HIGH VOLTAGE TECHNOLOGY EEE4506

LECTURE 8

8.0 TRANSIENTS IN POWER SYSTEMS AND WAVE PROPAGATION

8.1 INTRODUCTION

The transient phenomenon is an aperiodic function of time and does not last long. Its duration is very
insignificant as compared with the operating time of the power system. Yet it is very important because
it can cause power outages in sensitive areas depending on its severity. These power outages can affect
cities town’s suburbs or even an entire nation.

A power system can be considered as made up of linear impedance elements of resistance, inductance
and capacitances. The circuit is normally energized and carries load until a fault suddenly occurs. The
fault, then corresponds to the closing of a switch (or switches, depending upon the type of fault) in the
electrical circuit. The closing of this switch changes the circuit so that a new distribution of currents and
voltages is brought about. This redistribution is accompanied in general by a transient period during
which the resultant currents and voltages may momentarily be relatively high. It is very important to
realize that this redistribution of currents and voltages cannot take place instantaneously for the
following reasons:
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1. The electromagnetic energy stored by an inductance L is 2 𝐿𝐼 2 where I is the instantaneous value
of current. Assuming inductance to be constant and the change in magnetic energy requires
𝑑𝑙
change in current which an inductor is opposed by an emf of magnitude L . In order to change
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑙
the current instantaneously dt = 0 and therefore L 0 is infinity, i.e, to bring about instantaneous
change in current the emf in the inductor should become infinity which is practically not possible
and, therefore, it can be said that the change of energy in the inductor is gradual.
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2. The electrostatic energy stored by a capacitor C is given by 2 𝐶𝑉 2 where V is the instantaneous
value of voltage across the capacitor.
𝑑𝑣 1
Since, for a capacitor, = 𝐶" to bring instantaneous change in voltage, i.e. for dt = 0 the change
𝑑𝑡
in current required is infinite which cannot be achieved in practice and therefore, it can be
concluded that change in energy in a capacitor is gradual as well.

There are only two components L and C in an electrical circuit which store energy and we have seen
that change in energy through these components is gradual and therefore, the redistribution of energy
following a circuit change takes a finite time. The third component which is the resistance R, consumes
energy. At any time, the principle of conversion of energy in an electrical circuit applies, means that the
rate of energy generation is equal to the rate of storing energy plus the rate of energy consumption. It
clearly means that;

1. The current cannot change instantaneously in an inductor

2. The voltage across a capacitor cannot change instantaneously

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 3. The law of conservation of energy must hold good. This is fundamental phenomenon of
transients in electric power systems.

From the conclusion made above, it can be said that in order to have transients in an electrical system
the following requirements must be met.

i. There must be an inductor or a capacitor or both in the system.

ii. A sudden change in the form of a fault or any switching operation should take place.

There are two components of voltages in a power system during transient period: (i) Fundamental
frequency voltages, and, (ii) Natural frequency voltages usually of short duration which are
superimposed upon the fundamental frequency voltages. There is a third component also known as
harmonic voltages resulting from unbalanced currents flowing in rotating machines in which the
reactance’s in the direct and quadrature axes are unequal.

Natural frequency voltages appear immediately after the sudden occurrence of a fault. They simply add
to the fundamental frequency voltages. Since resultant voltages are of greater importance from a
practical viewpoint it will be preferable to speak of the fundamental frequency and natural frequency
components simply as a transient voltage. The transient voltages are affected by the number of
connections and the arrangements of the circuits.

Transients, in which only one form of energy-storage, magnetic or electric is concerned, are called
single energy transients, where both magnetic and electric energies are contained in or accepted by the
circuit, double energy transients are involved.

8.2 TRANSIENTS IN SIMPLE CIRCUITS

For analyzing circuits for transients we will make use of Laplace transform technique which is more
powerful and easy to handle the transient problems compared to the differential equation technique. We
will assume here lumped impedances only. The transients will depend upon the driving source which
could be a d.c. or an a.c. source. We will begin with simple problems and then go to some complicated
problems.

1. D.C. Source
(a) Resistance only [Figure. 8.1 (a)]
As soon as the switch S is closed, the current in the circuit will be determined according to
Ohm’s law.
𝑉
I=𝑅

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 Figure 8.1(a) Resistive circuit only

Figure 8.1(b) Inductive circuit only

When the switch is closed in Figure 8.1 (b) the current in the circuit shall be given by;

𝑉(𝑠) 𝑉 1 𝑉 1
I(s) = 𝑍(𝑠) = 𝑠 . 𝐿𝑠 = 𝐿 . 𝑠2

𝑉
I(t) = 𝐿 𝑡

This shows that when a pure inductance is switched on to a d.c source, the current at t = 0 +, is zero and
this increases linearly with time till for infinite time it becomes infinity. In practice, of course, a choke
coil will have some finite resistance, however small; the current will settle down to the value V/R, where
R is the resistance of the coil.

