1044 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 66, NO.

2, FEBRUARY 2019

Wireless Power Transfer—An Overview

Zhen Zhang , Senior Member, IEEE, Hongliang Pang , Student Member, IEEE,
Apostolos Georgiadis , Senior Member, IEEE, and Carlo Cecati , Fellow, IEEE

(Invited Paper)

Abstract—Due to limitations of low power density, high The reason why WPT technologies are so crucial is regarding
cost, heavy weight, etc., the development and application to two fundamental problems of battery-powered devices that
of battery-powered devices are facing with unprecedented limit their popularization—short battery life and high initial
technical challenges. As a novel pattern of energization,
the wireless power transfer (WPT) offers a band new way to cost. Taking EVs as an example [3], although many automobile
the energy acquisition for electric-driven devices, thus al- manufacturers claim that their products can run over 120 km per
leviating the over-dependence on the battery. This paper charge, when taking into account the range anxiety, most of the
presents an overview of WPT techniques with emphasis EV drivers only dare to run about 100 km. On the other hand,
on working mechanisms, technical challenges, metamateri-
by significantly increasing the number of batteries installed in
als, and classical applications. Focusing on WPT systems,
this paper elaborates on current major research topics and EVs, the driving range can be extended to over 400 km but the
discusses about future development trends. This novel en- corresponding initial cost becomes unaffordable for the gen-
ergy transmission mechanism shows significant meanings eral public. Instead of waiting for the breakthrough of energy
on the pervasive application of renewable energies in our storage technology, a new energization way, namely the WPT
daily life.
technique, is attracting increasing attentions to bypass the cur-
Index Terms—Capacitive coupled power transfer (CCPT), rent technical bottlenecks of batteries. By utilizing the WPT
contactless charging, dynamic charging, inductive power technique, battery-powered devices can harness wireless power
transfer (IPT), overview, wireless power transfer (WPT). from electromagnetic field in air and then charge their batteries
I. INTRODUCTION cordlessly even in the moving state. This novel charging tech-
nology can fundamentally solve their problems of short battery
S AN epoch-making technique, wireless power transfer
A (WPT) incredibly realizes the energy migration in a cord-
less way [1], [2]. This seemingly magic way can change our
life due to limited battery storage or high initial cost due to the
installation of a large number of batteries.
The rest of this paper is organized as follows. Section II
traditional utilization patterns of the energy in various appli- will elaborate the working mechanism of inductive power
cations, such as portable electronic devices, implanted medical transfer (IPT), capacitive compensation network, magnetic
devices, integrated circuits, solar-powered satellites, electric ve- resonant coupling, and capacitive coupled power transfer
hicles (EVs), unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), and so forth. By (CCPT). In Section III, this paper will systematically sum-
means of its remarkable characteristics of flexibility, position- marize major technical challenges, such as the efficiency,
free, and movability, the WPT technique has been taken as an power, distance, misalignment, omnidirectional charging, and
ideal technical solution for energizing electric-driven devices security. Section IV will discuss about the metamaterials and
within some specific regions in the near future, especially for its improvement on the transmission performance of WPT
smart home applications. systems. Section V introduces classic WPT applications,
including EVs, implantable biomedical devices, and portable
Manuscript received January 11, 2018; revised March 20, 2018; ac- electronic devices. Finally, Section VI will draw conclusions
cepted April 24, 2018. Date of publication May 10, 2018; date of cur- and discuss about future prospects for WPT systems.
rent version September 28, 2018. This work was supported in part
by the National Natural Science Foundation of China under Project
51607120, in part by the Natural Science Foundation of Tianjin China
under Project 16JCQNJC01500, in part by Tianjin University, Tianjin, II. FUNDAMENTALS
China, through the PEIYANG Scholar-Reserved Academic Program
under Project 2017XRX-0017, and in part by Project MISE-PON n. The WPT technique has an ability of delivering the energy
F/050220/01-02-03/X32. (Corresponding author: Zhen Zhang.)
Z. Zhang and H. Pang are with the School of Electrical and Infor- from the power supply to the target via the air instead of tradi-
mation Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300000, China (e-mail: tional wires. This novel energy accessing technique commonly
[email protected]; [email protected]). consists of the far-field and the near-field transmissions. The
A. Georgiadis is with the 3120 Heriot-Watt University, EH14 4AS
Edinburgh, U.K. (e-mail: [email protected]). far-field WPT can be realized by adopting the acoustic, the op-
C. Cecati is with the DISIM, University of L’Aquila, 67100 L’Aquila, Italy, tical, and the microwave as the energy carrier. The near-field
and also with DigiPower srl (e-mail: [email protected]). technique utilizes the inductive coupling effect of nonradiative
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available
online at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org. electromagnetic fields, including the inductive and capacitive
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TIE.2018.2835378 mechanisms, which is exactly the emphasis of this paper.
0278-0046 © 2018 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.
See http://www.ieee.org/publications standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.

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 ZHANG et al.: WIRELESS POWER TRANSFER—AN OVERVIEW 1045

Fig. 2. Compensation networks.

Fig. 1. IPT. (a) Circuit model. (b) Equivalent T-model. (c) Two-port
network model.

