CHAPTER - 1

INTRODUCTION
In recent years, the popularity of the automobile sector is increasing all over the world [1]. But
unfortunately there exist an exponential increase in vehicles crime [2]. At the present time, most
vehicles are controlled via using mechanical keys, security cards, and password/pattern. But,
with the development of IoT technologies and many embedded mechanisms, the vehicle security
systems are continuously improving [3]. These improvements are depending on the vehicle’s
owners and police workstations requirements [4]. Whereas, they are not only concerning with the
theft of vehicle contents, but also the loss of vehicles and the personal security requirements of
the vehicle’s owner[5]. Many well-known biometrics-based identification and verification
techniques existed. Fingerprints, facial features, and iris have been employed in various security
applications. Face recognition is considered a good choice biometric technique For vehicle
security and alarm systems because it based on human face feature information and can work
under different conditions [6]. Therefore, most of the face recognition techniques have been
developed to achieve a higher rate of discrimination [7]. Meanwhile, the face recognition process
uses some complex calculations, this paper proposes a reliable VSS− IoT system based on a low
power processor as a guard against vehicle theft [8]. This system converts the images captured
by the USB
installed in the vehicle to gray-scale images to detect and recognize faces in realtime. Where
the combination of AdaBoost algorithm with Haar − Cascade classifier improves face detection
accuracy [9]. Then the proposed system employs the PCA algorithm to recognize drivers’ faces.

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 CHAPTER 2: EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

2.1 Embedded Systems:

An embedded system is a computer system designed to perform one or a few

dedicated functions often with real-time computing constraints. It is embedded as part of a
complete device often including hardware and mechanical parts. By contrast, a general-purpose
computer, such as a personal computer (PC), is designed to be flexible and to meet a wide range
of end-user needs. Embedded systems control many devices in common use today.

Embedded systems are controlled by one or more main processing cores that are
typically either microcontrollers or digital signal processors (DSP). The key characteristic,
however, is being dedicated to handle a particular task, which may require very powerful
processors. For example, air traffic control systems may usefully be viewed as embedded, even
though they involve mainframe computers and dedicated regional and national networks between
airports and radar sites. (Each radar probably includes one or more embedded systems of its
own.)

Since the embedded system is dedicated to specific tasks, design engineers can
optimize it to reduce the size and cost of the product and increase the reliability and
performance. Some embedded systems are mass-produced, benefiting from economies of scale.

Physically embedded systems range from portable devices such as digital watches
and MP3 players, to large stationary installations like traffic lights, factory controllers, or the
systems controlling nuclear power plants. Complexity varies from low, with a single
microcontroller chip, to very high with multiple units, peripherals and networks mounted inside a
large chassis or enclosure.

In general, "embedded system" is not a strictly definable term, as most systems

have some element of extensibility or programmability. For example, handheld computers share
some elements with embedded systems such as the operating systems and microprocessors which

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 power them, but they allow different applications to be loaded and peripherals to be connected.
Moreover, even systems which don't expose programmability as a primary feature generally need
to support software updates. On a continuum from "general purpose" to "embedded", large
application systems will have subcomponents at most points even if the system as a whole is
"designed to perform one or a few dedicated functions", and is thus appropriate to call
"embedded". A modern example of embedded system is shown in fig: 2.1.

Fig 2.1:A modern example of embedded system

Labeled parts include microprocessor (4), RAM (6), flash memory (7).Embedded
systems programming is not like normal PC programming. In many ways, programming for an
embedded system is like programming PC 15 years ago. The hardware for the system is usually
chosen to make the device as cheap as possible. Spending an extra dollar a unit in order to make
things easier to program can cost millions. Hiring a programmer for an extra month is cheap in
comparison. This means the programmer must make do with slow processors and low memory,
while at the same time battling a need for efficiency not seen in most PC applications. Below is a
list of issues specific to the embedded field.

2.1.1 History:

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 In the earliest years of computers in the 1930–40s, computers were sometimes
dedicated to a single task, but were far too large and expensive for most kinds of tasks performed
by embedded computers of today. Over time however, the concept of programmable
controllersevolved from traditional electromechanical sequencers, via solid state devices, to the
use of computer technology.

One of the first recognizably modern embedded systems was the Apollo Guidance
Computer, developed by Charles Stark Draper at the MIT Instrumentation Laboratory. At the
project's inception, the Apollo guidance computer was considered the riskiest item in the Apollo
project as it employed the then newly developed monolithic integrated circuits to reduce the size
and weight. An early mass-produced embedded system was the Autonetics D-17 guidance
computer for the Minuteman missile, released in 1961. It was built from transistor logic and had
a hard disk for main memory. When the Minuteman II went into production in 1966, the D-17
was replaced with a new computer that was the first high-volume use of integrated circuits.

2.1.2 Tools:

Embedded development makes up a small fraction of total programming. There's

also a large number of embedded architectures, unlike the PC world where 1 instruction set
rules, and the UNIX world where there's only 3 or 4 major ones. This means that the tools are
more expensive. It also means that they're lowering featured, and less developed. On a major
embedded project, at some point you will almost always find a compiler bug of some sort.

Debugging tools are another issue. Since you can't always run general programs
on your embedded processor, you can't always run a debugger on it. This makes fixing your
program difficult. Special hardware such as JTAG ports can overcome this issue in part.
However, if you stop on a breakpoint when your system is controlling real world hardware (such
as a motor), permanent equipment damage can occur. As a result, people doing embedded
programming quickly become masters at using serial IO channels and error message style
debugging.

2.1.3 Resources:

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 To save costs, embedded systems frequently have the cheapest processors that can
do the job. This means your programs need to be written as efficiently as possible. When dealing
with large data sets, issues like memory cache misses that never matter in PC programming can
hurt you. Luckily, this won't happen too often- use reasonably efficient algorithms to start, and
optimize only when necessary. Of course, normal profilers won't work well, due to the same
reason debuggers don't work well.
Memory is also an issue. For the same cost savings reasons, embedded systems
usually have the least memory they can get away with. That means their algorithms must be
memory efficient (unlike in PC programs, you will frequently sacrifice processor time for
memory, rather than the reverse). It also means you can't afford to leak memory. Embedded
applications generally use deterministic memory techniques and avoid the default "new" and
"malloc" functions, so that leaks can be found and eliminated more easily. Other resources
programmers expect may not even exist. For example, most embedded processors do not have
hardware FPUs (Floating-Point Processing Unit). These resources either need to be emulated in
software, or avoided altogether.

2.1.4 Real Time Issues:

Embedded systems frequently control hardware, and must be able to respond to

them in real time. Failure to do so could cause inaccuracy in measurements, or even damage
hardware such as motors. This is made even more difficult by the lack of resources available.
Almost all embedded systems need to be able to prioritize some tasks over others, and to be able
to put off/skip low priority tasks such as UI in favor of high priority tasks like hardware control.

2.2 Need For Embedded Systems:

The uses of embedded systems are virtually limitless, because every day new
products are introduced to the market that utilizes embedded computers in novel ways. In recent
years, hardware such as microprocessors, microcontrollers, and FPGA chips have become much
cheaper. So when implementing a new form of control, it's wiser to just buy the generic chip and
write your own custom software for it. Producing a custom-made chip to handle a particular task
or set of tasks costs far more time and money. Many embedded computers even come with
extensive libraries, so that "writing your own software" becomes a very trivial task indeed. From

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 an implementation viewpoint, there is a major difference between a computer and an embedded
system. Embedded systems are often required to provide Real-Time response. The main
elements that make embedded systems unique are its reliability and ease in debugging.

2.2.1 Debugging:

Embedded debugging may be performed at different levels, depending on the

facilities available. From simplest to most sophisticate they can be roughly grouped into the
following areas:
 Interactive resident debugging, using the simple shell provided by the embedded
operating system (e.g. Forth and Basic)
 External debugging using logging or serial port output to trace operation using either a
monitor in flash or using a debug server like the Remedy Debugger which even works for
heterogeneous multi core systems.
 An in-circuit debugger (ICD), a hardware device that connects to the microprocessor via
a JTAG or Nexus interface. This allows the operation of the microprocessor to be
controlled externally, but is typically restricted to specific debugging capabilities in the
processor.
 An in-circuit emulator replaces the microprocessor with a simulated equivalent,
providing full control over all aspects of the microprocessor.
 A complete emulator provides a simulation of all aspects of the hardware, allowing all of
it to be controlled and modified and allowing debugging on a normal PC.
 Unless restricted to external debugging, the programmer can typically load and run
software through the tools, view the code running in the processor, and start or stop its
operation. The view of the code may be as assembly code or source-code.

Because an embedded system is often composed of a wide variety of elements,

the debugging strategy may vary. For instance, debugging a software(and microprocessor)
centric embedded system is different from debugging an embedded system where most of the
processing is performed by peripherals (DSP, FPGA, co-processor). An increasing number of
embedded systems today use more than one single processor core. A common problem with
multi-core development is the proper synchronization of software execution. In such a case, the

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 embedded

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 system design may wish to check the data traffic on the busses between the processor cores,
which requires very low-level debugging, at signal/bus level, with a logic analyzer, for instance.