(c ) In a capacitive circuit only Figure 8.1 (c )

When switch S is closed, the current in the circuit is given by

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 Figure 8.1 (c) Capacitance circuits only

𝑉(𝑠) 𝑉
I(s) = 𝑍(𝑠) = 𝐶𝑠 = 𝑉𝐶
𝑠

This is an impulse of strength magnitude VC

(d) R-L Circuit Figure 8.1 (d)

When the switch is closed, the current in the circuit is given by;
𝑉(𝑠) 𝑉 1 𝑉 1⁄𝐿
I(s) = 𝑍(𝑠) = 𝑥 = 𝑥
𝑠 𝑅+𝐿𝑠 𝑠 𝑠+𝑅/𝐿

𝑉 1 1 𝐿
= 𝐿 [𝑠 − 𝑠+𝑅/𝐿] 𝑅

𝑉 1 1
= 𝑅 [𝑠 − 𝑅 ]
𝑠+
𝐿

𝑉 𝑅
i(t) = 𝑅 [1 − 𝑒𝑥𝑝 (− 𝐿 𝑡)]

Figure 8.1 (d) R-L circuit

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The variation of current is shown in Figure 8.1(d). It can be seen from the expression that the current
will reach V/R value after infinite time. Also it can be seen that just after closing of the switch the
inductor behaves as an open circuit and that is why the current at t = 0+ is zero. When t = L/R,

𝑉
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝑅 (1 − 1𝑒) = Im (1- 1𝑒 ) = 0.632 Im.

At time t = L/R the current in the circuit is 63.2% of the maximum value reached in the circuit. This
time in seconds is called the time-constant of the circuit. The larger the value of inductance in the
circuit as compared with resistance the slower will be buildup of current in the circuit.

The energy stored in the inductor under steady state condition will be 12 LI² m, where Im = V/R.

(e) R-C Circuit (Fig 8.1 (e)

After the switch S is closed, current in the circuit is given by

𝑉(𝑠) 𝑉 1
I(s) = 𝑍(𝑠) = .
𝑠 𝑅+1/𝐶𝑠
1
𝑉 ( )𝐶𝑠 𝑉 1
𝑅𝐶
=𝑠𝑥 1 = 𝑅 . 𝑠+1/𝑅𝐶
𝑠+
𝑅𝐶
𝑉
i(t) = 𝑅 𝑒 −𝑡/𝐶𝑅

Figure 8.1 (e) R-C circuit

It is seen that at t = 0 the capacitor acts as a short-circuit to the d.c. source and the current is V/R limited
only by the resistance of the circuit. At t=∞ the current in the circuit is zero and the capacitor is
charged to a voltage V. The energy stored by the capacitor is 12 CV².

8.3 TRAVELLING WAVES ON TRASMISSION LINES

So far, we have analyzed the transient behavior of various circuits with lumped parameters. However,
there are some parts of a power system where this approach is inadequate. The most obvious example is
the transmission line. Here the parameters L, C and R are uniformly distributed over the length of the
line. For steady state operation of the line the transmission lines could be represented by lumped

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parameters but for the transient behavior of the lines they must be represented by their actual circuits
i.e., distributed parameters. We say that for a 50Hz supply and short transmission line the sending end
current equals the receiving end current and the change in voltage from sending end to receiving end is
smooth. This is not so when transmission line is subjected to a transient.

To understand the travelling wave phenomenon line consider Fig. 8.2 (a). The line is assumed to be
lossless. Let L and C be the inductance and capacitance respectively per unit length of the line. The line
has been represented in Fig.8.2 (b) by a large number of L and C sections. The closing of the switch is
similar to opening the valve at end of a channel, thereby similar to admitting water to the channel from
some reservoir behind. When the valve is opened the channel does not get filled up instantaneously. We
observe the water advancing down the channel. At any instant the channel ahead of the wave front is
dry while that behind is filled with water to the capacity. Similarly, when the switch S is closed the
voltage does not appear instantaneously at the other end. When switch S is closed, the inductance, L1
acts as an open circuit and C1 as short circuit instantaneously. The same instant the next section cannot
be charged because the voltage across the capacitor C1 is zero. So unless the capacitor C1 is charged to
some value whatsoever, charging of the capacitor C2 through L2 is not possible which, of course, will
take some finite time. The same argument applies to the third section fourth section and so on. So we
see that the voltage at the successive sections builds up gradually. This gradual buildup of voltage over
the transmission line conductors can be regarded as though a voltage wave is travelling from one end to
the other end and the gradual charging of the capacitances is due to the associated current wave.