A. Inductive Power Transfer (IPT) where r is the radius of coil and a is the cross-sectional radius
of copper wire. Accordingly, the load power will dramatically
Fig. 1(a) depicts the circuit model of IPT systems [4], [5],
drop with the increasing of the transmission distance d in IPT
where the transmitting coil L1 and the receiving coil L2 are
systems. This is the reason why IPT systems can only deal with
directly connected to the power source and the load impedance
the near-field energy transmission.
ZL , respectively. Denote M12 as the mutual inductance, R1 and
Additionally, the efficiency η can be calculated as
R2 as the equivalent ac resistance of coils. According to the
2
T-model as shown in Fig. 1(b) and the two-port network model PL Z12 Re {ZL }
as shown in Fig. 1(c), the voltage equation can be obtained as η= = . (7)
Pin ZL + Z22 R1 +
ω 2 M 122 (R 2 +R L )
     (R 2 +R L ) 2 +(X 2 +X L ) 2
V1 Z11 Z12 I1
=
V2 Z21 Z22 I2 In order to achieve the maximum η, the optimal load
   impedance ZL can be determined by differentiating η with re-
R1 + jωL1 jωM I1
= . (1) spect to RL and XL . It can be given by
jωM R2 + jωL2 I2 
ZL ,opt = R2 1 + κ212 Q1 Q2 − jωL2 (8)
The corresponding input and output impedances can be cal-
culated as where Q1 and Q2 represent the quality factor of transmitting
⎧
⎨ Zin = Z11 − Z 12 2 and receiving coils, respectively. Accordingly, the maximum
Z 2 2 +Z L
. (2) efficiency is given by
⎩ Zout = Z22 − Z 12 2
Z 1 1 +Z S
κ212 Q1 Q2
By neglecting resistive losses, the power acquired by the load ηmax = 2 . (9)
can be given by 1+ 1 + κ212 Q1 Q2

κ212 L2 RL 1 By taking into account the loosely coupled effect (κ12 << 1)
PL = 2 |V1 |2 . (3)
L1 [ωL2 (1 − κ12 ) + XL2 ] + RL2
2 in IPT systems, the quality factors of coils should be high enough
to ensure the expected energy transmission efficiency.
Denote the coupling coefficient between the transmitting and
the receiving coils as κ12 , which is given by
B. Compensation Network
M12
κ12 =√ . (4) According to (5), it shows that the primary and the secondary
L1 L2
circuits both need a capacitive compensation to eliminate the
Since IPT systems fall into the loosely coupled region imaginary part [7], aiming to ensure the maximum V1 and mini-
(κ12 << 1), the transmitted power can be simplified as mum (ωL2 + XL )2 . Regarding to the capacitive compensation
L2 RL network, there are four topologies as shown in Fig. 2, namely
PL ,κ1 ≈ |V1 |2 κ212 . (5)
L1 (ωL2 + XL )2 + RL2 series–series (SS), series–parallel (SP), parallel–series (PS), and
parallel–parallel (PP). By using the reflected impedance theory,
It shows that the load power is determined by the coupling the compensated capacitances can be calculated with respect
coefficient κ12 . Meanwhile, the model between the distance d to various network topologies [8], which are listed in Table
and κ12 is given by [6] I. It should be noted that the SS is the only topology which
 π
2r 2 (2sin2 φ − 1) is independent of the coupling coefficient and the load condi-
κ12 = √  dφ (6) tion since the reflected reactance equals zero on the primary
[ln(8r/a) − 2] d2 + 4r2 2 2 sin 2 φ
1 − 4rd 2 +4r 2 side.
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 1046 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 66, NO. 2, FEBRUARY 2019

TABLE I
CAPACITIVE COMPENSATION NETWORK

Fig. 4. Equivalent T-model of four-coils IPT systems.

Fig. 5. Typical CCPT system. (a) Block diagram. (b) Circuit.

designed to play the role of impedance matching and this is the

Fig. 3. Difference of impact between the distance on efficiency of two- reason why the four-coils IPT system can ensure the energy ef-
coils and four-coils IPT systems. ficiency at a high level even under a weak coupling effect [11],
thus extend the transmission distance to the midrange applica-
tions. However, immediately the number of coils is increased
C. Magnetic Resonant Coupling to four there existing tuning troubles which are not feasible to
Fig. 1(b) depicts the equivalent T-model of two-coils IPT have the four-coils structure under the circumstances of coplanar
systems, the energy efficiency η2 can be calculated as [9] situation in the primary side such as EV charging.
R2 RL
η2 = . (10) D. Capacitive Coupled Power Transfer (CCPT)
(R 2 +R L ) 2
R2 (R2 + RL ) + κ 21 2 Q 1 Q 2
The CCPT systems deliver the energy via the electric field
In order to illustrate the impact of d on η2 , this paper takes instead of the magnetic field; thus, possessing an ability of pene-
an exemplification by adopting r = 30 cm, a = 3 mm, and trating through metal materials existing in the transmission path,
Q1 = Q2 = 1000. Fig. 3 illustrates that the efficiency η2 drops which is the most different from the IPT systems. Fig. 5 shows
dramatically when d > 2r. This is the reason why the two-coils the block diagram and the equivalent circuit of the CCPT sys-
IPT system is commonly used for short-range (shorter than the tems, where the energy can be contactless transmitted through
diameter of the coil) transmission applications. the coupling electric field between the primary and secondary
In order to improve the performance of transmission effi- plates. In order to in-depth understand the working mechanism
ciency, the four-coils IPT system was proposed by utilizing and steady-state performance of the CCPT systems, an accurate
additional sending and receiving coils [10]. Fig. 4 depicts the nonlinear circuit model was proposed by using the stroboscopic
equivalent T-model of four-coils IPT systems, where C1 , C2 , theory in [12]. By means of its potentials to improve the toler-
R1 , and R2 are the parasitic capacitances and the parasitic re- ance for transmission mediums and reduce the electromagnetic
sistances of the additional sending and receiving coils. In such interference (EMI), a number of attempts have been carried out
ways, the input and the load impedances can be regulated to with emphasis on the power, the efficiency, the communication
equal the optimal values as in (8) by adjusting κ13 and κ24 , and EMI as follows.
which cannot be carried out in the two-coils IPT system. Ac- 1) Transmission Power: In [13], for example, four single
tually, the additional two coils in the four-coils IPT system are active switch CCPT topologies were investigated based on the