2.2.2 Reliability:

Embedded systems often reside in machines that are expected to run continuously
for years without errors and in some cases recover by them if an error occurs. Therefore the
software is usually developed and tested more carefully than that for personal computers, and
unreliable mechanical moving parts such as disk drives, switches or buttons are avoided.
Specific reliability issues may include:
 The system cannot safely be shut down for repair, or it is too inaccessible to repair.
Examples include space systems, undersea cables, navigational beacons, bore-hole
systems, and automobiles.
 The system must be kept running for safety reasons. "Limp modes" are less tolerable.
Often backup s are selected by an operator. Examples include aircraft navigation, reactor
control systems, safety-critical chemical factory controls, train signals, engines on single-
engine aircraft.
 The system will lose large amounts of money when shut down: Telephone switches,
factory controls, bridge and elevator controls, funds transfer and market making,
automated sales and service.

A variety of techniques are used, sometimes in combination, to recover from

errors—both software bugs such as memory leaks, and also soft errors in the hardware:
 Watchdog timer that resets the computer unless the software periodically notifies the
watchdog
 Subsystems with redundant spares that can be switched over to
 software "limp modes" that provide partial function
 Designing with a Trusted Computing Base (TCB) architecture[6] ensures a highly secure
& reliable system environment
 An Embedded Hypervisor is able to provide secure encapsulation for any subsystem
component, so that a compromised software component cannot interfere with other

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 subsystems, or privileged-level system software. This encapsulation keeps faults from
propagating from one subsystem to another, improving reliability. This may also allow a
subsystem to be automatically shut down and restarted on fault detection.
 Immunity Aware Programming

2.3 Explanation of Embedded Systems:

2.3.1 Software Architecture:

There are several different types of software architecture in common use.

 Simple Control Loop:

In this design, the software simply has a loop. The loop calls subroutines, each of which
manages a part of the hardware or software.

 Interrupt Controlled System:

Some embedded systems are predominantly interrupt controlled. This means that
tasks performed by the system are triggered by different kinds of events. An interrupt could be
generated for example by a timer in a predefined frequency, or by a serial port controller
receiving a byte. These kinds of systems are used if event handlers need low latency and the
event handlers are short and simple.

Usually these kinds of systems run a simple task in a main loop also, but this task
is not very sensitive to unexpected delays. Sometimes the interrupt handler will add longer tasks
to a queue structure. Later, after the interrupt handler has finished, these tasks are executed by
the main loop. This method brings the system close to a multitasking kernel with discrete
processes.

 Cooperative Multitasking:

A non-preemptive multitasking system is very similar to the simple control loop

scheme, except that the loop is hidden in an API. The programmer defines a series of tasks, and
each task gets its own environment to “run” in. When a task is idle, it calls an idle routine,
usually called “pause”, “wait”, “yield”, “nop” (stands for no operation), etc.The advantages and

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 disadvantages are very similar to the control loop, except that adding new software is easier, by
simply writing a new task, or adding to the queue-interpreter.

 Primitive Multitasking:

In this type of system, a low-level piece of code switches between tasks or threads
based on a timer (connected to an interrupt). This is the level at which the system is generally
considered to have an "operating system" kernel. Depending on how much functionality is
required, it introduces more or less of the complexities of managing multiple tasks running
conceptually in parallel.

As any code can potentially damage the data of another task (except in larger
systems using an MMU) programs must be carefully designed and tested, and access to shared
data must be controlled by some synchronization strategy, such as message queues, semaphores
or a non-blocking synchronization scheme.

Because of these complexities, it is common for organizations to buy a real-time

operating system, allowing the application programmers to concentrate on device functionality
rather than operating system services, at least for large systems; smaller systems often cannot
afford the overhead associated with a generic real time system, due to limitations regarding
memory size, performance, and/or battery life.

 Microkernels And Exokernels:

A microkernel is a logical step up from a real-time OS. The usual arrangement is

that the operating system kernel allocates memory and switches the CPU to different threads of
execution. User mode processes implement major functions such as file systems, network
interfaces, etc.

In general, microkernels succeed when the task switching and intertask

communication is fast, and fail when they are slow. Exokernels communicate efficiently by
normal subroutine calls. The hardware and all the software in the system are available to, and
extensible by application programmers. Based on performance, functionality, requirement the
embedded systems are divided into three categories:

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 2.3.2 Stand Alone Embedded System:

These systems takes the input in the form of electrical signals from transducers or
commands from human beings such as pressing of a button etc.., process them and produces
desired output. This entire process of taking input, processing it and giving output is done in
standalone mode. Such embedded systems comes under stand alone embedded systems

Eg: microwave oven, air conditioner etc..

2.3.3 Real-time embedded systems:

Embedded systems which are used to perform a specific task or operation in a

specific time period those systems are called as real-time embedded systems. There are two types
of real-time embedded systems.

 Hard Real-time embedded systems:

These embedded systems follow an absolute dead line time period i.e.., if the
tasking is not done in a particular time period then there is a cause of damage to the entire
equipment.

Eg: consider a system in which we have to open a valve within 30 milliseconds. If this
valve is not opened in 30 ms this may cause damage to the entire equipment. So in such cases we
use embedded systems for doing automatic operations.

 Soft Real Time embedded systems:

Eg: Consider a TV remote control system, if the remote control takes a few milliseconds delay it
will not cause damage either to the TV or to the remote control. These systems which will not cause
damage when they are not operated at considerable time period those systems comes under soft real-time
embedded systems.

2.3.4 Network communication embedded systems:

A wide range network interfacing communication is provided by using embedded

systems.

Eg:

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  Consider a web camera that is connected to the computer with internet can be used
to spread communication like sending pictures, images, videos etc.., to another
computer with internet connection throughout anywhere in the world.

 Consider a web camera that is connected at the door lock.

Whenever a person comes near the door, it captures the image of a person and
sends to the desktop of your computer which is connected to internet. This gives an alerting
message with image on to the desktop of your computer, and then you can open the door lock
just by clicking the mouse. Fig: 2.2 show the network communications in embedded systems.

Fig 2.2: Network communication embedded systems

2.3.5 Different types of processing units:

The central processing unit (c.p.u) can be any one of the following
microprocessor, microcontroller, digital signal processing.

 Among these Microcontroller is of low cost processor and one of the main advantage
of microcontrollers is, the components such as memory, serial communication
interfaces,
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 analog to digital converters etc.., all these are built on a single chip. The numbers of
external components that are connected to it are very less according to the application.

 Microprocessors are more powerful than microcontrollers. They are used in major
applications with a number of tasking requirements. But the microprocessor requires
many external components like memory, serial communication, hard disk, input
output ports etc.., so the power consumption is also very high when compared to
microcontrollers.

 Digital signal processing is used mainly for the applications that particularly
involved with processing of signals

2.4 APPLICATIONS OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS:

2.4.1 Consumer applications:

At home we use a number of embedded systems which include microwave oven,

remote control, vcd players, dvd players, camera etc….

Fig2.3: Automatic coffee makes equipment

2.4.2 Office automation:

We use systems like fax machine, modem, printer etc…

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 Fig2.4: Fax machine Fig2.5: Printing machine

2.4.3. Industrial automation:

Today a lot of industries are using embedded systems for process control. In
industries we design the embedded systems to perform a specific operation like monitoring
temperature, pressure, humidity ,voltage, current etc.., and basing on these monitored levels we
do control other devices, we can send information to a centralized monitoring station.

Fig2.6: Vehicle

In critical industries where human presence is avoided there we can use vehicles
which are programmed to do a specific operation.

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 2.4.5 Computer networking:

Embedded systems are used as bridges routers etc..

Fig2.7: Computer networking

2.4.6 Tele communications:

Cell phones, web cameras etc.

Fig2.8: Cell PhoneFig2.9: Web camera

BLOCL DIAGRAM

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 Came
ra
ESp32 Realy

Ve hil
Bu
z

POWER SUPPLY

All digital circuits require regulated power supply. In this article we are going to learn how to get
a regulated positive supply from the mains supply.

Figure 1 shows the basic block diagram of a fixed regulated power supply. Let us go through
each block.

2.2.1 TRANSFORMER

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 A transformer consists of two coils also called as “WINDINGS” namely PRIMARY &
SECONDARY.
They are linked together through inductively coupled electrical conductors also
called as CORE. A changing current in the primary causes a change in the
Magnetic Field in the core & this in turn induces an alternating voltage in the
secondary coil. If load is applied to the secondary then an alternating current will
flow through the load. If we consider an ideal condition then all the energy from
the primary circuit will be transferred to the secondary circuit through the
magnetic field.

So

The secondary voltage of the transformer depends on the number of turns in the Primary as
well as in the secondary.

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 2.2.2 Rectifier

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 A rectifier is a device that converts an AC signal into DC signal. For rectification
purpose we use a diode, a diode is a device that allows current to pass only in one
direction i.e. when the anode of the diode is positive with respect to the cathode
also called as forward biased condition & blocks current in the reversed biased
condition.

Rectifier can be classified as follows:

1) Half Wave rectifier.

This is the simplest type of rectifier as you can see in the diagram a half wave
rectifier consists of only one diode. When an AC signal is applied to it during the
positive half cycle the diode is forward biased & current flows through it. But
during the negative half cycle diode is reverse biased & no current flows through
it. Since only one half of the input reaches the output, it is very inefficient to be
used in power supplies.

2) Full wave rectifier.

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 Half wave rectifier is quite simple but it is very inefficient, for greater efficiency we
would like to use both the half cycles of the AC signal. This can be achieved by
using a center tapped transformer i.e. we would have to double the size of
secondary winding & provide connection to the center. So during the positive half
cycle diode D1 conducts & D2 is in reverse biased condition. During the negative
half cycle diode D2 conducts & D1 is reverse biased. Thus we get both the half
cycles across the load.
One of the disadvantages of Full Wave Rectifier design is the necessity of using a
center tapped transformer, thus increasing the size & cost of the circuit. This can
be avoided by using the Full Wave Bridge Rectifier.