Figure 8.2 (a) Long Transmission line and (b) Equivalent section of the transmission line

Now it is desired to find out expressions for the relation between the voltage and current waves
travelling over the transmission lines and their velocity of propagation.

Suppose that the wave after time t has travelled through a distance x. Since we have assumed lossless
lines whatever is the value of voltage and current waves at the start, they remain same through-out the
travel. Consider a distance dx which is travelled by the waves in time dt. The electrostatic flux is

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associated with the voltage wave and the electromagnetic flux with the current wave. The electrostatic
flux which is equal to the charge between the conductors of the line up to a distance x is given by

q = VCx [8.1]

The current in the conductor is determined by the rate at which the charge flows into and out of the line.
𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑥
I= =VC 𝑑𝑡 [8.2]
𝑑𝑡

Here dx/dt is the velocity of the travelling wave over the line conductor and let this be represented by v.
Then

I = VCv [8.3]

Similarly the electromagnetic flux linkages created around the conductors due to the current flowing in
them up to a distance of x is given by

V=ILx [8.4]

The voltage is the rate at which the flux linkages link around the conductor
𝑑𝑥
V= IL 𝑑𝑡 = ILv [8.5]

Dividing equation (8.5) by (8.3), we get

𝑉 𝐼𝐿𝑣 𝐼𝐿
= =
𝐼 𝑉𝐶𝑣 𝑉𝐶
𝑉2 𝐿
=
𝐼2 𝐶
𝑉 𝐿
Or = √𝐶 = Zn [8.6]
𝐼

The expression is a ratio of voltage to current which has the dimensions of impedance and is therefore,
here designed as surge impedance of the line. It is not known as the natural impedance because this
impedance has nothing to do with the load impedance. It is purely a characteristic of the transmission
line. The value of this impedance is about 400 ohms for overhead transmission lines and 40 ohms for
cables.

Next, multiplying equations (8.3) with (8.5), we get

VI =VCv ILv = VILCv2

𝐼 𝐼
v2 = and therefore v = [8.7]
𝐿𝐶 √𝐿𝐶

Now expressions for L and C for overhead lines are

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 𝑑
L = 2 x10-7 ln 𝐻/𝑚 and
𝑟
2𝜋𝜀
C= 𝑑 𝐹/𝑚
𝑙𝑛
𝑟

Substituting these values in equation (7.7), the velocity of propagation of the wave
1
v= 𝑑 2𝜋𝜀 1/2
(2 𝑥 10−7 𝐿𝑛 𝑥 )
𝑟 𝐿𝑛𝑑/𝑟
1 1
= =
√4𝜋𝜀 𝑥 10−7 1
√4𝜋 𝑥 10−9 𝑥 10−7
36𝜋

= 3 x 108 meters/second

This is the velocity of light. This means the velocity of propagation of the travelling waves over the
overhead transmission lines equals the velocity of light. In actual practice because of the resistance and
leakance of the lines the velocity of the travelling wave is slightly less than the velocity of light.
Normally a velocity of approximately 250 m/µ sec is assumed. It can be seen from the expression that
the velocity of these waves over the cables will be smaller than over the overhead lines because of the
permittivity term in denominator.

Since 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 =1 for overhead lines 𝜀𝑟 = 1 whereas for cables where the conductor is surrounded by some
dielectric material for which 𝜀𝑟 > 1, the term is 𝜀 is greater for cables than for overhead lines and
therefore the velocity of the waves over the cables is smaller than over the overhead lines.

Let us study the behavior of these lines to the travelling waves when they reach the other end of the lines
or whenever they see a change in the impedance (impedance other than characteristic impedance of the
line).

Open End Line

Consider a line with the receiving end open-circuited as shown in Figure 8.3.

Figure 8.3 Case of an open-ended transmission line

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When switch S is closed, a voltage and current wave of magnitudes V and I respectively travel towards
the open end. These waves are related by the equation.

