difference between transition temperature upon heating and cooling is called
hysteresis. The hysteresis curve for SMAs is shown in fig. . The difference of temperature
is found to be 20 - 30 °C.

4.15 Nickel Titanium Alloy (Nitinol)

Nickel titanium, also known as Nitinol, is a metal alloy of nickel and titanium, where
the two elements are present in roughly equal atomic percentages. This metal alloy is
denoted by the symbols of its constituent metals. The formula for this alloy is NiTi. In
1962, William J. Buehler and Frederick Wang first discovered the unique properties of
this metal at the Naval Ordnance Laboratory. This alloy exhibits the super-elasticity or
pseudo-elasticity and the shape memory properties. It means this unique metal can
remember its original shape and shows great elasticity under stress.

Nitinol Production

Extremely tight compositional control is required for making this alloy. Due to this reason
it is very difficult to prepare this alloy. The extraordinary reactivity of titanium is another
obstacle in its preparation. Two primary melting methods are presently used for this
purpose:
🕐 Vacuum Arc Remelting: In this method, an electrical arc is struck between a water
cooled copper strike-plate and the raw materials. Water cooled copper mold is used for melting
the constituents in high vacuum to prevent carbon introduction.

🕐 Vacuum Induction Melting: The raw materials are heated in a carbon crucible using
alternating magnetic fields. This is also accomplished in high vacuum; however, carbon is
introduced in this process.

Physical Properties

Appearance: It is a bright silvery metal.

Density: The density of this alloy is 6.45 gm/ cm3

Melting Point: Its melting point is around 1310 °C.

Resistivity: It has a resistivity of 82 ohm-cm in higher temperatures and 76 ohm-cm in lower

temperatures.

Thermal Conductivity: The thermal conductivity of this metal is 0.1 W/ cm-°C.

Heat Capacity: Its heat capacity is 0.077 cal/ gm-°C.

Latent Heat: This material has a latent heat of 5.78 cal/ gm.

Applications:
1.Nitinol Wires

Nitinol is used for making shape-memory actuator wire used for numerous industrial purposes.
This wire is used for guidewires, stylets and orthodontic files. This wire is ideal for applications
requiring high loading and unloading plateau-stresses as well as for eyeglass frames and cell
phone antennas. However, the main uses of this wire are in stents and stone retrieval baskets.
2. Nitinol Stent

This alloy is used for manufacturing endovascular stents which are highly useful in treating
various heart diseases. It is used to improve blood flow by inserting a collapsed Nickel titanium
stent into a vein and heating it. These stents are also used as a substitute for sutures.

3. Nitinol Stone Retrival Basket

Nickel titanium wire baskets are well-suited for many medical applications as it is springier and
less collapsible than many other metals. This basket instrument is highly useful for the
gallbladder.

4. Other Uses

❖It is also used as an insert for golf clubs for its shape changing abilities.

❖It is a popular choice for making extremely resilient glass-frames.

❖Nitinol is used for making self-bending spoons used in magic shows.

❖It is used in aerospace industries.

 4.16 APPLICATIONS OF SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS

Shape memory alloys have a wide range of applications.

1. Microvalve (Actuators):

One of the most common applications of SMAs is microvalves. Actuator is a

microsensor which triggers the operation of a device. The electrical signal initiates an
action. When an electrical current of 50 to 150 mA flows in Ni - Ti actuator, it
contracts and lifts the poppet from the orifice and opens the valve.

2. Toys and novelties:

Shape memory alloys are used to make toys and ornamental goods. A butterfly using
SMA moves its wings in response to pulses of electricity.

3. Medical field :

(i) Blood clot filters are SMAs, properly shaped and inserted into veins to stop the
passing blood clots. When the SMA is in contact with the clot at a lower temperature,
it expands and stops the clot and blood passes through the veins.

(ii) Orthodontic applications Ni-Ti wire holds the teeth tight with a constant stress
irrespective of the strain produced by the teeth movement. It resists permanent
deformation even if it is bent.

(iii) SMAs (Ni-Ti) are used to make eye glass frames and medical tools. Sun-glasses
made from superelastic Ni-Ti frames provide good comfort and durability.

(iv) Broken bones can be mended with shape memory alloys. The alloy plate has a
memory transfer temperature that is close to body temperature, and is attached to
both ends of the broken bone. From body heat, the plate wants to contract and retain
its original shape, therefore exerting a compression force on the broken bone at the
place of fracture.
4. Antenna wires:
The flexibility of superelastic Ni - Ti wire makes it ideal for use as retractable
antennas.
5. Cryofit hydraulic couplings:
SMAs materials are used as couplings for metal pipes.
7. Springs, shock absorbers and valves:

Due to the excellent elastic property of the SMAs, springs can be made which is used in
Engine micro valves , Medical stents, Firesafety valves and Aerospace latching mechanisms.