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 ZHANG et al.: WIRELESS POWER TRANSFER—AN OVERVIEW 1047

canonical Cuk, SEPIC, Zeta, and Buck–Boost converters, which

aim to increase the transmitted power to kilowatt level and re-
main cost effective. In [14], a portable ceramic dielectric surface
was utilized to increase the high power density of CCPT sys-
tems. In [15], a comparative study was carried out to reveal the
impact of the inductor position on the transmission performance
of the CCPT systems.
2) Energy Efficiency: In [16], an autofrequency tuning
scheme was developed based on the suboptimal Class-E2 con-
verter to minimize the switching loss caused by the load varia-
tions, which aims to improve the transmission efficiency for the
CCPT systems. In [17], a double-sided LC-compensation circuit
was proposed for long-distance transmission, which can offer Fig. 6. Efficiency of WPT systems.
both constant-voltage and constant-current working modes as
well as improve the transmission efficiency under the loosely
coupled effect. resonant frequency, thus effectively compensating the apparent
3) EMI and Communication: In [18], a six-plate capacitive coupling coefficient. In [27], a new U-coil WPT system was
coupler was proposed by utilizing two additional plates above developed to improve the energy efficiency, ensure the cleanli-
and below the conventional four-plate couplers, which can ef- ness of the space along the energy transmission direction, and
fectively reduce the electric field emissions for the large air-gap increase the power density.
CCPT systems. By adopting a full-duplex communication on a 2) Circuit Topology: In [28], a series-shunt mixed-resonant
shared transmission channel, a wireless power and signal trans- coupling topology was presented, which can effectively improve
mission scheme was also realized for the CCPT systems in [19]. the transmission efficiency as well as the distance. In [29], an
Besides, a comparative study was conducted between IPT active single-phase rectifier was implemented by using an aux-
and CCPT systems in [20], by analyzing the theoretical and iliary measurement coil, which can regulate the equivalent load
empirical limitations, summarizing the differences (including impedance and the output voltage. Based on the exemplified
power, distance, frequency and efficiency), and proposing a se- 800-W prototype, the efficiency can be increased by 2% and
lection guideline for short-range WPT applications. In addition, 10% for the rated load and the light load, respectively. Besides,
the CCPT system was successfully utilized for various appli- the frequencies can be identified for the maximum efficiency
cations, such as EVs [21], synchronous electric machines [22], and the load-independent voltage-transfer ratio based on the
and consumer electronics [23]. SS and SP compensation networks [30], respectively, which is
conductive to realize the efficient power conversion.
III. CHALLENGES 3) Power Control: In order to emulate the optimal load
value, the switched-mode converter was adopted in the receiving
The near-field WPT technique is embracing a high-speed de-
unit and controlled based on the minimum input power operating
velopment period in recent years. There are increasing academic
point [31]. By controlling the amplitude of the output voltage
researchers and industrial engineers who focus on improving the
and the phase shift of the active rectifier, the equivalent load
energy transmission performance with emphasizes on the effi-
impedance can be modified to maximize the energy transmis-
ciency, capability, applicability, flexibility, security, and so forth.
sion efficiency [32]. In [33], by using an efficiency evaluation
In this section, this paper will overview key technical challenges
scheme for the closed-loop WPT system, a maximum efficiency
for nonradiative electromagnetic WPT systems.
point tracking control scheme was proposed to maximize the
energy efficiency when regulating output voltage with respect
A. Energy Efficiency to the varying load and coupling effect. In addition, a series res-
The maximum energy efficiency is the most important techni- onant tank was also effective to ensure the maximum efficiency
cal concern for WPT systems. Fig. 6 shows various efficiencies tracking while regulating the output voltage [34]. Regarding
along the transmission path [24]. In order to increase the effi- to various loads, a cascaded boost–buck dc–dc converter was
ciency, a number of work have been reported in previous studies, designed to ensure the optimal impedance matching for WPT
which can be classified into the coils design, the circuit topology, systems [35]. The exemplified 13.26-MHz WPT systems can
and the power control. achieve an overall system efficiency of 70%.
1) Coil Design: In order to ensure the high efficiency of In practical applications, however, the variation of prac-
WPT systems, the quality factor (Q) is the key to the coil tical load resistances inevitably affects the maximum effi-
design. In [25], an improved hollow planar spiral winding ciency tracking scheme. Accordingly, an ON–OFF keying-based
scheme was proposed to improve the Q by using a nonunity scheme was proposed to achieve the high efficiency within a
Track-Width-Ratio geometry and increasing the inner radius of wide-range load power [36], which has no requirement on an
the winding. In addition, an intermediate coil was utilized for the impedance-matching dc–dc power converter and thus reduce
WPT system [26], which can boost the apparent self-inductance the switching loss. Additionally, by taking into account the
and magnetizing inductance for the primary unit at around the variation of the loosely coupling effect, an integrated dynamic

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 1048 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 66, NO. 2, FEBRUARY 2019

coupling-coefficient estimation scheme was proposed for the

maximum efficiency tracking [37].
Apart from controlling the output voltage to adjust the equiv-
alent load impedance, there are other attempts for the maximum
efficiency tracking. For example, a multicycle Q-modulation can
modulate the Q of the receiving coil and dynamically optimize
the load impedance [38], which aims to ensure the maximum
power transfer efficiency. Without requirement on a power or
current sensor, a low-cost maximum efficiency tracking scheme
was implemented to fulfill the load transformation by control-
ling a dc–dc converter [39]. In [40], a pulse-density modulation
scheme was proposed by using the delta-sigma modulator and a
dual-side soft switching technique, which can avoid disadvan-
tages of the complexity, power loss, hard switching, low average Fig. 7. Optimal dipole-shaped coils for long-distance IPT systems.
efficiency, and dc voltage ripples.