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 3)BridgeRectifier.

As the name suggests it converts the full wave i.e. both the positive & the
negative half cycle into DC thus it is much more efficient than Half Wave Rectifier
& that too without using a center tapped transformer thus much more cost
effective than Full Wave Rectifier.

Full Bridge Wave Rectifier consists of four diodes namely D1, D2, D3 and D4.
During the positive half cycle diodes D1 & D4 conduct whereas in the negative
half cycle diodes D2 & D3 conduct thus the diodes keep switching the transformer
connections so we get positive half cycles in the output.

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 If we use a center tapped transformer for a bridge rectifier we can get both
positive & negative half cycles which can thus be used for generating fixed
positive & fixed negative voltages.

2.2.3 FILTER CAPACITOR

Even though half wave & full wave rectifier give DC output, none of them provides
a constant output voltage. For this we require to smoothen the waveform
received from the rectifier. This can be done by using a capacitor at the output of
the rectifier this capacitor is also called as “FILTER CAPACITOR” or
“SMOOTHING CAPACITOR” or “RESERVOIR CAPACITOR”. Even after using
this capacitor a small amount of ripple will remain.
We place the Filter Capacitor at the output of the rectifier the capacitor will charge to the
peak
voltage during each half cycle then will discharge its stored energy slowly through the load
while the rectified voltage drops to zero, thus trying to keep the voltage as constant as
possible.

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 If we go on increasing the value of the filter capacitor then the Ripple will decrease. But then
the costing will increase. The value of the Filter capacitor depends on the current consumed
by the circuit, the frequency of the waveform & the accepted ripple.

Where,
Vr= accepted ripple voltage.( should not be more than 10% of the voltage)
I= current consumed by the circuit in Amperes.
F= frequency of the waveform. A half wave rectifier has only one peak in one cycle so F=25hz
Whereas a full wave rectifier has Two peaks in one cycle so F=100hz.

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 2.2.4 VOLTAGE REGULATOR

A Voltage regulator is a device which converts varying input voltage into a

constant regulated output voltage. Voltage regulator can be of two types

1) Linear Voltage Regulator

Also called as Resistive Voltage regulator because they dissipate the excessive
voltage resistively as heat.
2) Switching Regulators.
They regulate the output voltage by switching the Current ON/OFF very
rapidly. Since their output is either ON or OFF it dissipates very low power thus
achieving higher efficiency as compared to linear voltage regulators. But they are
more complex & generate high noise due to their switching action. For low level
of output power switching regulators tend to be costly but for higher output
wattage they are much cheaper than linear regulators.
The most commonly available Linear Positive Voltage Regulators are the 78XX
series where the XX indicates the output voltage. And 79XX series is for Negative
Voltage Regulators.

After filtering the rectifier output the signal is given to a voltage regulator. The
maximum input voltage that can be applied at the input is 35V.Normally there is a
2-3 Volts drop across the regulator so the input voltage should be at least 2-3
Volts higher than the output voltage. If the input voltage gets below the Vmin

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 of the

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 regulator due to the ripple voltage or due to any other reason the voltage
regulator will not be able to produce the correct regulated voltage.

Circuit diagram:

Fig 2.3. Circuit Diagram of power supply

IC 7805:

7805 is an integrated three-terminal positive fixed linear voltage regulator. It

supports an input voltage of 10 volts to 35 volts and output voltage of 5 volts. It
has a current rating of 1 amp although lower current models are available. Its
output voltage is fixed at 5.0V. The 7805 also has a built-in current limiter as a
safety feature. 7805 is manufactured by many companies, including National
Semiconductors and Fairchild Semiconductors.

The 7805 will automatically reduce output current if it gets too hot.The last two
digits represent the voltage; for instance, the 7812 is a 12-volt regulator. The 78xx
series of regulators is designed to work in complement with the 79xx series of
negative voltage regulators in systems that provide both positive and negative.

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 regulated voltages, since the 78xx series can't regulate negative voltages in such a
system.

The 7805 & 78 is one of the most common and well-known of the 78xx series
regulators, as it's small component count and medium-power regulated 5V make
it useful for powering TTL devices.

Table 2.1. Specifications of IC7805

SPECIFICATIONS IC 7805

Vout 5V

Vein - Vout Difference 5V - 20V

Operation Ambient
0 - 125°C
Temp

Output Imax 1A

ESP 32 DEVELOPMENT BOARD

ESP32 is a series of low-cost, low-power system on a chip microcontrollers with

integrated Wi-Fi and dual-mode Bluetooth. The ESP32 series employs
a Tensilica Xtensa LX6 microprocessor in both dual-core and single-core variations
and includes in-built antenna switches, RF balun, power amplifier, low-noise
receive amplifier, filters, and power-management modules. ESP32 is created and
developed by Espressif Systems, a Shanghai-based Chinese company, and is

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 manufactured by TSMC using their 40 nm process.[2] It is a successor to
the ESP8266 microcontroller.

ESP-WROOM-32 module with ESP32-D0WDQ6 chip

FEATURES

Features of the ESP32 include the following:[3]

ESP32 function block diagram.

 Processors:
 CPU: Xtensa dual-core (or single-core) 32-bit LX6 microprocessor, operating
at 160 or 240 MHz and performing at up to 600 DMIPS
 Ultra low power (ULP) co-processor
 Memory: 520 KiB SRAM
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  Wireless connectivity:
 Wi-Fi: 802.11 b/g/n
 Bluetooth: v4.2 BR/EDR and BLE
 Peripheral interfaces:
 12-bit SAR ADC up to 18 channels
 2 × 8-bit DACs
 10 × touch sensors (capacitive sensing GPIOs)
 Temperature sensor
 4 × SPI
 2 × I²S interfaces
 2 × I²C interfaces
 3 × UART
 SD/SDIO/CE-ATA/MMC/eMMC host controller
 SDIO/SPI slave controller
 Ethernet MAC interface with dedicated DMA and IEEE 1588 Precision Time
Protocol support
 CAN bus 2.0
 Infrared remote controller (TX/RX, up to 8 channels)
 Motor PWM
 LED PWM (up to 16 channels)
 Hall effect sensor
 Ultra low power analog pre-amplifier
 Security:
 IEEE 802.11 standard security features all supported, including WFA,
WPA/WPA2 and WAPI
 Secure boot
 Flash encryption
 1024-bit OTP, up to 768-bit for customers
 Cryptographic hardware acceleration: AES, SHA-2, RSA, elliptic curve
cryptography (ECC), random number generator (RNG)
 Power management:
 Internal low-dropout regulator
 Individual power domain for RTC
 5uA deep sleep current

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  Wake up from GPIO interrupt, timer, ADC measurements, capacitive touch
sensor interrupt

QFN packaged chip and module

ESP32 is housed in Quad-Flat No-leads (QFN) packages of varying sizes with 49
pads. Specifically, 48 connection pads along the sides and one large thermal pad
(connected to ground) on the bottom.
Chips[edit]

The ESP32 system on a chip integrated circuit is packaged in both 6 mm × 6 mm

and 5 mm × 5 mm sized QFN packages.

Embedded
Processor Package
Identifier flash memory Description
cores size
(MiB)

Pre-release SoC used for

2
ESP31B 2 0 6×6 mm beta testing; no longer
available.

Initial production
ESP32- 2
2 0 6×6 mm release chip of the
D0WDQ6
ESP32 series.

Smaller physical
2
ESP32-D0WD 2 0 5×5 mm package variation
similar to ESP32-
D0WDQ6.

2 MiB (16 Mibit)

ESP32-D2WD 2 2 5×5 mm2 embedded flash
memory variation.

Department Of ECE 30 CMR Institute Of Technology

 Single-core processor
ESP32-S0WD 1 0 5×5 mm2
variation.

Module[edit]

The ESP32-PICO-D4 system in package module combines an ESP32 silicon chip,

crystal oscillator, flash memory chip, filter capacitors, and RF matching links into a
single 7 mm × 7 mm sized QFN package.

Embedded
Processor Package
Identifier flash memory Description
cores size
(MiB)

Includes ESP32 chip,

crystal oscillator, flash
ESP32-PICO-D4 2 4 7×7 mm2 memory, filter
capacitors, and RF
matching links.[4]

Printed circuit boards[edit]

Surface-mount module boards[edit]

ESP32 based surface-mount printed circuit board modules directly contain the
ESP32 SoC and are designed to be easily integrated onto other circuit boards.
Meandered inverted-F antenna designs are used for the PCB trace antennas on
the modules listed below. In addition to flash memory, some modules
include pseudostatic RAM (pSRAM).

Flash
pSRAM
Vendor Name Antenna memory Description
(MiB)
(MiB)

Department Of ECE 31 CMR Institute Of Technology

 Discontinued. Limited
distribution, pre-
production module
created by Espressif for
beta testing purposes;
ESP- this module used the
WROOM- PCB trace 4 0 ESP31B, the beta
03 testing chip for the
ESP32 series.[5][6][7][8]
[9]
FCC
Part 15.247 tested
(FCC ID: 2AC7Z-
[10]
ESP32).

First publicly available

Espressif
ESP32 module board
created by
ESP- Espressif.[11] FCC Part
WROOM- PCB trace 4 0 15.247 tested (FCC ID:
32 2AC7Z-
ESPWROOM32).[12]
Based on ESP32-
D0WDQ6 chip.