8. Stepping motors:

Digital SMA stepping motors are used for robotic control.

9. Titanium-aluminium shape memory alloys:

They offer excellent strength with less weight and dominate in the aircraft industry. They are
high temperature SMAs, for possible use in aircraft engines and other high temperature
environments.
4.17 Chromogenic materials

The word "Chromo-" originates from the Greek language means that something is coloured.
All chromogenic materials change their colour depending on external stimuli. Materials that
change colour are scientifically termed chromogenics and they are described as “chameleonic”
because they change their colour reversibly as a response to changes in environmental
condition (such as change of temperature, brightness, etc.) or by induced stimuli.
The phenomena in which color is produced when light interacts with materials,
often called chromic materials. The technical principle, by which these materials change
colour, can be explained by an alteration in the equilibrium of electrons caused by the
stimulus, like cleavage of the chemical bonds or changes occurring inside the molecule,
among electrons, with a consequent modification of optical properties, such as reflectance,
absorption, emission, or transmission . When the stimulus ceases, the material returns to its
original electronic state, regaining the original optical properties, thus the initial colour or
transparency. This process, named chromism, implies ‘pi’ and ‘d’ electron positions so that the
phenomenon is induced by various external stimuli bearing the ability of altering electronic
density of the compound or a substance

Many natural compounds exhibit chromism and now a number of artificial compounds of
specific chromic properties have been synthesized. Color-changing materials have recently
received considerable attention and the use of these materials has been widely considered in
various fields.
4.18 Types of chromogenic materials
There are various types of chromogenic materials and they are split into categories
depending on what type of external stimuli triggers the change in colour. Based on the origin of
the stimulus, the color-changing process in smart materials is mostly classified into photochromic,
thermochromic, electrochromic, Mechanochromic, Solvatochromic, Biochromic and chemochromic
materials.

Photochromic Changes colour with a change of light.

Thermochromic Change colour with a change in temperature.

Electrochromic Change colour with a change in applied electric field.

Mechanochromic change in colour when a mechanical stimulus, i.e. stress, is applied.

Piezochromic change in color with the application of pressure.

Chemochromic Colour change due to the chemical changes in the environment

Halochromic Change in colour as a response to pH changes in the environment

Solvatochromic Colour changes due to sensitivity of a given solvent

Biochromic Colour changes due to the presence of pathogens

Chromogenic Materials
Photochromic materials
Photochromic materials change colour when the intensity of incoming light changes.
These materials work on the principle of absorption of light as in the case of optical lenses for
solar protection or smart windows for adaptive solar control.
Photochromic materials can be used for the design of optical switches, optical data
storage devices, energy-conserving coatings, eye-protection glasses, and privacy shields.
Photochromic materials and systems have several important uses depending on the rates of the
optical transformations.

Photochromic glass

A photochromic glass is produced by embelding a layer of silver halides (usually

silver chloride) in glass or transparent plastic. Photochromic glass darkens when is exposed to
sunlight. When the light fades, it become transparent again. It is suitable for making optical
lenses, windshields and windows.
Thermochromic materials
Thermochromic materials respond to a variation in environmental temperature by
changing their colour. Their capacity of acquiring different states of colours at different
temperatures and through temperature variations countless times makes them particularly
interesting. For example, titanium dioxide, zinc sulfide and zinc oxide are white at room
temperature but when heated change to yellow.
 These materials have many useful and creative applications like thermometers,
clothing, paint, drink containers, toys, battery indicators, plastic products etc.,
Eg. Thermochromic T-shirt. A hairdryer was used to change the blue to turquoise

Did you know?

Forehead strip thermometers change color with temperature to reveal whether someone's
suffering from a fever. They're inexpensive, safe, easy-to-use, and hygienic.

A well-known product that makes use of this phenomenon is a ceramic mug, which changes
colour when a hot drink is poured inside. The transformation is reversible; thus the colour of the
mug goes back to its original one when it cools down to room temperature.
Electrochromic materials
Electrochromic materials are characterised by an optical change upon the
application of an electric field. Electrochromism is probably the most versatile of all chromogenic
technologies because it is the easiest to control and because it can easily be used in combination
with different stimuli such as stress or temperature. Electrochromic materials are able to vary
their coloration and transparency to solar radiation, in a reversible manner, when they are
subjected to a small electric field (1–5 V). The electrochromic materials available today command
a big market for dynamic antiglare mirrors that detect glare and automatically compensates for it,
especially for night time driving safety.
Eg. Electrochromic window in a Boeing 787-8 Dreamliner aircraft

Did you know?