𝑉
𝐼
= 𝑍

Here Z is the characteristic impedance of the line. Consider the last element dx of the line, because, it is
here where wave is going to see a change in impedance, impedance different from Z (infinite impedance
as the line is open-ended).
1
The electromagnetic energy stored by the element dx is given by 2 Ldx1² and

1
Electrostatic energy in the element dx, is CdxV². Since the current at the open end is zero, the
2
electromagnetic energy vanishes and is transformed into electrostatic energy. As a result, let the change
in voltage be e; then

1 1
Ldx1² = Cdxe²
2 2

𝑒 2
or ( ) = 𝐶𝐿
𝐼
or e = IZ = V
This means the potential of the open end is raised by V volts; therefore, the total potential of the open
end when the wave reaches this end is

V + V = 2V

The wave that starts travelling over the line when the switch S is closed, could be considered as the
incident wave and the wave reaches the open end, the rise in potential V could be considered due to a
wave which is reflected at the open end and actual voltage at the open end could be considered as the
refracted or transmitted wave and his thus

Refracted wave=Incident wave + Reflected wave

We have seen that for an open end line a travelling wave is reflected back with positive sign and
coefficient of reflections as unity.

Let us see now about the current wave.

As soon as the incident current wave I reaches the open end, the current at the end is zero, this could be
explained by saying that a current wave of I magnitude travels back over the transmission line. This
means for an open end line, a current wave is reflected with negative sign and coefficient of reflection
unity. The variation of current and voltage waves over the line is explained in Figure.8.4.
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Fig.8.4 Variation of voltage and current in an open-ended line

After the voltage and current waves are reflected back from the open end, they reach the source end, the
voltage over the line becomes 2V and the current is zero. The voltage at source end cannot be more than
the source voltage V, therefore, a voltage wave of – V and current wave of -1 is reflected back line
(Figure 8.4). 1t can be seen that after the waves have travelled through a distance of 4Ɩ where Ɩ is the
length of the line, they would have wiped out both the current and voltage waves, leaving the line
momentarily in its original state. The above cycle repeats itself.

Short Circuited Line

Consider the line with receiving end short circuited as shown in Fig.8.5.

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Figure 8.5 Case of a short circuited line

When switch S is closed, a voltage wave of magnitude V and current wave of magnitude I start
travelling towards the shorted end. Consider again the last element dx where the electrostatic energy
1 1
stored by the element is CdxV² and electromagnetic energy 2Ldx1². Since the voltage at the shorted
2
end is zero, let the change in the current be i; then
1 1
CdxV² = 2 Ldxi2
2

Or V= iZ
𝑉
Or i =𝑍 = 𝐼

This means the increase in current is I amperes. As a result the total current at the shorted end, when the
current wave reaches the end is (I + I ) = 2I amperes. This could be considered due to a reflected current
wave of magnitude I amperes. Therefore, for a short-circuited end the current wave is reflected back
with positive sign and coefficient of reflection as unity. Since the voltage at the shorted end is zero, a
voltage wave of – V could be considered to have been reflected back into the line, i.e. the current wave
in case of short-circuited end is reflected back with positive sign and with coefficient of reflection as in
the variation of voltage and current over the line is explained in Fig. 8.6

It is seen from above that the voltage wave periodically reduces to zero after it has travelled through a
distance of twice the length of the line whereas after each reflection at either end the current is built up
by an amount V/Zn =1. Theoretically, the reflections will be infinite and therefore, the current will
reach infinite value. But practically in an actual system the current will be limited by the resistance of
the line and the final value of the current will be 1’=V/R, where R is the resistance of transmission line.

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Figure 8.6 Variation of Voltage and Current in a shorted end Transmission line

Line Terminated Through a Resistance

Let Z be the surge impedance of the line terminated through a resistance R (Figure. 8.7). It has been
seen in the previous sections that whatever be the value of the terminating impedance whether it is open
or short circuited, one of the two voltage or current waves is reflected back with negative sign. Also,
since the re-reflected wave travels along the overhaul line or over the line along which the incident wave
travelled, therefore, the following relation holds good for reflected voltage and current waves.