Revision of the ESP-

WROOM-32 module
ESP-
which uses an ESP32-
WROOM- PCB trace 4 0
D0WD chip instead of
32D
an ESP32-D0WDQ6
[13]
chip.

Department Of ECE 32 CMR Institute Of Technology

 Alternative to the ESP-
WROOM-32D module
ESP32-
U.FL which has a U.FL
WROOM- 4 0
socket connector for external
32U
antenna in lieu of a
PCB trace antenna.[13]

ESP32 module board

with 4 MiB pSRAM
created by Espressif.
FCC part 15.247 tested
(FCC ID 2AC7Z-
ESP32- ESP32WROVER). Uses
PCB trace 4 4
WROVER 40 MHz crystal
oscillator. Does not
include U.FL
connector.
Based on ESP32-
D0WDQ6 chip.

Variation of ESP32-
WROVER module
ESP32- U.FL configured to use an
WROVER- socket, 4 4 on-board U.FL
I PCB trace compatible connector.
PCB trace antenna not
connected by default.

Ai-Thinker ESP-32S PCB trace 4 0 ESP32 module based

on the form factor of

Department Of ECE 33 CMR Institute Of Technology

 the Espressif ESP-
WROOM-32
module.[14] The ESP-
32S module replaced
the unreleased
ESP3212 module.

Clone of the ESP-32S

module (ESP-WROOM-
ESP-32S- 32 compatible
PCB trace 4 0
ALB footprint). Seen with a
green solder mask
coating.[15]

Variation of ESP-32S-
ALB-
AnalogLamb PCB trace 16 0 ALB with 16 MiB of
WROOM
flash memory.[15]

ESP32 module board

with 4 MiB pSRAM
ALB32- with the same
PCB trace 4 4
WROVER footprint as the ESP-
WROOM-32
module.[16]

ESP- Module board similar

DFRobot WROOM- PCB trace 4 0 to Espressif Systems's
32 ESP-WROOM-32, but
is
not FCC certified, and

Department Of ECE 34 CMR Institute Of Technology

 uses 26 MHz or 32 kHz
crystal oscillator.[17]

Module has a ceramic

antenna and an U.FL
Ceramic, antenna connector.
eBox &
ESP32-Bit U.FL 4 0 This module has a
Widora
socket different footprint
than the ESP-WROOM-
32/ESP-32S modules.

Module board similar

to Espressif Systems's
Goouuu
ESP-32F PCB trace 4 0 ESP-WROOM-32. FCC
Tech
certified (ID 2AM77-
ESP-32F).

Module similar in
appearance to
Espressif's ESP-
W32 PCB trace 4 0
WROOM-32, but
footprint pinout
IntoRobot differs. [18]

Ceramic, Differs from IntoRobot

W33 U.FL 4 0 W32 module in its
socket antenna configuration.

ITEAD PSH-C32 PCB trace 1[19] 0 Module has unusually

small flash memory on

Department Of ECE 35 CMR Institute Of Technology

 board. Also, footprint
is unique and differs
from all other ESP32
modules.[20]

OEM module version

of the WiPy 2.0.
(Not
W01 8 4 Supports Wi-Fi and
included.)
Bluetooth. FCC ID
2AJMTWIPY01R.

OEM module version

of the LoPy. Supports
(Not
L01 8 4 Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and
included.)
LoRa. FCC ID
2AJMTLOPY01R.
Pycom[21]

OEM module version

(Not of the LoPy4. Supports
L04 8 4
included.) Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, LoRa,
and Sigfox.

Discontinued. OEM
module version of the
(Not
S01 8 4 SiPy. Supported Wi-Fi,
included.)
Bluetooth, and Sigfox
(14 dBm and 22 dBm).

Department Of ECE 36 CMR Institute Of Technology

 OEM module version
of the GPy. Supports
(Not
G01 8 4 Cellular LTE-CAT
included.)
M1/NB1, Wi-Fi and
Bluetooth.

Belongs to the u-blox

NINA- (Not
2 0 NINA-W13 series of
W131 included.)
Wi-Fi modules.[22]

Belongs to the u-blox

u-blox NINA-W13 series of
Wi-Fi modules.[22] On
NINA-
PIFA 2 0 board planar inverted-
W132
F antenna (PIFA) is
shaped (cut & bent)
metal, not a PCB trace.

Development and other boards[edit]

Development & break-out boards extend wiring and may add functionality, often
building upon ESP32 module boards and making them easier to use for
development purposes (especially with breadboards).

Surface-
mount
Vendor Name Description
module
used

Department Of ECE 37 CMR Institute Of Technology

 ESP- Break-out board included
ESP_Module_Testboard WROOM- with ESP-WROOM-03 beta
03 modules.[5][6]

ESP- Development &

ESP32_Demo Board_V2 WROOM- demonstration board
[23][24]
32 created by Espressif.

Compact development
ESP- board created by
ESP32-DevKitC WROOM- Espressif.[25] Silkscreen
Espressif 32 labeling on PCB reads "Core
Board".

ESP-
Large development board
WROOM-
created by
ESP-WROVER-KIT 32 or [26]
Espressif. Previously
ESP32-
named ESP32-DevKitJ.[27]
WROVER

Small development board

ESP32-
ESP32-PICO-KIT created by Espressif. FCC ID
PICO-D4
2AC7Z-ESP32PICOKIT.

Also referred to as the

ESP- "ESP32 Feather Board", the
Adafruit HUZZAH32 WROOM- HUZZAH32 is a compact
32 development board/module
that is compatible with the

Department Of ECE 38 CMR Institute Of Technology

 Adafruit Feather family of
products.

NodeMCU-like development
Ai-Thinker NodeMCU-32S ESP-32S
board.[28]

Development board similar

to Espressif's ESP32-DevKitC
ESP-32S-
with on board a CP2102
ESP32 Development ALB or
USB/serial bridge. 4 MiB
Board ALB-
variation uses ESP-32S-ALB;
WROOM
16 MiB variation uses ALB-
AnalogLamb WROOM module.[29]

Development board with

ESP-32S- Arduino-style connections
Maple ESP32
ALB and CP2104 USB/serial
interface.[30]

Development board
April
ESPea32 † with perfboard area that
Brother
may be optionally cut-off.

Arduino Uno-like
development board based
on ESP32 IoT UNO
ArduCAM ESP32 UNO ESP-32S
framework with support for
SPI ArduCAM, Battery pins
and uSD card slot.

Department Of ECE 39 CMR Institute Of Technology

 Full-featured Arduino Uno-
ESP- like development board
DoIT ESPduino32 WROOM- compatible with Arduino
32 Shields. It also adds
additional SPI & IO pins.

ESP- Full-featured development

ESP32-01 Breakout and
EzSBC WROOM- board with two tri-color
Development Board
32 LEDs and fits on a
breadboard.

Development board that

Gravitech &
Nano32 † directly incorporates the
MakerAsia
ESP32 chip.

HydraESP32 HydraBus v1.1

ESP- Rev1 shield/breakout board
WROOM- for ESP-WROOM-32 or ESP-
HydraBus HydraESP32
32 or 32S. This shield can be used
ESP-32S with or without a HydraBus
board.

Arduino-style development
Noduino Quantum † board that directly
incorporates the ESP32 chip.

MicroPython programmable
Pycom WiPy † Wi-Fi & Bluetooth IoT
development platform with
a 1 km Wi-Fi range. WiPy

Department Of ECE 40 CMR Institute Of Technology

 versions 2.0 and 3.0 use
ESP32.

Triple network Pycom board

LoPy † featuring LoRa, Wi-Fi (1 km
range), and BLE.

Quadruple network Pycom

LoPy4 ? board featuring LoRa, Sigfox,
Wi-Fi (1 km range), and BLE.

Triple network Pycom board

SiPy † featuring Sigfox, Wi-Fi (1 km
range), and BLE.

Triple network Pycom board

GPy † featuring LTE-M, Wi-Fi (1 km
range), and BLE.

Quintuple network Pycom

board featuring LTE-M, LoRa,
FiPy †
Sigfox, Wi-Fi (1 km range),
and BLE.

Compact development
board with FTDI FT231x
SparkFun ESP32 Thing †
USB/serial interface and LiPo
charger built-in.

Department Of ECE 41 CMR Institute Of Technology

 ESP- Breakout compatible with
ESP32 MiniBoard WROOM- the Espressif ESP32-DevKitC.
32 Lacks on-board USB-UART.

SunDUINO
ESP-
Arduino-style development
WROOM-
ESP32 SunDUINO board. Lacks on-board USB-
32 or
UART.
ESP-32S

ESP32 Breakout with 24

SK6812RGBW LEDs with
ESP-
SwitchDoc Grove Connectors for easy
BC24 WROOM-
Labs prototyping. Comes with
32
USB-UART and Feather
compatible pinout. [31]

ESP- Breakout which is

ESP-WROOM32-
Watterott WROOM- compatible with the
Breakout
32 Espressif ESP32-DevKitC.

ESP-
LOLIN32 WROOM-
32

WEMOS[32]
LOLIN32 Lite †

ESP32- Has MicroSD card slot

LOLIN32 Pro
WROVER (supports SD and SPI mode)

Department Of ECE 42 CMR Institute Of Technology

 Compact ESP32
Widora Air †
development board.

† ESP32 SoC incorporated directly onto development board; no module board

used.