Electrochromic windows, also known as smart windows, are a technology for energy efficiency in
buildings by controlling the amount of sunlight passing through. They can also produce less glare
than fritted glass. Their efficiency depends on their placement, size, and weather, which affect
the amount of sunlight exposure. These windows usually contain layers for tinting in response to
increases in incoming sunlight and to protect from UV radiation.

Energy-Efficient Electrochromic windows

 An interesting example of these electrochromic smart windows in application is
Chrysler Pacifica car; the driver is able to dim the rear view mirror according to his need and
preference. Electrochromic materials are very useful and have many applications including
systems to reduce glare, thermal control and as lenses in cameras and sun glasses.

Mechanochromic materials
Mechanochromic materials show a change in colour when a mechanical stimulus,
i.e. stress, is applied. These materials are currently studied intensely because of their potential
use in stress detection, particularly for in situ failure monitoring due to fracture, corrosion,
fatigue, or creep. This is an important group of materials with a huge range of applications such
as data storage, information encryption, sensors, memory chips, security inks, and light devices
due to its simple operation, obvious and rapid response.

You tube video - https://youtu.be/tY1zpwYOX74

 Mechanochromic materials have been potentially applied to biological and
healthcare systems. This kind of material has received extensive attention in the field of solid-
state optics because of its potentially extensive applications in several advanced technologies,
such as fluorescence switches, mechanosensors, optoelectronics and data storage.
Piezochromic materials:
Piezochromism (from the Greek piezô "to squeeze, to press" and chromos "the
color") describes the tendency of certain materials to change color with the application of
pressure. This effect is closely related to the electronic band gap change, which can be found
in plastics, semiconductors and hydrocarbons.

Piezochromic material changes its color by applying a pressure

In the aeronautical, space and Defense fields, the use of piezochromic coatings is
studied to control the health of composite structures. The use of piezochrome materials is also of
great interest for the visual detection of potential shocks or deformations of some industrial
parts.
Chemochromic materials
Chemochromic materials respond to chemical changes in the environment by
changing colour. Chemochromic Materials are materials which react with different chemicals and
exhibit a change in color, transmission, or reflection properties.
Chemochromic materials are available in a number of forms, and are used in a
number of applications. Chemochromic materials are primarily used in the manufacture of dyes.
Chemochromic materials are also used in the material present in litmus paper which detects the
acidity and alkalinity of chemicals.
Chemochromic materials are also used to show the ripeness of the fruit as the
chemical reacts with the gases released by the fruit when it ripens. The major application of
chemochromic materials is its use in gas leak detection in rocket engines and industrial sites.
 (a) (b)

Chemochromic materials are used in (a) Fruit Ripening Gas Sensors

(b) For conducting pregnancy tests

Halochromic materials
Halochromic materials can be considered a subgroup of chemochromic materials
that change colour as a response to pH changes in the environment. Halochromic materials are
commonly used materials that change their color as a result of changing acidity.
Halochromic substances are suited for use in environments where pH changes occur frequently,
or places where changes in pH are extreme. Halochromic substances detect alterations in
the acidity of substances, like detection of corrosion in metals.

Halochromic Polymer Nanosensors for detection of pH in coatings

pH-sensitive (halochromic) smart packaging films based on natural food colorants for
the monitoring of food quality and safety
Solvatochromic materials
Solvatochromic materials display the phenomenon called solvatochromism, typical
of some chemical substances that are sensitive to a given solvent. The solvatochromic effect is
the way the spectrum of a substance (the solute) varies when the substance is dissolved in a
variety of solvents. These materials are used to predict the colors of solutions.

Solvatochromic Pyrene Analogues in apolar and polar solvents

 In the field of chemical research, solvatochromism is used in environmental
sensors, in probes with the capacity of determining the presence and the percentage of a
solvent, and in molecular electronics for the construction of molecular switches.
Biochromic materials
Biochromic materials were developed to detect and report the presence of
pathogens with a colour shift. Potential applications of biochromic materials include colorimetric
detection of pathogens against food poisoning or bioterrorism. Researchers developed a green
and sustainable smart biochromic and therapeutic bandage using red cabbage extract
encapsulated into alginate nanoparticles.