B. Transmitted Power
The transmitted power capability is one of the most impor-
tant performance indexes for WPT systems [41]–[43]. Due to
working in a relatively high-frequency range, the power level
is limited by the switching component, the topology of power-
electronic inverters, and the associated control scheme.
Regarding to the switching component, an enhanced gallium
nitride (eGaN) device was utilized to improve the output power
capability in the MHz frequency band [44]. For the circuit topol-
ogy, an LCL load resonant inverter was investigated for maxi-
mum power transfer [45], which is operated in the discontinuous
current mode and controlled by a variable frequency scheme.
The presented work successfully predicted the inverter operat- Fig. 8. Capacitor matrix for impedance matching.
ing point and ensured the optimal value of the series inductance.
In [46], a multiphase parallel inverter was proposed to improve
the output power capability for WPT systems. In [47], a 6-kW IPT system was proposed for a long-distance energy transmis-
parallel IPT power supply topology was proposed in a cost ef- sion in [50] and [51], which adopts an optimized stepped core
fective manner, which can minimize uneven power sharing due structure for evenly distributed magnetic field density. The ex-
to component tolerance without additional reactive components perimental prototype can deliver 10.3 W power up to 7 m away
for parallelization. Regarding to the control scheme, an offline- at the frequency of 20 kHz.
tuning scheme was proposed to ensure the WPT system to output In addition, due to the impact on the resonant frequency,
the maximum power instead of the online frequency regulation the variation of the transmission distance is another important
[48]. Accordingly, the constant operating frequency can effec- technical concern for IPT systems. In previous studies, con-
tively avoid the violation caused by the variation of operating sequently, there are a number of attempts for the impedance
frequency. The key to maximum power transfer is to ensure matching to ensure the magnetic resonant state even if a vary-
the impedance matching. In [49], a hybrid impedance-adjusting ing distance between the transmitting and receiving coils. As
scheme was developed by combining the continuous conduction shown in Fig. 8, a capacitor matrix was proposed in [52], which
mode (CCM) and the discontinuous conduction mode (DCM), can offer expected compensation capacitances by using limited
which can effectively extend the adjusting range and thus ensure capacitors to deal with the frequency mismatch caused by the
the full utilization of the power capacitor for WPT systems. varying transmission distance. In [53], a multiloops topology
was utilized to reduce the variation of the input impedance.
C. Transmission Distance
D. Displacement Flexibility
By comparing with the photovoltaic, acoustic, microwave,
As shown in Fig. 9, the WPT system is sensitive to the relative
and laser energy transmissions, the IPT has the salient advan-
position between the transmitting and receiving coils, which
tage of high power. For long-distance transmission applications,
means that the transmission performance is deteriorated with
however, the IPT system has to deal with inevitable key technical
respect to an angular or lateral misalignment. The output power
issue, namely the extremely loosely coupled effect. According
Pout of IPT systems can be given by [54], [55]
to the measurement results in [50], the coupling coefficient κ
is mostly much less than 0.01 with respect to the transmission ηU12 Re(Zr )
Pout ≈ ηPin = (11)
distance from 2 to 12 m. As shown in Fig. 7, a dipole-coil-based |Zr |

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 ZHANG et al.: WIRELESS POWER TRANSFER—AN OVERVIEW 1049

orthogonally assembled coils has been increasingly accepted by

researchers since it can offer an enhanced flexible charging way
for household appliances. Based on such an orthogonal topol-
ogy, the current phase and amplitude modulation was proposed
to spatially produce the electromagnetic field to cordlessly ener-
gize electric-driven devices [65]. In [66] and [67], the transmit-
ter consisting of two vertical coils fed by current sources with
adjusted amplitudes, which aims to generate a rotating electro-
magnetic field. In addition, the impact of the current phase was
also studied for such a coil topology in [68], where a feeding
Fig. 9. Misalignment of WPT systems. phase difference of 90° was adopted to verify the capability of
power transfer to a mobile receiver around the transmitter in a
two-dimensional (2-D) space. In [69], a novel cubic transmitter
was designed and fabricated to fulfill an omnidirectional WPT
system by adopting one single power source. The presented
work can simplify the control method while its capability of
3-D power transfer remains to be verified.
With the gradual in-depth research on omnidirectional WPT
systems, its technical requirement is gradually clear up, namely
Fig. 10. Three-orthogonal-coil topology for omnidirectional WPT sys- the induced electromagnetic field can be not only distributed
tems [65]. in a 3-D space effectively but also concentrated to the loads
directionally. Then, the current amplitude control was proposed
where Pin is the output power, η is the transmission efficiency, for a 3-D WPT system with a three-orthogonal-coils transmitter
and Zr is the reflected impedance from the secondary to the pri- and a single load [65]. In order to further reveal its working
mary circuits. Accordingly, there are two ways to improve the mechanism, the corresponding mathematical model was built
misalignment tolerance, such as 1) optimizing the coil to alle- by extending from the 2-D to the 3-D coordinate [70]. Be-
viate the decay of the coupling effect [56] and 2) compensating sides, the simulated and experimental verifications were also
the capacitance for the reflected impedance [54]. carried out to verify the electromagnetic field distribution and
1) Coil Topology: The design of the asymmetrical loosely power control [71]. Such a coil topology is becoming one of
coupled transformer was proposed to reduce the deterioration of the optimal technical solutions for the omnidirectional WPT
the misalignment for WPT systems by analyzing the impact of systems.
the coupling coefficient on the compensation network [58]. In
[59] and [60], a three-dimensional (3-D) topology was imple- F. Security
mented by adopting two orthogonal coils arranged in a spatial
space aiming to reduce the sensitivity to the angular and the Along with the increasing studies on multiobjectives WPT
lateral misalignments of WPT systems. systems, the security of the transmitted energy also attracts
2) Compensation Network: In [57], the current-controlled attentions from researchers. Especially for multiple energy
inductor and the variable switching frequency scheme were both receptors existing in an identical frequency electromagnetic
adopted to ensure the optimal switching conditions for Class-E field, the wireless charger needs encrypt the transmitted energy,
inverter of the primary side. The proposed power-electronic- which aims to ensure authorized receptors to acquire the
based tuning scheme can effectively compensate the impact of expected power and meanwhile prevent unauthorized receptors
the misalignment on the transmission performance. By com- from stealing the energy illegally. In 2015, the energy encryp-
prehensively analyzing four basic compensation topologies as tion scheme was first proposed and implemented for WPT
aforementioned in Section II, a series–parallel–series topol- systems in [72] and [73], where the characteristic of frequency
ogy was proposed for both the primary and secondary sides in sensitivity was positively utilized to encrypt the transmission
[61], aiming to ensure a high misalignment tolerance for WPT channel. Specifically, the power supply purposely adjusts the
systems. transmission frequency according to the predefined regulation
which is confidential and unpredictable for all potential energy
receptors. Meanwhile, the capacitor array is adopted to adjust
E. Omnidirectional Charging
the impedance to match with the selected frequency value.
The key of multiobjectives WPT system is to ensure the en- Then, the transmitted energy can be packed with various fre-
ergy supply at an arbitrary spatial position. Accordingly, the quencies and delivered by the specified time slot. Fig. 11 depicts
omnidirectional WPT system is moving toward the center of the the distribution of the electromagnetic field for the authorized
stage, which has been reported in previous studies [62]–[64]. and the unauthorized receptors. It illustrates that the magnetic
For smart home applications, while a compact transmitter with flux density of the authorized receptor can achieve around
the ability of middle and long-range transmission is suitable 0.4 mT while it drops to an extremely low level for the unau-
for indoor utilizations, as shown in Fig. 10, a transmitter with thorized. Thus, the proposed energy encryption can effectively