Programming[edit]
Programming languages, frameworks, platforms, and environments used for ESP32
programming:

 Arduino IDE with the ESP32 Arduino Core

 Espressif IoT Development Framework – Official Espressif development
framework for ESP32.
 Espruino – JavaScript SDK and firmware closely emulating Node.js.
 Lua RTOS for ESP32
 Mongoose OS – An operating system for connected products on
microcontrollers; programmable with JavaScript or C. A recommended
platform by Espressif Systems,[33] AWS IoT,[34] and Google Cloud IoT.[35]
 mruby for the ESP32
 PlatformIO Ecosystem and IDE
 Pymakr IDE – IDE designed for use with Pycom devices; handles firmware
upgrades and includes MicroPython REPL console.
 Simba Embedded Programming Platform
 Whitecat Ecosystem Blockly Based Web IDE
 MicroPython
 Zerynth – Python for IoT and microcontrollers, including the ESP32.

Reception and use[edit]

Commercial and industrial use of ESP32:
Use in commercial devices[edit]

 Alibaba Group's IoT LED wristband, used by participants at the group's 2017
annual gathering. Each wristband operated as a "pixel", receiving commands
for coordinated LED light control, allowing formation of a "live and wireless
screen".[36]

Department Of ECE 43 CMR Institute Of Technology

  DingTalk's M1, a biometric attendance-tracking system.[37]
[38]
 LIFX Mini, a series of remotely controllable, LED based light bulbs.
[39]
 Pium, a home fragrance and aromatherapy device.
 HardKernel's Odroid Go, an ESP32 based handheld gaming device kit made to
commemorate Odroid's 10th anniversary.[40]
Use in industrial devices[edit]

 TECHBASE's Moduino X series X1 and X2 modules are ESP32-WROVER based

computers for industrial automation and monitoring, supporting digital
inputs/outputs, analog inputs, and various computer networking interfaces.[41]

USB CAMERA

• USB Cameras are imaging cameras that use USB 2.0 or USB 3.0 technology
to transfer image data. USB Cameras are designed to easily interface with
dedicated computer systems by using the same USB technology that is
found on most computers. The accessibility of USB technology in computer
systems as well as the 480 Mb/s transfer rate of USB 2.0 makes USB
Cameras ideal for many imaging applications.

• An increasing selection of USB 3.0 Cameras is also available with data

transfer rates of up to 5 Gb/s.

• Edmund Optics offers a variety of USB Cameras suited to meet many

imaging needs. EO USB Cameras are available in both CMOS as well as CCD
sensor types making them suitable across a larger range of applications.

• USB Cameras contain out-of-the-box functionality for quick setup and

software is available to download for most models. USB Cameras using low
power USB ports, such as on a laptop, may require a separate power supply
for operation.

Department Of ECE 44 CMR Institute Of Technology

 RELAY:

A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet

to operate a switching mechanism, but other operating principles are also used.
Relays find applications where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power
signal, or where several circuits must be controlled by one signal. The first relays
were used in long distance telegraph circuits, repeating the signal coming in from
one circuit and re-transmitting it to another. Relays found extensive use in
telephone exchanges and early computers to perform logical operations. A type
of relay that can handle the high power required to directly drive an electric
motor is
Department Of ECE 45 CMR Institute Of Technology
 called a contactor. Solid-state relays control power circuits with no moving parts,
instead using a semiconductor device triggered by light to perform switching.
Relays with calibrated operating characteristics and sometimes multiple operating
coils are used to protect electrical circuits from overload or faults; in modern
electric power systems these functions are performed by digital instruments still
called "protection relays".

Basic design and operation:

Simple electromechanical relay

Department Of ECE 46 CMR Institute Of Technology

 Small relay as used in electronics

A simple electromagnetic relay, such as the one taken from a car in the first
picture, is an adaptation of an electromagnet. It consists of a coil of wire
surrounding a soft iron core, an iron yoke, which provides a low reluctance path
for magnetic flux, a movable iron armature, and a set, or sets, of contacts; two in
the relay pictured. The armature is hinged to the yoke and mechanically linked to
a moving contact or contacts. It is held in place by a spring so that when the relay
is de-energized there is an air gap in the magnetic circuit. In this condition, one of
the two sets of contacts in the relay pictured is closed, and the other set is open.
Other relays may have more or fewer sets of contacts depending on their
function. The relay in the picture also has a wire connecting the armature to the
yoke. This ensures continuity of the circuit between the moving contacts on the
armature, and the circuit track on the printed circuit board (PCB) via the yoke,
which is soldered to the PCB.

When an electric current is passed through the coil, the resulting magnetic field
attracts the armature and the consequent movement of the movable contact or
contacts either makes or breaks a connection with a fixed contact. If the set of
contacts was closed when the relay was De-energized, then the movement opens
the contacts and breaks the connection, and vice versa if the contacts were open.
When the current to the coil is switched off, the armature is returned by a force,
approximately half as strong as the magnetic force, to its relaxed position. Usually
this force is provided by a spring, but gravity is also used commonly in industrial
motor starters. Most relays are manufactured to operate quickly. In a low voltage

Department Of ECE 47 CMR Institute Of Technology

 application, this is to reduce noise. In a high voltage or high current application,
this is to reduce arcing.

If the coil is energized with DC, a diode is frequently installed across the coil, to
dissipate the energy from the collapsing magnetic field at deactivation, which
would otherwise generate a voltage spike dangerous to circuit components. Some
automotive relays already include a diode inside the relay case. Alternatively a
contact protection network, consisting of a capacitor and resistor in series, may
absorb the surge. If the coil is designed to be energized with AC, a small copper
ring can be crimped to the end of the solenoid. This "shading ring" creates a small
out- of-phase current, which increases the minimum pull on the armature during
the AC cycle.

By analogy with the functions of the original electromagnetic device, a solid-state

relay is made with a thyristor or other solid-state switching device. To achieve
electrical isolation an opt coupler can be used which is a light-emitting diode (LED)
coupled with a photo transistor.

Types

Latching relay

Department Of ECE 48 CMR Institute Of Technology

 Latching relay, dust cover removed, showing pawl and ratchet mechanism. The
ratchet operates a cam, which raises and lowers the moving contact arm, seen
edge-on just below it. The moving and fixed contacts are visible at the left side of
the image.

A latching relay has two relaxed states (bistable). These are also called "impulse",
"keep", or "stay" relays. When the current is switched off, the relay remains in its
last state. This is achieved with a solenoid operating a ratchet and cam
mechanism, or by having two opposing coils with an over-center spring or
permanent magnet to hold the armature and contacts in position while the coil is
relaxed, or with a remanent core. In the ratchet and cam example, the first pulse
to the coil turns the relay on and the second pulse turns it off. In the two coil
example, a pulse to one coil turns the relay on and a pulse to the opposite coil
turns the relay off. This type of relay has the advantage that it consumes power
only for an instant, while it is being switched, and it retains its last setting across a
power outage. A remanent core latching relay requires a current pulse of opposite
polarity to make it change state.

Reed relay

A reed relay has a set of contacts inside a vacuum or inert gas filled glass tube,
which protects the contacts against atmospheric corrosion. The contacts are
closed by a magnetic field generated when current passes through a coil around
the glass tube. Reed relays are capable of faster switching speeds than larger
types of relays, but have low switch current and voltage ratings.

Department Of ECE 49 CMR Institute Of Technology

 Mercury-wetted relay

A mercury-wetted reed relay is a form of reed relay in which the contacts are
wetted with mercury. Such relays are used to switch low-voltage signals (one volt
or less) because of their low contact resistance, or for high-speed counting and
timing applications where the mercury eliminates contact bounce. Mercury
wetted relays are position-sensitive and must be mounted vertically to work
properly. Because of the toxicity and expense of liquid mercury, these relays are
rarely specified for new equipment. See also mercury switch.

Polarized relay

A polarized relay placed the armature between the poles of a permanent magnet
to increase sensitivity. Polarized relays were used in middle 20th Century
telephone exchanges to detect faint pulses and correct telegraphic distortion. The
poles were on screws, so a technician could first adjust them for maximum
sensitivity and then apply a bias spring to set the critical current that would
operate the relay.

Machine tool relay

Department Of ECE 50 CMR Institute Of Technology

 A machine tool relay is a type standardized for industrial control of machine
tools, transfer machines, and other sequential control. They are characterized by
a large
number of contacts (sometimes extendable in the field) which are easily
converted from normally-open to normally-closed status, easily replaceable coils,
and a form factor that allows compactly installing many relays in a control panel.
Although such relays once were the backbone of automation in such industries as
automobile assembly, the programmable logic controller (PLC) mostly displaced
the machine tool relay from sequential control applications.

Contactor relay

A contactor is a very heavy-duty relay used for switching electric motors and
lighting loads. Continuous current ratings for common contactors range from 10
amps to several hundred amps. High-current contacts are made with alloys
containing silver. The unavoidable arcing causes the contacts to oxidize; however,
silver oxide is still a good conductor. Such devices are often used for motor
starters. A motor starter is a contactor with overload protection devices attached.
The overload sensing devices are a form of heat operated relay where a coil heats
a bi- metal strip, or where a solder pot melts, releasing a spring to operate
auxiliary contacts. These auxiliary contacts are in series with the coil. If the
overload senses excess current in the load, the coil is de-energized. Contactor
relays can be extremely loud to operate, making them unfit for use where noise is
a chief concern.

Department Of ECE 51 CMR Institute Of Technology

 Solid-state relay

Solid state relay, which has no moving parts

25 A or 40 A solid state contactors

A solid state relay (SSR) is a solid state electronic component that provides a
similar function to an electromechanical relay but does not have any moving
components, increasing long-term reliability. With early SSR's, the tradeoff came
from the fact that every transistor has a small voltage drop across it. This voltage
drop limited the amount of current a given SSR could handle. As transistors
improved, higher current SSR's, able to handle 100 to 1,200 Amperes, have
become commercially available. Compared to electromagnetic relays, they may
be falsely triggered by transients.