Note: CNF : Cellulose nanofibers; TCFH: Tricyanofuran hydrazone

Latest Applications of chromogenic materials

1.Chromogenics have unique properties for applications such as glazing, large area displays, and
electronic paper.
2.Chromogenic polymers are a type of smart packaging system that alert consumers of potential
safety or quality problems in packaged products optically.
3.Chromogenic materials and devices promise smart management of solar energy under the
influence of external stimulus.
4.As a passive and green solar energy system, chromogenics may find a variety of applications
such as energy-efficient windows for buildings and automobiles, smart displays, optoelectronic
and medical industry as well as environmental technology as emitting and sensing devices.
5.Electrochromic materials show similar working mechanism to supercapacitors which can be
used as energy storage materials and devices as well.
 Practice Quiz
Unit-IV

Quiz 1 https://forms.gle/LrCYccLf2V71hbMq6

Quiz 2 https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSc_hfPqV6tuM_DS
qTpGc3MPfJw1emA3e0yxDbP9Yduh3HVGFw/viewform?usp=sf
_link

Quiz 3 https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSfRNk1GvcuwHI5
uWH3ucUFXhrUrCPfzbobQM4i1XgUET5yTvw/viewform?usp=
pp_url

63
 Assignment

Unit IV

S.No. Questions K
level
1. List out emerging conducting polymers K2
2. Compare and contradict synthetic polymers and natural polymers K3
3. List out how polymers are used in everyday life with examples K3

4. Write a note on bio composite. K2

5. Explain shape memory effect with suitable diagram K2

6. Write the applications of shape memory alloys in various fields K2

7. Chromogenic materials are used in latest technologies – Justify. K3

64
 Part-A Question and Answer
S.No. PART-A K level CO
Q&A
1 Write are smart materials? Give the types of smart materials? K1 CO4

Smart materials are the materials that can significantly alter one or more of
their inherent properties in response to its environment. The several
external factors to which the smart materials are sensitive to stress,
temperature, moisture ,pH, electric field, magnetic field. It can respond in
various ways, by altering colour or transparency, becoming conductive,
permeable to water or by changing shape.

TYPES OF SMART MATERIALS:

Different types of Smart Materials are
⮚ Shape Memory Alloys
⮚ Piezoelectric Materials
⮚Magnetostrictive Materials
⮚Magneto-Rheological Fluids

2 Define the term polymer. K1 CO4

Polymers are macromolecules (large molecule) formed by the repeated

linking of large number o f small molecules called polymers
E.g. Polyethylene, Polyvinylchloride etc.

3 K1 CO4
What is meant by Polymerisation?

Polymerisation is a process by which two or more identical or different

types of monomers combine with or without eliminating small molecules

such as water, methanol etc., to form a macromolecular substance.

E.g. Polyvinylchloride formed by the combination of vinyl chloride

monomers.

65
S.No PART-A K CO
Q&A level
5 State the classification of Polymers based on structure K1 CO4

Based on the structure, the polymers are classified as follows:

(a) Linear polymers: In Linear polymers, the monomeric units are linked
together to form a long straight chain. (Eg) Polyethylene, polyester
(b) Branched chain polymers: Monomers join together to form a long
straight chain with some branched chains of different lengths. (Eg) Glycogen
(c) Cross-linked polymers: In this type of polymers, monomers are linked
together to form a three-dimensional network. (Eg) Bakelite, Formaldehyde
resin

6 What are smart polymeric materials? Give examples of smart K1 CO4

polymers.
Smart polymers, also called stimuli-responsive polymers or intelligent
materials, are designed materials that have one or more properties that can
be significantly changed in a controlled fashion by external stimuli such as
stress, temperature, moisture, pH, electric or magnetic fields.
Eg: Synthetic spider web, Shrilk and Graphene

7 What are the types and applications of Smart polymeric materials? K1 CO4
Different types of smart polymeric materials are Piezoelectric materials, shape
memory materials, chromo active materials, electro active materials and
biodegradable materials.
Applications of Smart polymeric materials:
Smart polymers appear in highly specialized applications and everyday
products alike. They are used for sensors and actuators such as artificial
muscles, the production of hydrogels, biodegradable and to a great extent in
biomedical engineering.

66
S.No. PART-A K CO
Q&A level
Mention the criteria for polymers to exhibit
8 K3 CO4
piezoelectricity.
i.The presence of permanent molecular dipoles
ii.The ability to orient or align the molecular dipoles
iii.The ability to sustain the dipole alignment once it is
achieved
iv.The ability of the material to undergo large strains when
it mechanically stressed.

9 Why is Piezoelectric Polymers? Give any 2 K2 CO4

applications.

Piezoelectric polymers are polymers that can generate

electric charges on the surface under pressure/strain thus
convert mechanical energy into electrical energy.

Applications of piezoelectric polymers:

• Piezoelectric motors
•Sensors in medical sectors
•Microphones
•Piezoelectric igniters

10 Why do different polymers have different K2 CO4

properties?
They have different chemical compositions (different
monomer units), different structures, different ways of
being fabricated, etc.