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 1050 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 66, NO. 2, FEBRUARY 2019

The energy efficiency is the most important concern of

WPT systems. The negative permeability can collect the leak-
ing energy of the induced electromagnetic field and enhance
the mutual inductive coupling effect, thus effectively increas-
ing the energy efficiency. Fig. 13 summarizes previous studies
on the optimization of the metamaterial slabs for WPT sys-
tems, such as one-dimensional (1-D) (planar), 2-D, and 3-D
multiple-resonators topologies, as well as the relative position
of metamaterial slabs against the transmitting and the receiving
coils.
In [77], a hybrid metamaterial slab was proposed by com-
bining two kinds of structures of metamaterial cells with the
negative and the zero permeability for WPT systems. Along the
transmission path between the transmitting and receiving coils,
the proposed hybrid metamaterial slab can ensure that the inside
magnetic field propagates straightly through the center due to
Fig. 11. Electromagnetic filed distribution. (a) Authorized receptor.
(b) Unauthorized receptor.
the zero permeability while the outside magnetic field can be
concentrated into the receiving coil through the edge of the pro-
posed hybrid metamaterial slab due to the negative permeability.
Accordingly, it can effectively increase the energy efficiency of
the WPT system from 8.7% to 47% with the transmission dis-
tance of 20 cm and the operating frequency of 6.78 MHz. In
[78], a double-side square spiral was developed as the unit cell
of the metamaterial slab to optimize the performance. In [79],
an experimental prototype was set up to carry out a compara-
tive analysis for various metamaterial topologies, where a 40-W
bulb can be wirelessly lighted with the distance of 50 cm and
the frequency of 27.12 MHz. Based on the brightness of the
bulb, it verifies the effectiveness of the metamaterial to improve
the energy efficiency of WPT systems. Besides, there are in-
creasing studies on the 3-D metamaterial to further improve the
transmission efficiency of WPT systems. In [80] and [81], a 6 ×
Fig. 12. Classification of materials with respect to ε and μ.
6-array metamaterial slab was proposed to wirelessly light up a
15-W bulb, where the unit cells are periodically assembled on a
5-mm thick acrylic slab forming a 6 × 6 array. The experimental
prototype consists of a source coil, a load coil connected with a
improve the security performance for multiobjectives WPT
bulb, the metamaterial slab placed between the transmitter and
systems.
receiver, and a transmitting coil and a receiving coil resonat-
ing at 6.78 MHz. The experimental results show that the 3-D
IV. METAMATERIALS metamaterial slab can increase the transmission efficiency by
According to the electromagnetic parameters, Fig. 12 shows 24%. In [82], a 3-D metamaterial structure was proposed for
the classification of materials, where the first quadrant repre- midrange WPT systems, which consists of a 4 × 5 × 1-array of
sents a classic type of regular dielectrics possessing the positive three-turn spiral resonators with the negative permeability at the
permeability μ and the positive permittivity ε. The materials in frequency of 6.5 MHz. The corresponding experimental results
the second, third, and fourth quadrants have either negative ε show that the output power can be increased by 33% and 7.3%
or negative μ, or the both. As an artificial material in the third at distances of 1.0 and 1.5 m, respectively. Thus, it can verify the
quadrant, the metamaterial has the negative permeability and effectiveness of 3-D metamaterial topology to increase the en-
the negative permittivity [74], which is commonly called as the ergy efficiency and the transmission distance for WPT systems.
left-handed material [75], [76]. By means of the double-negative Apart from the studies on the topology of metamaterial slabs,
characteristic, the metamaterial possesses abilities of amplify- its locating position is also attracted attentions. Additionally,
ing the evanescent wave and concentrating the electromagnetic the exemplified prototype adopts two 3-D metamaterial slabs
energy. Accordingly, the metamaterials exhibit great potentials locating adjacent to the source and receiving coils, respectively,
to improve the energy transmission performance of WPT sys- including in front of coils [83] and back of coils [84]. This is
tems, especially for concentrating the distribution of the mag- the main difference from the previous studies, which normally
netic field and enhancing the magnetic flux density. There are adopted one single slab locating in the middle of the transmis-
increasing studies which have focused on the combination of sion path. The measured results show that the energy efficiency
metamaterials and WPT technologies. increases to approximately 80% at a distance of 1.5 m. More

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 ZHANG et al.: WIRELESS POWER TRANSFER—AN OVERVIEW 1051

Fig. 13. Classification of previous studies on metamaterial-based WPT technologies.