Department Of ECE 52 CMR Institute Of Technology

 Solid state contactor relay

A solid state contactor is a very heavy-duty solid state relay, including the
necessary heat sink, used for switching electric heaters, small electric motors and
lighting loads; where frequent on/off cycles are required. There are no moving
parts to wear out and there is no contact bounce due to vibration. They are
activated by AC control signals or DC control signals from Programmable logic
controller (PLCs), PCs, Transistor-transistor logic (TTL) sources, or other
microprocessor and microcontroller controls.

Buchholz relay

A Buchholz relay is a safety device sensing the accumulation of gas in large oil-
filled transformers, which will alarm on slow accumulation of gas or shut down
the transformer if gas is produced rapidly in the transformer oil.

Forced-guided contacts relay

A forced-guided contacts relay has relay contacts that are mechanically linked
together, so that when the relay coil is energized or de-energized, all of the linked
contacts move together. If one set of contacts in the relay becomes immobilized,
no other contact of the same relay will be able to move. The function of forced-
guided contacts is to enable the safety circuit to check the status of the relay.
Forced-guided contacts are also known as "positive-guided contacts", "captive
contacts", "locked contacts", or "safety relays".

Department Of ECE 53 CMR Institute Of Technology

 Overload protection relay

Electric motors need over current protection to prevent damage from over-
loading the motor, or to protect against short circuits in connecting cables or
internal faults in the motor windings. One type of electric motor overload
protection relay is operated by a heating element in series with the electric
motor. The heat generated by the motor current heats a bimetallic strip or melts
solder, releasing a spring to operate contacts. Where the overload relay is
exposed to the same environment as the motor, a useful though crude
compensation for motor ambient temperature is provided.

Pole and throw:

Circuit symbols of relays. "C" denotes the common terminal in SPDT and DPDT
types.

Department Of ECE 54 CMR Institute Of Technology

 The diagram on the package of a DPDT AC coil relay

Since relays are switches, the terminology applied to switches is also applied to
relays. A relay will switch one or more poles, each of whose contacts can be
thrown by energizing the coil in one of three ways:

 Normally-open (NO) contacts connect the circuit when the relay is

activated; the circuit is disconnected when the relay is inactive. It is also
called a Form A contact or "make" contact.
 Normally-closed (NC) contacts disconnect the circuit when the relay is
activated; the circuit is connected when the relay is inactive. It is also called
a Form B contact or "break" contact.
 Change-over (CO), or double-throw (DT), contacts control two circuits: one
normally-open contact and one normally-closed contact with a common
terminal. It is also called a Form C contact or "transfer" contact ("break
before make"). If this type of contact utilizes”make before break"
functionality, then it is called a Form D contact.

The following designations are commonly encountered:

Department Of ECE 55 CMR Institute Of Technology

  SPST – Single Pole Single Throw. These have two terminals which can be
connected or disconnected. Including two for the coil, such a relay has four
terminals in total. It is ambiguous whether the pole is normally open or
normally closed. The terminology "SPNO" and "SPNC" is sometimes used to
resolve the ambiguity.
 SPDT – Single Pole Double Throw. A common terminal connects to either of
two others. Including two for the coil, such a relay has five terminals in
total.
 DPST – Double Pole Single Throw. These have two pairs of terminals.
Equivalent to two SPST switches or relays actuated by a single coil.
Including two for the coil, such a relay has six terminals in total. The poles
may be Form A or Form B (or one of each).
 DPDT – Double Pole Double Throw. These have two rows of change-over
terminals. Equivalent to two SPDT switches or relays actuated by a single
coil. Such a relay has eight terminals, including the coil.

The "S" or "D" may be replaced with a number, indicating multiple switches
connected to a single actuator. For example 4PDT indicates a four pole double
throw relay (with 14 terminals).

Applications:

Relays are used to and for:

 Control a high-voltage circuit with a low-voltage signal, as in some types of

modems or audio amplifiers,
 Control a high-current circuit with a low-current signal, as in the starter

Department Of ECE 56 CMR Institute Of Technology

 solenoid of an automobile,

Department Of ECE 57 CMR Institute Of Technology

  Detect and isolate faults on transmission and distribution lines by opening
and closing circuit breakers (protection relays),

A DPDT AC coil relay with "ice cube" packaging

 Isolate the controlling circuit from the controlled circuit when the two are
at different potentials, for example when controlling a mains-powered
device from a low-voltage switch. The latter is often applied to control
office lighting as the low voltage wires are easily installed in partitions,
which may be often moved as needs change. They may also be controlled
by room occupancy detectors in an effort to conserve energy,
 Logic functions. For example, the boolean AND function is realised by
connecting normally open relay contacts in series, the OR function by
connecting normally open contacts in parallel. The change-over or Form C
contacts perform the XOR (exclusive or) function. Similar functions for
NAND and NOR are accomplished using normally closed contacts. The
Ladder programming language is often used for designing relay logic
networks.

Department Of ECE 58 CMR Institute Of Technology

 o Early computing. Before vacuum tubes and transistors, relays were
used as logical elements in digital computers. See ARRA (computer),
Harvard Mark II, Zuse Z2, and Zuse Z3.
o Safety-critical logic. Because relays are much more resistant than
semiconductors to nuclear radiation, they are widely used in safety-
critical logic, such as the control panels of radioactive waste-handling
machinery.
 Time delay functions. Relays can be modified to delay opening or delay
closing a set of contacts. A very short (a fraction of a second) delay would
use a copper disk between the armature and moving blade assembly.
Current flowing in the disk maintains magnetic field for a short time,
lengthening release time. For a slightly longer (up to a minute) delay, a
dashpot is used. A dashpot is a piston filled with fluid that is allowed to
escape slowly. The time period can be varied by increasing or decreasing
the flow rate. For longer time periods, a mechanical clockwork timer is
installed.

Relay application considerations:

A large relay with two coils and many sets of contacts, used in an old telephone
switching system.
Department Of ECE 59 CMR Institute Of Technology
 Several 30-contact relays in "Connector" circuits in mid 20th century 1XB switch
and 5XB switch telephone exchanges; cover removed on one

Selection of an appropriate relay for a particular application requires evaluation of

many different factors:

 Number and type of contacts – normally open, normally closed, (double-

throw)
 Contact sequence – "Make before Break" or "Break before Make". For
example, the old style telephone exchanges required Make-before-break so
that the connection didn't get dropped while dialing the number.
 Rating of contacts – small relays switch a few amperes, large contactors are
rated for up to 3000 amperes, alternating or direct current
 Voltage rating of contacts – typical control relays rated 300 VAC or 600
VAC, automotive types to 50 VDC, special high-voltage relays to about 15
000 V
 Coil voltage – machine-tool relays usually 24 VAC, 120 or 250 VAC, relays
for switchgear may have 125 V or 250 VDC coils, "sensitive" relays operate
on a few mill amperes
 Coil current
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  Package/enclosure – open, touch-safe, double-voltage for isolation
between circuits, explosion proof, outdoor, oil and splash resistant,
washable for printed circuit board assembly
 Assembly – Some relays feature a sticker that keeps the enclosure sealed to
allow PCB post soldering cleaning, which is removed once assembly is
complete.
 Mounting – sockets, plug board, rail mount, panel mount, through-panel
mount, enclosure for mounting on walls or equipment
 Switching time – where high speed is required
 "Dry" contacts – when switching very low level signals, special contact
materials may be needed such as gold-plated contacts
 Contact protection – suppress arcing in very inductive circuits
 Coil protection – suppress the surge voltage produced when switching the
coil current
 Isolation between coil circuit and contacts
 Aerospace or radiation-resistant testing, special quality assurance
 Expected mechanical loads due to acceleration – some relays used in
aerospace applications are designed to function in shock loads of 50 g or
more
 Accessories such as timers, auxiliary contacts, pilot lamps, test buttons
 Regulatory approvals
 Stray magnetic linkage between coils of adjacent relays on a printed circuit
board.

Advantages of relays:

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  Relays can switch AC and DC, transistors can only switch DC.
 Relays can switch high voltages, transistors cannot.
 Relays are a better choice for switching large currents (> 5A).
 Relays can switch many contacts at once.

Disadvantages of relays:

 Relays are bulkier than transistors for switching small currents.

 Relays cannot switch rapidly (except reed relays), transistors can switch
many times per second.
 Relays use more power due to the current flowing through their coil.
 Relays require more current than many ICs can provide, so a low power
transistor may be needed to switch the current for the relay's coil.

D.C. Motor:

A dc motor uses electrical energy to produce mechanical energy, very

generally through the interaction of magnetic fields and current-containing
conductors. The reverse process, producing electrical energy from mechanical
energy, is carried out by an alternator, source or dynamo. Many types of electric

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 motors can be run as sources, and vice verse. The input of a DC motor is
current/voltage and its output is torque (speed).

Fig 3.19: DC Motor

The DC motor has two basic parts: the rotating part that is called the
armature and the stable part that includes coils of wire called the field coils. The
stationary part is also called up the stator. Figure shows a depict of a distinctive
DC motor, Figure shows a picture of a DC armature, and Figure shows a picture of
a distinctive stator. From the picture you can see the armature is made of coils of
wire wrapped around the core, and the core has an covered shaft that rotates on
charges. You should also notice that the ends of each coil of wire on the armature
are finished at one end of the armature. The outcome points are called the
commutator, and this is where's brushes make electrical contact to bring
electrical current from the stationary part to the rotating part of the machine.