67
S.No. PART-A K CO
Q&A level

12 Write a short notes on electro active polymers? K2 CO4

•Electro active polymers or EAP’s are polymers that exhibit a change in
size or shape, when stimulated by an electric charge.
• It has a very simple structure comprises of films (elastomers)
sandwiched by two compliant electrodes made of a flexible and elastic
materials, and can operate as an electric control generator and
actuator.
Eg: Polyaniline (PANI)

13 What is a biodegradable polymer? K1 CO4

Biodegradable polymers can be defined as polymers that can be
degraded under natural environment or physiological condition by
either by enzymatic degradation or spontaneous hydrolysis.

14 Not all bioplastics are biodegradable. Reason out. Bioplastics K1 CO4

that are considered 'biodegradable' can be broken down by
microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, and algae into water, carbon
dioxide, methane, biomass, and inorganic compounds. For practical
purposes, bioplastics that can be completely broken down within a
few months are considered biodegradable. Bioplastics that biodegrade
more slowly (requiring up to a few years to be broken down) are
referred to as 'durable'.
S.No. PART-A K CO
Q&A level

15 Write the Mechanism of biodegradable polymers. K1 CO4

1.The breaking of polymeric bonds is associated with the action of
enzymes, living organisms.
2.The process depends on the amount and type of living organisms
and their microbial activities.
3.The microorganisms are sensitive to temperature, moisture, pH,
C/N ratio, and the amount of oxygen available.
4.On degradation, finally, these polymers will be converted to CO2,
water and biomass.

16 Define Composites K3 CO4

A material system consisting of a mixture of two or more macro –
constituents, which are mutually insoluble, differing in form and/ or
composition, and forming distinct phases is known as a composite

17 Write any 5 Characteristics of composites K2 CO4

Higher specific strength.

Lower specific gravity.
Higher specific stiffness
Lower electrical conductivity.
Better corrosion and oxidation resistance.
Good impact and thermal shock resistance.
Can be fabricated easily.
Better creep and fatigue strength

69
S.No. PART-A
Q&A
18 What are the constituents of composites? K1 CO4
Two essential constituents of composites are:
Matrix phase- metal, polymer, ceramic and carbon
Dispersed phase- Fibres (glass, carbon, aramid), particles,f lakes,
whiskers.

19 What is Kevlar? Give its types.

⮚Kevar is a Du Pont trade name for poly p-
phenyleneterephthalamide (PPD-T).
⮚It is an aramid, i.e. an aromatic (benzene ring type) polyamide
polymer fiber with a very rigid molecular structure.
Types:
⮚Kevlar 29 – Multipurpose yarn
⮚Kevlar 49 – High modulus yarn
⮚Kevlar 149 – Ultra high modulus yarn

20. Give the applications of CFRP in automotive industries?

⮚In 17% of automobile parts CFRP is used as its weight can be
reduced to about 30% of standard automobile
⮚A large scale aircraft wing fabricated with CFRP is used to reduce
weight of the various additional components considerably

70
S.No. PART-A
Q&A
21 What are the advantages and disadvantages of CFRP? K1 CO4
Advantages
⮚Increase in toughness. this means more energy absorption
ability making it suitable for airport pavements, blast resistant
structures etc.
Increase in shear capacity when used in beams.
⮚Modest increase in flexural strength
It is good for specialized applications. For example in preparing
shrinkage reducing concrete mixtures that resist cracking.
Disadvantages
⮚higher cost,
⮚difficulty in finising and working with it.
⮚Difficulty in repairs.

22 What are shape memory alloys? K2 CO4

A group of metallic alloys which shows the ability to return to

their original shape or size (i.e., alloy appears to have memory)
when they are subjected to heating or cooling are called shape
memory alloys.

23 What are the types of shape memory alloys?

There are two types of shape memory alloys (i) One - way shape
memory alloy (ii) Two - way shape memory alloy A material which
exhibits shape memory effect only upon heating is known as one-
way shape memory. A material which shows a shape memory
effect during both heating and cooling is called two-way shape
memory.

71
S.No. PART-A
Q&A
23 Give the characteristics of shape memory alloys. K2 CO4

Generally, shape memory alloys are intermetallic compounds

having super lattice structures and metallic - ionic - covalent
characteristics. Thus, they have the properties of both metals and
ceramics. Eg. Ni – Ti alloy (Nitinol) , Cu – Al – Ni alloy .

24 Define shape memory effect. K2 CO4

The change in shape of a material at low temperature by loading

and regaining of original shape by heating it, is known as shape
memory effect. The shape memory effect occurs in alloys due to
the change in their crystalline structure with the change in
temperature and stress. While loading, twinned martensite
becomes deformed martensite at low temperature.  On heating,
deformed martensite becomes austenite (shape recovery) and
upon cooling it gets transformed to twinned martensite.

25 What is pseudo elasticity? K2 CO4

This phenomenon of deformation of a SMA on application of large

stress and regaining of original shape on removal of the load is
known as psuedo elasticity. This pseudo elasticity is also known as
super elasticity.