importantly, the practicability of metamaterial-based WPT tech- the car at the specific position. Then, the battery can be charged
nique is improved significantly. via coupled magnetic field between the transmitting and the re-
Besides, the metamaterial slab can be also used as an effective ceiving coils. For the dynamic wireless charging, the vehicle
means to compensate the deteriorated transmission performance can continuously acquire the energy when driving on a road.
caused by the misalignment. In [85], the H-field distribution By means of this novel energy acquisition scheme, the battery
of the exemplified metamaterial-based WPT systems illustrates capacity of EVs can be reduced to more than 20% by compar-
that the coupling effect can be enhanced when existing a lateral ing to the traditional plug-in EVs [92], which shows significant
or angular misalignment between the transmitting and receiving meanings for the further development and the wide applica-
coils. In particular, the metamaterial slab has salient advantage tion of EVs in our daily life. Accordingly, this section will
of compensating the energy efficiency of WPT systems with overview the WPT technique for EVs in terms of the coupling
respect to an angular misalignment. In [86] and [87], an array mechanism, the resonant compensation, and the control strat-
of metamaterial resonators was designed for dynamic wireless egy. Finally, a future research topic will be also discussed in this
charging systems, which are embedded into the transmitting coil paper.
array beneath the road or the power track. The results show that 1) Design and Optimization of Coupling Mechanism:
the efficiency can achieve to around 75%. Thus, the metamate- The key technical challenge is to increase the coupling coef-
rial exhibits great potentials for enhancing the energy efficiency ficient κ while reducing the magnetic flux leakage. Besides,
of static and dynamic charging systems, especially for the lateral the misalignment tolerance is another technical concern for EV
and angular misalignment. wireless charging systems. In previous studies, a number of at-
tempts have been made for aforementioned issues. From the
V. APPLICATIONS perspective of materials, the high permeability material such as
ferrites and the aluminum plate are utilized as the magnetic flux
WPT techniques offer abilities of harnessing the energy over
guide and the shield [93], respectively, which can effectively
the air. Without the limitation of the conventional wire, the
improve the effective magnetic field density and reduce the flux
electric-driven devices possess the unprecedented flexibility of
leakage. Besides, the Litz wire consisting multiple strands is
energy accessing. The dynamic contactless charging technique
commonly used to wrap the transmitting coils in both sides
is coming to our daily life. In this section, this paper will have a
[94], which aims to avoid the skin effect and the proximity
survey on typical applications for WPT technologies, including
effect.
EVs, biomedical implants, and portable electronics.
Additionally, regarding to the similar dimension, the differ-
ence of the coil geometry and configuration results in a sig-
A. Electric Vehicles (EVs) nificant difference of the magnetic coupling effect. Hence, the
For wirelessly energizing EVs, there are two distinct but ef- optimal design is necessary for the coil of EV wireless charging
fective implementation mechanisms, that is, the resonant CCPT systems. For example, the circular-shaped and square-shaped
[88]–[91] for dynamic wireless charging and the resonant IPT transmitting coils are mostly used for EV static wireless charg-
[92] for both static wireless charging and dynamic wireless ing systems [95]. In addition, a new coil topology was proposed
charging. Regarding to the static EV wireless charging, it means by placing two coils shaped like “D” back to back [96], which
that the only thing which the driver needs to do is just parking is called as the double D (DD) structure. By comparing with a

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 1052 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 66, NO. 2, FEBRUARY 2019

compensation network can realize the constant current and

the unity-power-factor. In [110]–[112], the LCC compensation
topology was proposed to realize a robust reaction to the varia-
tion of coupling effect, which is one of the most common tech-
nical issue for EV dynamic charging systems. The proposed
double-sided LCC compensation network can ensure that the
resonant frequency is independent of coupling coefficient and
load conditions as well as realizing the zero voltage switching
condition for the power converter.
In addition, a number of control schemes have been reported
for EV dynamic charging systems in previous studies, which
can be classified into three directions, that is, the primary side
control [104], [113], the pick-up side control [93], and the dual-
side control [114], [115]. The primary side and dual-side con-
Fig. 14. Coils and ferrites topologies for EV charging.
trol schemes are commonly suitable for monocoupling charging
system, while the pick-up side control is utilized in the multi-
coupling charging systems.
conventional single circular-shaped or square-shaped pad, the 3) Wireless Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G): The V2G takes EVs
DD charging pad can effectively enhance the lateral misalign- as movable energy buffers, which can effectively balance the
ment tolerance, thus increasing the effective charging area for power supply and the load. As the key power device, the bidi-
EV drivers. In [97], an asymmetric coil structure was investi- rectional EV charger has been attracted increasing attentions
gated for EV static charging, which can also offer an enhanced from researcher around the world. Along with the development
misalignment tolerance. of EV wireless charging, the bidirectional contactless energy
For EV charging systems, the coil design should take into ac- exchange will be increasingly important. Actually, there have
count especially for the area between two adjacent transmitting been several attempts for wireless interaction between the power
coils, the magnetic flux density drops to an extremely low level. grid and EVs [116].
It means that there are many energy valleys along the driving
road. In other word, EVs cannot constantly obtain the energy.
Accordingly, a homogenous WPT structure was proposed for
B. Biomedical Implants
transmitting coils beneath the road by using the alternating wind-
ing design to gaplessly assemble transmitting coils [98], which In recent years, the implantable biomedical devices have been
can effectively fill up the energy valley and fulfill a continuous one of the most important ways to assist the treatment for dys-
charging mechanism for driving EVs. Apart from the work on functional organs therapeutically. The corresponding energiza-
the primary side, a DD-quadrature (DDQ) coil was designed tion has attracted increasing attentions from researchers around
for the receiving coil on the EV side [99]. The additional Q the world, accordingly. Based on the two-port network, the anal-
coil increases the capability of acquiring energy around the gap ysis of near-field power transfer and associated optimization
between adjacent coils, thus significantly improve the charging strategies were overviewed for biomedical implants in [117].
performance. By increasing the size of D coils and overlapping As a summarization, the major technical challenges are listed
them, the new bipolar pad can reduce the copper by 25.17% as follows.
while ensure the performance as a DDQ coil [100], [101]. For 1) Energy Efficiency: In [118], a modified Helmholtz coil
EV dynamic charging, previous studies have reported various was designed to produce a uniform magnetic field for the im-
ferrites to increase the coupling effect and ensure the charging provement of the power stability for powering robotic capsules.
performance [102], [103], such as E-type, U-type, and W-type. In addition, a mixed resonance scheme was also employed to
In [104], a narrow-width track design with an I-type ferrite was improve the transmission efficiency. In [119], a novel circuit
proposed to further reduce the volume of track rail, improve the model of the subnominal class-E amplifier was proposed for
convenience of laying transmitting coils, and reduce costs. In capsule endoscopes. By analyzing the impact of the amplifier
[105], an S-type ferrite was designed to further enhance the mis- parameters, an optimal subnominal condition was derived for
alignment tolerance for EV wireless charging systems. Fig. 14 the amplifier design to ensure the high efficiency and safe volt-
summarizes typical coil topologies for EV static and dynamic age stress. For millimeter-sized biomedical implants, the energy
charging systems. efficiency can be improved by simply increasing the frequency,
2) Compensation Topologies and Control Strategies: while the maximum allowable power is inevitably deteriorated,
Apart from four typical compensation networks [106], the LCL accordingly. In [120], a new figure-of-merit (FOM) was pro-
topology was investigated for EV dynamic charging systems posed for the optimal geometry of the transmitting and receiv-
[107]–[109]. It can be used as a current source at the resonant ing coils under safety constrains, which can strike a balance
frequency, thus avoiding short circuit in the pickup side and between the energy efficiency and the maximum transmitted
the overcurrent in the primary side. In other word, the LCL power.