Operation:
The DC motor you will find in modem industrial applications operates very
similarly to the simple DC motor described earlier in this chapter. Figure 12-9
demonstrates an electrical diagram of a simple DC motor. comment that the DC

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 voltage is applied directly to the field winding and the brushes. The armature and
the area are both shown as a coil of wire. In afterward diagrams, a field resistor
will be added in series with the field to control the motor speed. When voltage is
applied to the motor, current begins to flow by the field coil from the negative
terminal to the positive terminal. This sets up a inviolable magnetic field in the
field winding. Current also begins to feed through the brushes into a commutator
segment and then through an armature coil. The current goes forward to flow
through the coil back to the brush that is attached to other end of the coil and
returns to the DC power source. The current flow in the armature coil sets up a
strong magnetic field in the armature.

Fig 3.20: Simple electrical diagram of DC motor

Fig 3.21: Operation of a DC Motor

The magnetic field in the armature and field coil causes the armature to
begin to rotate. This occurs by the dissimilar magnetic poles attracting each other

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 and the like magnetic poles grossing out each other. As the armature begins to
rotate, the commutator sections will also begin to move beneath the brushes. As
an individual commutator segment moves under the brush connected to positive
voltage, it will become positive, and when it impresses under a brush connected
to negative voltage it will turn negative. In this way, the commutator segments
continually change polarity from positive to negative. Since the commutator
segments are associated to the ends of the wires that make up the field winding
in the armature, it induces the magnetic field in the armature to change polarity
continually from north pole to south pole. The commutator sections and brushes
are aligned in such a way that the switch in polarity of the armature coincides
with the location of the armature's magnetic field and the field winding's
magnetic field. The switching accomplish is timed so that the armature will not
lock up magnetically with the field. Rather the magnetic fields tend to build on
each other and provide additional torque to keep the motor shaft rotating.
When the voltage is de-energized to the motor, the magnetic fields in
that armature and the field winding will quickly diminish and the armature shaft's
speed will begin to drop to zero. If voltage is enforced to the motor again, the
magnetic fields will toughen and the armature will begin to rotate again .

Types of DC motors:

1. DC Shunt Motor,

2. DC Series Motor,

3. DC Long Shunt Motor (Compound)

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 4. DC Short Shunt Motor (Compound)

The rotational energy that you get from any motor is usually the battle between two magnetic
fields going after each other. The DC motor has magnetic poles and an armature, to windward
DC electricity is flowed, The Magnetic Poles are electromagnets, and when they are energized,
they develop a strong magnetic field approximately them, and the armature which is given
power with a commutator, invariably repels the poles, and therefore rotates.

1. The DC Shunt Motor:

In a 2 pole DC Motor, the armature will have two separate sets of winding,
connected to a commutator at the end of the shaft that are in constant touch
with carbon brushes. The brushes are motionless, and the commutator rotates
and as the portions of the commutator touching the respective positive or
negative polarity brush will energize the respective part of the armature with the
respective polarity. It is commonly arranged in such a way that the armature and
the poles are always repelling.

The general idea of a DC Motor is, the stronger the Field Current, the stronger the
magnetic field, and faster the rotation of the armature. When the armature
revolves between the poles, the magnetic field of the poles induce power in the
armature conductors, and some electricity is generated in the armature, which is
called back emf, and it acts as a resistance for the armature. Generally an
armature has resistance of less than 1 Ohm, and powering it with heavy voltages
of Direct Current could result in immediate short circuits. This back emf helps us
there.When an armature is loaded on a DC Shunt Motor, the speed naturally
reduces, and therefore the back emf reduces, which allows more armatures
current to flow. This results in more armature field, and therefore it results in

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 torque.

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 Fig: Diagram of DC shunt motor

When a DC Shunt Motor is overloaded, if the armature becomes too slow, the
reduction of the back emf could cause the motor to burn due to heavy current
flow thru the armature.

The poles and armature are excited separately, and parallel, therefore it is called
a Shunt Motor.

2. The DC Series Motor:

Fig: Diagram of DC series motor

A DC Series Motor has its field coil in series with the armature. hence any amount
of power drawn by the armature will be passed through the field. As a result you
cannot start a Series DC Motor without any load affiliated to it. It will either run
uncontrollably in full speed, or it will block.

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 Fig: Diagram of DC series motor graph representation

When the load is increased then its efficiency increases with respect to the load
employed. So these are on Electric Trains and elevators.

Specifications

 DC supply: 4 to 12V
 RPM: 300 at 12V
 Total length: 46mm
 Motor diameter: 36mm
 Motor length: 25mm
 Brush type: Precious metal
 Gear head diameter: 37mm
 Gear head length: 21mm
 Output shaft: Centred
 Shaft diameter: 6mm

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  Shaft length: 22mm
 Gear assembly: Spur
 Motor weight: 105gms

We generally use 300 RPM Center Shaft Economy Series DC Motor which is high quality low cost
DC geared motor. It has steel gears and pinions to assure longer life and better wear and tear
places. The gears are fixed on hardened steel spindles polished to a mirror finish. The output
shaft circumvolve in a plastic bushing. The whole assembly is crossed with a plastic ring.
Gearbox is sealed off and lubricated with lithium grease and require no sustainment. The motor
is screwed to the gear box from inside.

Although motor gives 300 RPM at 12V but motor runs smoothly from 4V to 12V and gives wide
range of RPM, and torque. Tables below gives reasonably good idea of the motor’s
performance in terms of RPM and no load current as a function of voltage and stall torque, stall
current as a operate of voltage.

3. DC Compound Motor:

A compound of Series and Shunt excitation for the fields is done in a Compound
DC Motor. This affords the best of both series and shunt motors. Improve torque
as in a series motor, while the possible action to start the motor with no load.

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 Fig: Diagram of DC compound motor

Above is the diagram of a long shunt motor, as in a short shunt, the shunt coil will
be connected after the serial coil.

A Compound motor can be run as a shunt motor absent connecting the serial coil
at all but not vice versa.

Applications

BLDC motors fulfill many functions originally performed by brushed DC motors,

but cost and control complexity keeps BLDC motors from replacing brushed
motors completely in the lowest-cost areas. However, DC motors have come to
dominate many applications, especially devices such as computer hard drives and
CD/DVD players. Small cooling fans in electronic instrumentation are powered
exclusively by BLDC motors. They can be detected in cordless power tools where
the increased
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 efficiency of the motor leads to longer periods of use before the battery needs to
be charged. Low speed, low power BLDC motors are expended in direct-drive
turntables for "analog" audio discs.

Transport

High power BLDC motors are found in electric vehicles and hybrid vehicles.
These motors are basically AC synchronous motors with permanent magnet
rotors.

The Segway Scooter and Vectrix Maxi-Scooter expend BLDC technology.

A number of electric bicycles use BLDC motors that are sometimes built into
the wheel hub itself, with the stator determined solidly to the axle and the
magnets attached to and rotating withstand wheel. The bicycle wheel hub is the
motor. This type of electric bicycle as well has a standard bicycle transmission on
pedals, sprockets, and chain that can be pedaled along with, or absent, the use of
the motor as need arises.

Heating and ventilation

There is a trend in the HVAC and refrigeration industries to use BLDC

motors instead of various types of AC motors. The most significant conclude to
switch to a BLDC motor is the dramatic reduction in power required to operate
them versus a typical AC motor.[8][9] While shaded-pole and permanent
disconnected capacitor motors once dominated as the fan motor of choice, many
fans are immediately run using a BLDC motor. Some fans use BLDC motors also in
govern to increase overall system efficiency.[10]In increase to the BLDC motor's

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 higher efficiency, certain HVAC systems (especially those featuring variable-speed
and/or

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 load modulation) use BLDC motors because the built-in microprocessor allows for
programmability, better assure over airflow, and serial communication.

Industrial engineering

This section requires expansion.

See Stepper motor, Servo motor.

Stepper motor

The stepper motor is used in microprocessor and micro controller-based and

robotic equipment, as it takes less power and provides accurate movement of
robotic arms. Semiconductor manufacturers include infinite engineering's, Texas
Instruments and Microchip. Infineon offers supposed LIN stepper motors used in
applications such as instrumentation and gauges, CNC machining, multi-axis
laying, printers and surveillance equipment.

Model engineering

BLDC motors are a popular motor choice for model aircraft including helicopters.
Their prosperous power-to-weight ratios and large range of usable sizes, from
under 5 gram to large motors rated at thousands of watts, have inspired the
market for electric-powered model flight.

Their introduction has redefined performance in electric model aircraft and

helicopters, moving virtually all brushed electric motors. They have also
advocated a development of simple, lightweight electric model aircraft, rather
than the premature internal combustion engines powering larger and greater
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 models. The
large power-to-weight ratio of modern batteries and brushless motors allows
models to come up vertically, rather than climb gradually. The low noise and lack
of mess compared to small glow fuel internal combustion engines that are used is
another reason for their popularity.

Legal confinements for the use of combustion engine driven model aircraft in
some countries have also supported the shift to high-power electric systems.