26 Mention the applications of shape memory alloys. K2 CO4

Shape memory alloys have a wide range of applications.

Microvalve (Actuators) 2. Toys and novelties 3. Medical field Blood
clot filters Orthodontic applications 4. Antenna wires 5.
Thermostats.

27 State the disadvantages of shape memory alloys.  K2 CO4

• They have poor fatigue properties.

 They are expensive.
 They have low energy efficiency.
72
S.No. PART-A
Q&A
28 What are chromogenic materials? K2 CO4

Materials that change colour are scientifically termed chromogenics and

they are described as “chameleonic” because they change their colour
reversibly as a response to changes in environmental condition (such as
change of temperature, brightness, etc.) or by induced stimuli.

29 Mention the types of chromogenic materials. K2 CO4

Based on the origin of the stimulus, the color-changing process in smart

materials is mostly classified into photochromic, thermochromic,
electrochromic, Mechanochromic, Solvatochromic, Biochromic and
chemochromic materials.

30 Give examples of thermochromic materials. K2 CO4

(i) Thermochromic T-shirt: A hairdryer was used to change the blue to

turquoise
(ii) Forehead strip thermometers change color with temperature to
reveal whether someone's suffering from a fever. They're inexpensive,
safe, easy-to-use, and hygienic.
(iii) ceramic mug, which changes colour when a hot drink is poured
inside. The transformation is reversible; thus the colour of the mug goes
back to its original one when it cools down to room temperature.

31 In polyvinylidene fluoride, α phase not showing K2 CO4

piezoelectric effect. Justify.

α phase of PVDF is non polar in nature, So it does not show

piezoelectric effect.

73
 Part-B Questions

S.No. PART-B QUESTIONS K level CO

1 Explain the classification of polymers in detail K2 CO4

What do you mean by Piezoelectric Polymers ? Explain

2 the synthesis, properties and applications of K2 CO4
Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF)

Give the synthesis, properties and applications of

3 K2 CO4
Polyaniline (PANI).

What is biodegradable polymer? Give the synthesis,

4 K1 CO4
properties and applications of Poly-lactic acid (PLA).

5 Explain the types of composites with suitable examples? K1 CO4

What is FRP? Give its characteristic , advantages and

6 uses. K2 CO4

7 Explain shape memory effect with suitable diagram K2 CO4

Write the applications of shape memory alloys in various

8 K2 CO4
fields

Discuss the functional properties of shape memory alloy

9 K2 CO4
in detail.

10 What are chromogenic materials? Explain its types. K1 CO4

Mention the important applications of chromogenic

11 materials. K2 CO4

74
 Supportive online certification courses

• https://onlinecourses.nptel.ac.in/noc20_ch41/preview
• Polymers: concepts, properties, uses and sustainability
• Swayam 12-week course.

• https://youtu.be/okfCOfn7qWQ-
• Introduction to composite materials nptel course

• Online course :
https://onlinecourses.nptel.ac.in/noc22_mm40/preview
• Advanced Materials and Processes – Shape memory alloy

75
Real time Applications in day to day life and to Industry

Various Fields Applications

1.Automotive industry Polymer and allied materials are rapidly capturing the
share of metal usage in automotive.

http://www.ijirset.com/upload/march/36_Advances%20in.
pdf

2. Textile industry Textiles are materials composed of natural or synthetic

fibers. This includes animal-based materials such as wool
and silk, plant-based materials such as cotton, flux and
hemp, and synthetic materials such as polyester, acrylics
and nylon.

76
 Real time Applications in day
to day life and to
Industry
Various Fields Applications

3. Medical field Multiple biological, synthetic and hybrid polymers are

used for multiple medical applications.

https://whttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article
/pii/S24 05451815000434

4. Agriculture polymer science impacts agricultural technology and

practices concerning four major applications: (i)
controlled delivery systems; (ii) heavy metal removal
in soil and water; (iii) superabsorbents; and (iv)
trends in polymer biodegradation.

https://youtu.be/rqNUeWl8siw

5. Shade balls Shade balls are small plastic spheres floated on top of
a reservoir for environmental reasons, including to
slow evaporation and prevent sunlight from causing
reactions among chemical compounds present in the
water. Also known as bird balls, they were developed
initially to prevent birds from landing on bodies of
water.

https://youtu.be/xjs4-eCaHUs

6. Thermochromic
Materials How Plastic Can Change Color?
Thermochromic materials can change color when they
change temperature.
https://youtu.be/FlcF7SlQ7Kg