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 ZHANG et al.: WIRELESS POWER TRANSFER—AN OVERVIEW 1053

2) Varying Load: In [121], a triple-loop WPT system was multiple devices with respect to different power requirements
proposed by adopting the closed-loop power control, the adap- by using one single power source in the primary side.
tive transmitting resonance compensation, and the automatic
receiving resonance tuning, which can ensure the maximum VI. CONCLUSION
the efficiency with respect to varying surrounding environment
for implants. In [122], this paper proposed a frequency con- In this paper, the WPT techniques were overviewed with em-
trol scheme for the primary converter to ensure the transmit- phasis on fundamentals, technical challenges, metamaterials,
ted power even if the variations of the load, coupling effect, and typical applications. Regarding to the fundamentals, this
and parameters, which show significant meanings for biomed- paper first introduced the working mechanism of IPT systems,
ical implants. By using the printed circuit board (PCB) pat- compared four typical capacitive compensation networks, and
tern coil and the complementary metal oxide semiconductor then elaborated the magnetic resonant coupling effect as well
(CMOS) switch, the parallel resonance topology and associ- as the CCPT mechanism. In Section II, this paper gave the an-
ated frequency-tracking scheme were proposed for biomedical swers to two technical questions, namely 1) why the two-coils
implants, which aim to improve the efficiency and maintain a IPT system is commonly used for short-range (shorter than
constant output voltage under varying against the variations of the coil diameter) transmission and 2) why the four-coils IPT
the coupling at the load [123]. system can extend the transmission distance to the midrange
3) Misalignment: By taking into account the specific ab- applications. Then, the key technical issues of WPT systems
sorption rate, an optimal design scheme was proposed by using were summarized in terms of the efficiency, power, distance,
a high-Q receiving coil and a large external transmitting coil, misalignment, omnidirectional charging, and energy security.
which can effectively energize the millimeter-sized free-floating In addition, this paper also offered a survey on the studies of
implants in a large 3-D space in the neural tissue in [124]. In metamaterial-based WPT systems. Finally, the typical applica-
order to ensure a motion-free capsule endoscopy inspection, a tions was also discussed, including EVs, biomedical implants,
two-hop WPT system was designed in [125], where the energy and the portable electronics. By overviewing the development
is wirelessly transmitted from the transmitting coils beneath the and the current state over past six years, this paper is expected
floor to the coil relay embedded in patient’s jacket via the strong to offer readers a big image of WPT techniques based on the
coupling effect, and then to the capsule via the loose coupling. inductive coupling effect of nonradiative electromagnetic field.
Additionally, a switch-mode rectifier and a power combination Moreover, Table II elaborated the critical technical details for
circuit were also developed to improve the energy efficiency for various aspects.
robot capsules. In addition the discussion about the future development is
4) Safety Concerns: Besides, a coil segmentation tech- also given as follows.
nique was proposed to ensure the transmitter voltage at a safe 1) Transmission distance—The transmission distance will
level (∼10Vrms ) for midrange WPT systems in [126], which can be the most important concern for both researchers and
be used to wirelessly energize a dc pump for artificial hearts or end-users. A real WPT system should harness the energy
left ventricular assist devices. over a long distance rather than the wireless-but-contact
charging style. However, a long distance means extremely
loosely coupling effect for electromagnetic WPT sys-
C. Portable Electronics tems. How to break through this technical bottleneck will
Due to disadvantages of tangled and inconvenient power be the focus of attention in near future.
cords, the WPT shows promising future for portable electron- 2) Energy security—As similarity with the development of
ics. Nowadays, there are two major technical alliances about wireless communication, the security of energy will be
the wireless charging for portable electronic devices, including another key technical challenge for the further develop-
the Wireless Power Consortium with the Qi standard released in ment of WPT systems. Regarding to the IPT system,
2008 and the Air Fuel Alliance founded in 2015 by merging the the energy was transmitted via the open electromagnetic
Alliance for Wireless Power and the Power Matters Alliance. field. In other word, it is possible for all involved receptors
These two standards are both based on the inductive charging to access the energy. Then, how to protect the wirelessly-
technology and now attempting to integrate both the inductive transmitted energy will be an inevitable research topic.
and the resonant technology into single product. The main dif- 3) Bidirectional exchange—As one of typical applications,
ference between Qi and Air Fuel Alliance is the transmission fre- EVs will be further developed and wide popularized, even
quencies and communication protocols that support the in-band completely replacing the conventional internal combus-
communication, namely the power and data. Specifically, the tion engine vehicles. In such a case, the energy acquisition
Qi-compliant wireless charging devices transmissions share the will be increasingly important for EVs. As aforemen-
same frequency band, while the Air Fuel Alliance adopts the out- tioned, in addition, the V2G technique can make EVs as
of-band communication, namely 6.78 MHz Industrial Scientific movable energy buffers, which can effectively balance
Medical (ISM) frequency band for the power transmission and the power supply and the load. Thus, the bidirectional
2.4 GHz ISM band for the communication. Furthermore, some EV wireless charging will be next hot research topic after
products provided by the Air Fuel Alliance are able to charge the roadway-powering mechanism.

