411

Two Ray Ground Reflection Model

In a mobile radio channel, a single direct path between the

base station and a mobile is seldom as the only physical
means for propagation.
The two ray ground reflection model is a useful
propagation model that is based on geometric optics, and
considers both :
Direct path
Ground reflected propagation path
Ground model is reasonably accurate for predicting the
large-scale signal strength over distances for several
kilometers for
Mobile radio systems that use tall towers (>50m)
LOS microcell channels in urban environments.
Two Ray Ground Reflection Model
Two Ray Ground Reflection Model

Received power at a distance d from the transmitter for

two ray ground reflection model can be expressed as
previous
Sketchon
variables
ref for these
slide I ratios
tnothingindB all

The path loss (in dB) can be expressed as

 Knife-Edge Diffraction
Estimating signal attenuation caused by diffraction
over hills and building is essential in predicting field
strength in service area.
Calculations over complex terrain if mathematically
difficult.
When shadowing is caused by a single object such
as a hill, diffraction can be estimated by treating

I
ofttimes
obstruction as a knife edge diffraction.
When shadowing is caused by multiple objects,
diffraction can be estimated by treating obstruction as
a multiple knife edge diffraction.
Knife-Edge Diffraction
Multiple Knife-Edge Diffraction
Practical Link Budget Design
Using Path Loss Models
Mobile radio models are derived using a
combination of analytical and empirical methods. actual
pureymatemaidasa

The empirical approach is based on fitting datade

to
experimentation

curves or analytical expressions that recreate a

set of measured data.
The use of the empirical approach has the
advantage of implicitly taking into account all
propagation factors, both known and unknown, band
through field measurements. b somefactors are
to beunknown
unseen
Practical Link Budget Design
Using Path Loss Models
The validity of an empirical model at transmission
frequencies or environments other than those used
to derive the model can only be established by
additional measured data in the new environment at
the required transmission frequency.
Some classical propagation models have emerged,
which are now used to predict large-scale coverage
for mobile communication system design.
It becomes possible to predict the SNR for a mobile
communication system by using path loss models to
estimate the received signal level as a function of
distance.
 Log-Normal Path Loss Model
Both theoretical and measurement-based propagation
models indicate that average received signal power
decreases logarithmically with distance, whether in
distribution's
shaped

bell outdoor or indoor radio channels.

cat The average large-scale path loss for an arbitrary T-R
separation is expressed as a function of distance by using
a path loss exponent, n.
- o and
reference other points from there.
Do is chosen in the far field region.

Ipotions
Log-Normal Path Loss Model
The value of n depends on the specific propagation
environment.
won't be giventhese in final memorize
Log-Normal Shadowing Model
The Log-distance Path Loss Model does not consider the fact that
the surrounding environment clutter may be different at two different
locations having the same T-R separation.
This leads to measured signals which are different than the average
value predicted by the previous equation.
Measurements have shown that at any value of d, the path loss
PL(d) at a particular location is random and distributed log-normally
(normal in dB) about the mean distance-dependant value.

X is a zero-mean Gaussian random variable with standard

deviation (dB).
The variance 2 is usually from 3 to 12.
 -Rice Model
The Longley-Rice model is available as a computer
program.
The Longley-Rice model is applicable to point-to-point
communication systems in the frequency range from
40Mhz to 100Mhz over different kinds of terrain.
coverspartof FMRadio's toohighforAM
frequency though inKaz
The median transmission loss is predicted using the path
geometry of the terrain profile and the refractivity of the
troposphere. Heeds this to consider reflectivity deffraction scattering etcofthepath
Geometric optics techniques are used to predict signal
strengths within the radio horizon.
Diffraction losses over isolated obstacles are estimated
using the Fresnel-Kirchoff Knife-edge models.
A classical propagation prediction approach similar to
that used by Longley-Rice and adopted in the UK.

predicting field strength contours over irregular terrain.

The execution of the program consists of two parts

The first part accesses a topographic data base of a
proposed service area and reconstructs the ground
profile information along the radial joining the
transmitter to the receiver.
The second part of the simulation algorithm
calculates the expected path loss along that radial.
611
Okumura Model

models for signal prediction in urban areas.

This model is applicable for frequencies in the range
(150Mhz to 1920Mhz) and distances of 1Km to 100Km.
It can be used for base station antenna heights ranging
from 30m to 1000m.
Used by many standards for system planning in Japan.
Okumura developed a set of curves giving the median
attenuation relative to free space.
These curves were developed from extensive
measurements using vertical omnidirectional antennas,
and are plotted as a function of frequency and distance.
Okumura Model

rural

urban

n
n

on
on gorgample
gorgample
Okumura Model

frits dB
Lin

I
Okumura Model

corgis

1
 example Pt Sow Gt 15 Gi 1 f 2000MHz

findLedBlmod d 10hm he som hrs Sm areaissubund

onumura
using assumemainallowedrange
thookumuraonly
even

Prca PtGeGr 12 5011571111,384

0 1.31 xio W
4 d L 4572 100001211

to log Ppt to log so 115.8dB

131 1010

Amu Sid 33 from graphs

GAREA 12
Y on previous slides approx

Gente 12.04 dB from equis

thru 4 44 dB on previous slide

LsoldB 115.8 33 12.04 4.44 11

145.4 dB

all calculations are approximate rounding decimals etc

Hata Model
The Hata model is an empirical formulation of the graphical path
loss data provided by Okumura, and is valid from 150Mhz to 1500
Mhz.
For Urban Environment
Hata Model
For Suburban Environment

For Open Rural environment

911
PCS Extension of Hata Model
extension of Hata
pasperson
olommiseries

COST-231 Hata Model, European standard

Higher frequencies: up to 2GHz
(between 1500 and 2000MHz)
Smaller cell sizes frequencies

inclGsm
Lower antenna heights range

1 formula
has its own
PCS Extension of Hata Model
CM : Environment correction factor

CM = - 2 dB for dense urban environment (buildings

greater than 7 floors, medium and small streets)
CM = - 5 dB for medium urban environment (medium
buildings of 5 floors, medium and small streets)
CM = - 8 dB for medium urban environment and wide
streets
CM = - 10 dB for suburban environment with small
buildings
CM = - 20 dB for mixed rural and villages
CM = - 23 dB for rural with a few trees and quasi no hills
Indoor Propagation Model
The distances covered are much smaller
The variability of the environment is much greater
Key variables: layout of the building, construction materials, building

In general, indoor channels may be classified either as LOS or

obstructed with varying degree of clutter.
The losses between floors of a building are determined by the external
dimensions and materials of the building, as well as the type of
construction used to create the floors and the external surroundings.
Floor attenuation factor (FAF)
Log-Normal Shadowing Model alsoworksindoor