77
 Real Time Applications of Shape memory alloys

In the 1990s, the term shape memory technology (SMT) was introduced into the SMM
community. SMA application design has changed in many ways since then and has found
commercial application in a broad range of industries including automotive, aerospace, robotics
and biomedical. Currently, SMA actuators have been successfully applied in low frequency
vibration and actuation applications. Therefore, much systematic and intensive research work is
still needed to enhance the performance of SMAs, especially to increase their bandwidth, fatigue
life and stability.
Recently, many researchers have taken an experimental approach to enhance the attributes of
SMAs, by improving the material compositions (quantifying the SMA phase transition
Temperature) to achieve a wider operating temperature range, and better material stability, as
well as to improve the material response and stroke with better mechanical design (or
approach), controller systems and fabrication processes. Research into alternative SMMs, forms
or shapes, such as MSMA, HTSMA, SMP, shape memory ceramic, SMM thin film or a combination
of them (i.e. hybrid or composite SMMs), are also intensively being conducted, and the number
of commercial applications is growing each year.
Some of the important applications are listed below.
1. Aerospace application
•Plane wings with SMA wires can change shape by inducing voltages in them. This can replace
hydraulic and electromechanical actuators.
•Boeing, General Electric Aircraft Engines, Goodrich Corporation, NASA, and All Nippon Airways
developed the Variable Geometry Chevron using shape memory alloy that reduces aircraft's
engine noise.

SMA used in aerospace applications

78
 Real Time Applications of Shape memory alloys

2. Biomedical

Shape memory alloys are applied in medicine, for example, as fixation devices for osteotomies in
orthopaedic surgery, in dental braces to exert constant thooth moving forces on the teeth and in
stent grafts where it gives the ability to adapt to the shape of certain blood vessels when
exposed to body temperature.

Applications of SMAs in biomedical field

3. Robotics
There have also been limited studies on using these materials in robotics (such as Roboter frau
Lara), as they make it possible to create very light robots. Weak points of the technology are
energy inefficiency, slow response times, and large hysteresis.

Applications of SMAs in robotics

79
 Content beyond the syllabus

Fabrication technique of Polymers

•Fabrication techniques of polymers include:
•Thermoforming
•Extrusion of polymers
•Injection molding of polymers
•Blow molding
•Compression molding of polymers
•Transfer molding of polymers
•Selective laser sintering
Injection Molding is a process in which molten polymer is forced under high
pressure into a mold cavity through an opening (sprue). Polymer material in form of
pellets is fed into an Injection Molding machine through a hopper. The material is
then conveyed forward by a feeding screw and forced into a split mold, filling its
cavity through a feeding system with sprue gate and runners. Screw of injection
molding machine is called reciprocating screw since it not only rotates but also
moves forward and backward according to the steps of the molding cycle.
•It acts as a ram in the filling step when the molten polymer is injected into the
mold and then it retracts backward in the molding step. Heating elements, placed
over the barrel, soften and melt the polymer.
•The mold is equipped with a cooling system providing controlled cooling and
solidification of the material. The polymer is held in the mold until solidification and
then the mold opens and the part is removed from the mold by ejector pins.
•Injection Molding is used mainly for Thermoplastics. In this case cross-linking
occurs during heating and melting of the material in the heated barrel.

80
 Content beyond the syllabus

2. Polymerblends:

A polymer blend, or polymer mixture, is a member of a class of

materials analogous to metal alloys, in which at least two polymer are
blended together to create a new material with different physical
properties.Polymer blends can be broadly divided into threecategories:

•Immiscible polymer blends (heterogeneous polymer blends): This

is by far the most populous group. If the blend is made of two
polymers, two glass transition temperatures will be observed.

•Compatible polymer blends: Immiscible polymer blend that exhibits

macroscopically uniform physical properties. The macroscopically
uniform properties are usually caused by sufficiently strong interactions
between the component polymers.

•Miscible polymer blends (homogeneous polymer blend): Polymer

blend that is a single-phase structure. In this case, one glass transition
temperature will be observed.

81
 Content beyond the syllabus

Advantages/ Reasons for blending:

•To extend engineering resin performance by diluting it with low cost

(commodity/ tonnage) polymer.

•To develop materials with a full set of desired properties.

•To utilize the scrap generated at various steps. [sometimes blending is

also done to develop a recyclable material, e.g. using starch as second
component]

•To get a high performance blend from synergistically interacting

polymers.

•To achieve customer specifications in a product.

•Lower capital expense involved with scale-up & commercialization.

Limitations of blending:

•Recycling is complex in some cases.

•No specific test methods and standards are available. (used that of
plastic/rubber)

82
 Content beyond the syllabus

Hybrid Composites
A relatively new fiber-reinforced composite is the hybrid, which is
obtained by using two or more different kinds of fibers in a single matrix;
hybrids have a better all around combination of properties than
composites containing only a single fiber type. A variety of fiber
combinations and matrix materials are used, but in the most common
system, both carbon and glass fibers are incorporated into a polymeric
resin.