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 1054 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 66, NO. 2, FEBRUARY 2019

TABLE II
CONTENT

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 ZHANG et al.: WIRELESS POWER TRANSFER—AN OVERVIEW 1055

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2012. sity, Tianjin, China, in 2004 and 2007, respec-
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resonant converter as a constant-current power supply,” IEEE Trans. Ind. of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, in 2014, all in elec-
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study and analysis,” IET Power Electron., vol. 9, no. 11, pp. 2262–2270, Great Minds Program. Then, he served as a
2016. Postdoctoral Fellow with The University of Hong
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compensated capacitive power transfer system for electric vehicle charg- with the School of Electrical and Information Engineering, Tianjin Univer-
ing,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 30, no. 11, pp. 6011–6014, Nov. sity. He has authored or coauthored more than 30 internationally refereed
2015. papers and one sole-authored book published by the Cambridge Univer-
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LCC compensation network and its tuning method for wireless power drives, electric vehicles, power electronics, and distributed energies.
transfer,” IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol., vol. 64, no. 6, pp. 2261–2273, Jun. Dr. Zhang is currently an Associate Editor for the IEEE TRANS-
2015. ACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, Associated Editor for the
[111] W. Li, H. Zhao, S. Li, J. Deng, T. Kan, and C. C. Mi, “Integrated IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL INFORMATICS, Editor for the IEEE
LCC compensation topology for wireless charger in electric and plug-in TRANSACTIONS ON MAGNETICS, Associate Editor for IET Renewable
electric vehicles,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 62, no. 7, pp. 4215– Power Generation, and Executive Editor of Cambridge University—
4225, Jul. 2015. Wireless Power Transfer.

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 1058 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 66, NO. 2, FEBRUARY 2019

Hongliang Pang (S’17) was born in Tianjin, Carlo Cecati (M’90–SM’03–F’06) received the
China. He received the B.Eng. degree in au- Dr.Ing. degree in electrotechnical engineering
tomation in 2017 from Tianjin University, Tianjin, from the University of L’Aquila, L’Aquila, Italy, in
China, where he is currently working toward the 1983.
M.S. degree in control science and engineering. Since 1983, he has been with the Univer-
His current research interests include wire- sity of L’Aquila, where since 2006, he has been
less power transfer and power-electronic-based a Professor of Industrial Electronics and Drives
impedance matching. with the Department of Information Engineer-
ing, Computer Science, and Mathematics. From
2015 till September 2017, he was a Qianren
Talents Professor (1000 Talents Program Dis-
tinguished Professor) with the Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin,
China. His research interests include power electronics, distributed gen-
eration, and smart grids. In these fields, he has authored more than 180
journal and conference papers.
Apostolos Georgiadis (S’94–M’02–SM’08) Prof. Cecati has been an active member of the IEEE Industrial Elec-
was born in Thessaloniki, Greece. He received tronics Society since 1990 and he has been a Senior AdCom Member
the B.S. degree in physics and the M.S. degree since 2006. From 2013 to 2015, he was the Editor-in-Chief for the IEEE
in telecommunications from the Aristotle Uni- TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS. He was the recipient of the
versity of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece, 2012 and 2013 Best Paper Awards from the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON
in 1993 and 1996, respectively, and received INDUSTRIAL INFORMATICS, and the 2012 Best Paper Award from the IEEE
the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from Industrial Electronics Magazine.
the University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA,
USA, in 2002.
In 1995, he spent a semester with Radio An-
tenna Communications, Milan, Italy, working on
Yagi antennas for U.H.F. applications. In 2002, he joined Global Com-
munications Devices, North Andover, MA, USA, as a Systems Engi-
neer and worked on CMOS transceivers for wireless network applica-
tions. In June 2003, he joined Bermai, Inc., Minnetonka, MN, USA, as
an RF/Analog Systems Architect. In 2005, he joined the University of
Cantabria, Spain, as a Juan de la Cierva Fellow Researcher. In March
2007, he joined CTTC, Spain, as a Senior Research Associate working
in the area of communications subsystems. During 2013–2016, he was
the Group Leader of the Microwave Systems and Nanotechnology De-
partment, CTTC. In July 2016, he joined Heriot-Watt University as an
Associate Professor, and currently holds an Honorary Associate Pro-
fessor position. He has authored or coauthored more than 180 papers
in peer-reviewed journals and international conferences. His research
interests include energy harvesting and wireless power transmission,
RFID technology, active antennas and phased array antennas, inkjet
and three-dimensional printed electronics, and millimeter wave systems.
Dr. Georgiadis was the recipient of the Fulbright Scholarship for grad-
uate studies from the University of Massachusetts, in 1996. He was the
General Chair of 2011 IEEE RFID-TA Conference, and General Cochair
of the 2011 IEEE MTT-S IMWS on Millimeter Wave Integration Technolo-
gies. He is member of the IEEE MTT-S TC-24 RFID Technologies (past
Chair) and member of IEEE MTT-S TC-26 Wireless Energy Transfer and
Conversion. He serves as an Associate Editor of the IEEE JOURNAL ON
RFID. He has been Associate Editor for the IEEE MICROWAVE AND WIRE-
LESS COMPONENTS LETTERS, the IET Microwaves Antennas and Propa-
gation, and the IEEE RFID VIRTUAL JOURNAL. He cofounded and was the
Editor-in-Chief of the Cambridge Wireless Power Transfer Journal. He
has been a Distinguished Lecturer of IEEE CRFID. He is an EU Marie
Curie Global Fellow. He is Chair of URSI Commission D: Electronics and
Photonics.

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