′
𝑉′
𝐼 =
𝑍
where V and I are the reflected voltage and current waves. Also,

Refracted or transmitted wave = Incident wave + Reflected wave

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Figure 8.7 Line terminated through a resistance

Reflection and Refraction at a T-Junction

A voltage wave V is travelling over the line with surge impedance Z as shown in Figure.8.8. When it
reaches the junction, it experiences a change in impedance and, therefore, suffers reflection and
refraction. Let 𝑉2" , 𝐼2" , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉3" , 𝐼3" , be the voltages and currents in the lines having surge impedances Z2
and Z3 respectively. Since Z2 and Z3 form a parallel path as far as the surge wave is concerned, 𝑉2" =𝑉3"
=𝑉 "

Therefore, the following relations hold good:

V + 𝑉′ = 𝑉"
𝑉 𝑉′
I= , 𝐼′ = − 𝑍
𝑍1 1

Figure 8.8 A bifurcated transmission line

𝑉" 𝑉"
𝐼2" = "
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼3 =
𝑍2 𝑍3

And I + 𝐼 ′ = 𝐼2" + 𝐼3" [8.8]

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Substituting in equation (8.8) the values of currents

𝑉 𝑉′ 𝑉" 𝑉"
+ = +
𝑍1 𝑍1 𝑍2 𝑍3

Substituting for 𝑉 ′ = 𝑉 " − 𝑉

𝑉 𝑉" − 𝑉 𝑉" 𝑉"

− = +
𝑍1 𝑍1 𝑍2 𝑍3

2𝑉 1 1 1
= 𝑉" [ + + ]
𝑍1 𝑍1 𝑍2 𝑍3

2𝑉⁄
"
𝑉 = 𝑍1
1 1 1
+ +
𝑍1 𝑍2 𝑍3

Similarly other quantities can be obtained

Example 8.1 A 3-phase transmission line has conductors 1.5 cm in diameter spaced 1 meter apart in
equilateral formation. The resistance and leakage are negligible. Calculate

i. the natural impedance of the line,

ii. the line current if a voltage wave of 11kV along the line,
iii. the rate of energy absorption, the rate of reflection and the state and the form of reflection if the
line is terminated through a star connected load of 1000 ohm per phase,
iv. the value of the terminating resistance for no reflection and
v. the amount of reflected and transmitted power if the line is connected to a cable extension with
inductance per phase per cm of 0.5 x 10-8 H and 1 x 10-6 F respectively.

Soln. The inductance per unit length

(i) = 2 x 10-7 ln d/r H/m

= 2 x 10-7 ln 100/0.75

= 2 x 10-7 ln 133.3

= 2 x 10-7 x 4.89

= 9.87 x 10-7 H/m

The capacitance per phase per unit length

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 2𝜋𝜀0
= 𝐹/𝑚
𝑙𝑛𝑑⁄𝑟

2 𝑥10−9 1 10−9
= = 𝑥 = 1.136 𝑥10−11
36 𝑙𝑛𝑑⁄𝑟 18 4.89

𝐿 9.78 𝑥 10−7
(ii) Therefore the natural impedance = √𝐶 = √1.136 𝑥 10−11 = 294 ohms
11000
The line current = = 21.6 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠
√3 𝑥 294
(iii) Since the terminating resistance is of higher value as compared to the value of the surge
impedance of the line, the reflection is positive with a positive sign.

2𝑍2 𝐸
𝐸" =
𝑍1 + 𝑍2

Where Z1 = line surge impedance, Z2 = terminating impedance and E = incident Voltage

11000 1000
𝐸" = 2 𝑥 𝑥 1294 = 9.8𝑘𝑉
√3

Therefore

3𝐸 "2
The rate of power consumption, = 𝑀𝑊
𝑅

3 𝑥 9.8 𝑥 9.8
= 𝑥 1000𝑘𝑊
1000

= 288 kW
𝑍 −𝑍 1000−294 11
The reflected voltage 𝐸 ′ = 𝑍2 +𝑍1 𝐸 = 𝑥 𝑘𝑉
2 1 1294 √3

706 11
= 1294 𝑥 = 3.465𝑘𝑉
√3

3 𝑥 3.4652
Therefore the rate of reflected energy = 𝑥 1000 𝑘𝑊
294

= 121.8 kW

(iv) In order that the incident wave not to suffer reflection on reaching the terminating resistance,
the terminating resistance should be equal to the surge Impedance of the line ie 294 ohms

𝐿 0.5 𝑥 10−8
(v) The surge impedance of the cable = √𝐶 = √ 10−12

= 70.7 ohms
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 2 𝑥 70.7 11
The refracted voltage =294+70.7 𝑥 = 2.46 𝑘𝑉
√3

70.7−294 11
The reflected voltage = 𝑥 = −3.9𝑘𝑉
364 √3

The refracted and reflected powers are respectively

𝟑 𝒙 𝟐. 𝟒𝟔𝟐 𝟑 𝒙 𝟑. 𝟗𝟐
𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝟐𝟓𝟔𝒌𝑾 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏𝟓𝟓𝒌𝑾
𝟕𝟎. 𝟕 𝟐𝟗𝟒

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