83
Do it yourself

84
 Make polymer from Milk Procedure: What
You Need:
• A tall, clear glass
• Non-fat or skim milk
• White vinegar
• Coffee filters or paper towels
What You Do:
• In a glass, put seven tablespoons of non-
fat or skim milk— whole milk contains
more fat, which can change the
experiment results.
• Add a tablespoon of white vinegar to the
milk; you should see solids begin to form
that are suspended in the liquid. The
solids will have a grainy appearance. Allow
them to settle toward the bottom of the
• Now, pat the solidsglass,
with a paper
then towel
drain the toliquid
absorb
off,anyusing
excess
a
coffee filter or paper towel.
liquid. You can use the resulting slimy substance as glue—
coat two pieces of paper with it, stick them together, and let
it dry.
• When you added the vinegar to the milk, it caused the milk’s
protein, the polymer casein, to separate from the liquid part
of the milk and clump together to form solids. Casein is used
in adhesives, paints, and even plastics.

85
Did you know it’s possible to turn milk into plastic? All you need to do is warm
it up with a little bit of vinegar. This would make a good exploration when
looking at chemical changes.
It’s called Casein Plastic, and in the early 1900’s it was a common way to make
plastic for household use or jewellery. Casein is the name of the protein in milk.

Make Casein Plastic from Milk Procedure: What You

Need:
❖One cup (or 250ml) of milk
❖4 teaspoons of white vinegar
❖A bowl
❖A sieve or strainer
❖Paper towels
❖A saucepan or access to a microwave
❖Plastic cookie cutter shapes.
What You Do:
❖First you will need to warm up the milk. You can either do this in a saucepan
on a hob, or put it in the microwave for 90 seconds. You want it warm but not
boiling.
❖Then stir in 4 tablespoons of white vinegar. Keep stirring for about a minute.

❖Once the milk has gone all lumpy, pour it into a sieve (do this over a sink or
over another bowl) to drain away the excess liquid.

❖The plastic will stay in the sieve. Press it down with a spoon to squeeze out
all the liquid.

❖Transfer the plastic to a paper towel and squeeze out any more liquid.
❖You can then shape the plastic using your hands or use cookie cutters to cut
out shapes.
❖The plastic will stay in the sieve. Press it down with a spoon to squeeze out
all the liquid.
❖Transfer the plastic to a paper towel and squeeze out any more liquid.
❖You can then shape the plastic using your hands or use cookie cutters to cut
out shapes.
❖Leave the plastic to dry for a few days until it’s hard and ready to use
 PIC MICRO-CONTROLLER PROJECT
MUSCLE WIRE

The diagram above shows a battery and switch connected to muscle wire. A small weight
stretches the muscle wire approximately 3 to 5 percent of its length. However, when a current
is applied to the wire, it shortens lifting the weight. This cycle of turning on and off the current
has the effect of lifting and then lowering the weight. A clever use of muscle wire and a PIC
micro-controller circuit is seen below. A robotic hand has ‘stretched muscle wires’ attached to
the base of each finger. When current is applied to the muscle wire it contracts to its ‘natural’
length, pulling on the ordinary wire ,making the fingers look as if they are moving
A PIC micro-controller can be programmed so that outputs are switched ON or OFF. When
switched ON the muscle wire contracts (shrinks) to its original length. In the example, five of
the outputs have been programmed to switch on and off, making the fingers of the hand move.
 Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books

•https://books.google.co.in/books?id=mvCzE_AflUIC&printsec=frontco
ver&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false

Polymer Science

•By Vasant R. Gowariker, N. V. Viswanathan, Jayadev Sreedhar

•https://www.pdfdrive.com/engineering-chemistry-fundamentals-and- applications-2nd-
edition-d191456798.html

Engineering Chemistry: Fundamentals and Applications, 2nd Edition by Shikha

Agarwal

Engineering Chemistry- 17 th edition by PC.Jain and Monika jain

https://www.academia.edu/37796622/Engineering_Chemistry_by_Jain_and_Jain

Shape Memory Alloy Engineering: For Aerospace, Structural and Biomedical Applications

https://g.co/kgs/BL7y5a

90
 Mini project suggestions

1. Edible water balls– Trial

Natural fiber reinforced composite material- Trial

2.

3. FRC with different fibres and its analysis

4. Enzymatic root to produce a smart material

Pic Micro-controller in making model railway signal

5.

Design a novel product with using chromogenic materials

6

7 Creating energy efficiency chromogenic technologies

Prepare a chromogenic polymer for packaging industry

8

Use chromogenic technology to synthesize an

9
antimicrobial paint

91
 Thank
Youyou

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92