Their popularity has also risen in the Radio Controlled Car, cracked, and Truck
scene, where sensor-type motors (with an extra six wires, connected to Hall effect
sensors) allow the position of the rotor magnet to be detected. Brushless motors
have been effectual in RC Car Racing in accordance to ROAR (the American
governing body for RC Car Racing), since 2006. various RC Car Brushless motors,
feature expendable and upgradable parts, such as sintered neodymium-iron-
boron (rare earth magnets), ceramic bearings, and exchangeable motor timing
assemblies. These motors as a result are rapidly rising to be the preferred motor
type for electric on and off-road RC racers and recreational drivers alike, for their
low maintenance, high campaigning reliability and power efficiency (most
Sensored motors have an efficiency rating of 80% or greater).

PULSE WIDTH MODULATION (PWM):

Pulse-width modulation (PWM), or pulse-duration modulation (PDM), is a

commonly used technique for controlling power to inertial electrical devices,
made practical by modern electronic power switches.

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 The average value of voltage (and current) fed to the load is controlled by
turning the switch between supply and load on and off at a fast pace. The longer
the switch is on equated to the off periods, the higher the power provided to the
load is.

The PWM switching frequency has to be much faster than what would
regard the load, which is to say the device that uses the power. generally
switching have to be done several times a minute in an electric range, 120 Hz in a
lamp dimmer, from few kilohertz (kHz) to tens of kHz for a motor drive and well
into the tens or hundreds of kHz in audio amplifiers and computer power
supplies.

The term duty cycle describes the proportion of 'on' time to the regular
interval or 'period' of time; a low duty cycle corresponds to low power, because
the power is off for most significant bit the time. Duty cycle is conveyed in
percent, 100% being fully on.

The main advantage of PWM is that power loss in the switching devices is
very low. When a switch is off there is much no current, and when it is on, there is
nearly no voltage drop across the switch. Power loss, existence the product of
voltage and current, is thus in both examples close to zero. PWM also works well
with digital assures, which, because of their on/off nature, can easily set the
necessitated duty cycle. PWM has also been used in certain communication
systems where its duty cycle has been used to convey information over a
communications channel.

One of the advantages of PWM is that the signal remains digital all the way

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 from the processor to the controlled system; no digital-to-analog conversion is

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 necessary. By continuing the signal digital, noise effects are understated. Noise
can only affect a digital signal if it is strong enough to change a logic-1 to a logic-0,
or contrariwise.

Increased noise immunity is yet another benefit of choosing PWM over

analog control, and is the principal conclude PWM is sometimes used for
communication. Switching from each one analog signal to PWM can increase the
length of a communication channel dramatically. At the receiving end, a suitable
RC (resistor-capacitor) or LC (inductor-capacitor) network can remove the
modulating high frequency square wave and return the signal to analog form.

PWM finds application in a variety of systems. As a concrete example,

conceive a PWM-assured brake. To put it simply, a brake is a device that clamps
down hard on something. In many brakes, the quantity of clamping enforced (or
stopping power) is controlled with an analog input signal. The more voltage or
current that's enforced to the brake, the more force the brake will exert.

The output of a PWM controller could be connected to a switch between

the supply and the brake. To develop more stopping power, the software
necessitates only increase the duty cycle of the PWM output. If a particular
amount of braking pressure is wanted, measurements would need to be taken to
determine the mathematical relationship between duty cycle and pressure. (And
the ensuing formulae or lookup tables would be tweaked for functioning
temperature, surface wear, and so on.)

To set the pressure on the bracken to, say, 100 psi, the software would do a
reverse lookup to determine the duty cycle that should produce that quantity of

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 force. It would then set the PWM duty cycle to the new value and the brake
would react accordingly. If a sensor is available in the system, the duty cycle can
be tweaked, beneath closed-loop control, until the desired pressure is precisely
achieved.

PWM is economical, space saving, and noise resistant. And it's now in your bag of
deceptions. So use it.

PWM controllers
Many microcontrollers include on-chip PWM controllers. For example,
Microchip's PIC16C67 admits two, each other which has a selectable on-time and
period of time. The duty cycle is the ratio of the on-time to the period; the
modulating frequency is the inverse of the period. To start PWM procedure, the
data sheet suggests the software should:

 Set the period of time in the on-chip timer/counter that provides the
modulating square wave

• Set the on-time in the PWM assure register

• Set the direction of the PWM output, which is one of the general-function
I/O pins

• Start the timer

• Enable the PWM controller

Although particular PWM controllers do vary in their programmatic details, the

basic idea is generally the same.

DC Motor Driver:

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 The L293 and L293D are quadruple high-current half-H drivers. The L293 is
designed to allow for bidirectional drive currents of up to 1 A at voltages from 4.5
V to 36 V. The L293D is planned to provide bidirectional drive currents of up to
600- mA at voltages of 4.5 V to 36 V. Both devices are designed to drive inductive
loads such as relays, solenoids, dc and bipolar maltreating motors, as well as
other high- current/high up-voltage loads in positive-supply applications.
All inputs are TTL compatible. Each output is a complete totem-pole
drive circuit, with a Darlington transistor drop and a pseudo-Darlington source.
Drivers are changed in pairs, with drivers 1 and 2 enabled near 1,2EN and drivers
3 and 4 enabled by 3,4EN.When an enable input is high, the linked drivers are
enabled and their outputs are active and in phase with their inputs.

When the enable input is low, those drivers are disabled and their outputs are off
and in the high-impedance state. With the thoroughly data inputs, each pair of
drivers forms a full-H (or bridge) reversible drive suitable for solenoid or motor
applications. On the L293, international high-speed output clamp diodes should
be used for inductive transient stifling. A VCC1 terminal, classify from VCC2, is
provided for the logic inputs to minimize device power dissolution. The L293and
L293D are characterized for operation from 0°C to 70°C.

Fig 3.22: L293D IC

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 Pin Diagram of L293D motor driver:

Fig 3.23: L293D pin diagram

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 Fig 3.24: Internal structure of L293D.

Features of L293D:

 600mA Output current capability per channel

 1.2A Peak output current (non repetitive) per channel
 Enable facility
 Over temperature protection
 Logical “0”input voltage up to 1.5 v
 High noise immunity
 Internal clamp diodes

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 Applications of DC Motors:

1. Electric Train: A kind of DC motor called the DC Series Motor is used in Electric
Trains. The DC Series Motors have the attribute to deliver more power when they
are affluent more. So the more the people get on a train, the more herculean the
train becomes.

2. Elevators: The best bidirectional motors are DC motors. They are expended in
elevators. Compound DC Motors are used for this covering.

3. DC Fans, CD ROM Drives, and Hard Drives: All these things need motors, very
miniature motors, with great exactness. AC motors can never conceive of any
application in these places.

4. Starter Motors in Automobiles: An automobile battery supplies DC, so a DC

motor is best fitted here. Also, you cannot start an engine with a small sized AC
motor,

5. Electrical Machines Lab in Colleges.

BUZZER

A buzzer or beeper is an audio signaling device, which may be

mechanical, electromechanical, or electronic. Typical uses of buzzers
and beepers include alarms, timers and confirmation of user input such
as a mouse click or keystroke.

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 FEATURES
• The PB series are high-performance buzzers with a unimorph
piezoelectric ceramic element and an integral self-excitation oscillator
circuit.
• They exhibit extremely low power consumption in comparison to
electromagnetic units.
• They are constructed without switching contacts to ensure long life and
no electrical noise.
• Compact, yet produces high acoustic output with minimal voltage.

Mechanical

A joy buzzer is an example of a purely mechanical buzzer.

Electromechanical

Early devices were based on an electromechanical system identical to

an electric bell without the metal gong. Similarly, a relay may be
connected to interrupt its own actuating current, causing the contacts
to buzz. Often these units were anchored to a wall or ceiling to use it as
a sounding board. The word "buzzer" comes from the rasping noise that
electromechanical buzzers made.

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 VOLTAGE BUZZER SOUND CONTROLS

When resistance is connected in series (as shown in illustrations (a) and

(b)), abnormal oscillation may occur when adjusting the sound volume.
In this case, insert a capacitor in parallel to the voltage oscillation board
(as shown in illustration (c)). By doing so, abnormal oscillation can be
prevented by grounding one side. However, the voltage VB added to
the voltage oscillation board must be within the maximum input
voltage range, and as capacitance of 3.3μF or greater should be
connected.

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 CHAPTER

CONCLUSION:

An embedded automotive security system involving face recognition is presented. The system can be
used to reduce the increased vehicle theft and allows the owner to identify the intruder thereby having
the vehicle under his/her control. The results obtained through the face recognition shows that it
can be relied upon to ensure safety of vehicle. The system is also reliable to be used in other
authorization applications involving robotics, border management, banking security involving ATMs .

FUTURE SCOPE:

 In the long run, robots using facial recognition technology may also come to foray.
 Other areas that are now welcoming it with open arms are schools.
 Reporting duplicate voters
 to keep fraud in debit/credit card purchases and payment especially the ones that are online.

REFERENCE:

[1] P Bagavathy, R Dhaya and T Devakumar (2011), Real time car theft decline system using ARM processor, Proceedings
of International Conference on Advances in Recent Technologies in Communication and Computing, pp. 101- 105.
[2] S K Hese and M R Banwaskar (2013), Performance Evaluation of PCA and LDA for Face Recognition, International
Journal of Advanced Research in Electronics and Communication Engineering, Maharashtra, India, 2, 2, pp.149-152.
[3] Shihab A. Hameed, Shaima Abdulla et al. (2011), New Automobile Monitoring and Tracking Model: Facilitate Model
with Handhelds, 4th International Conference on Mechatronics, Malaysia.
[4] P Viola and M Jones (2002), Fast and robust classification using asymmetric AdaBoost and a detector cascade, NIPS14.

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