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Principles and Applications

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PRINCIPLES AND APPt..lCATIONS
CHAPTER 1 Shaping Eating Behaviors _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 2
Food Choices • Media Influences • Sustainability Influences • Purchasing Influences • Individual
Influences

Sensory Perceptions of Food • Flavor Perceptions • Presentation • Textures • Tastes • Food

Science Experiment: Discovering Supertasters • Aromas • Temperatures • Food Science Experiment:
Detecting Flavor

Flavor Development • Flavorings • Seasonings

Flavor Development Techniques • Maillard Reaction • Caramelization • Rubs • Marinades •
Reductions • Stocks • Classical Sauces • Contemporary Sauces
Cooking Food • Heat Transfer Methods • Healthy Cooking Techniques

CHAPTER 2 Nutrition Fundamentals ______________44

Nutrition • Macronutrients • Micronutrients
Digestion • Digestive Tract • Digestive Processes • Nutrient Absorption
Energy Requirements • Metabolism • Physical Activity • N utritious Choices • Weight Management
Dietary Recommendations • Dietary Guidelines for Americans • Serving Sizes • Harvard Healthy
Eating Guides • Dietary Reference Intakes

Dietary Connections • Hypertension • Food Science Experiment: Sodium Sources • Obesity •

Cardiovascular Disease • Diabetes • Cancers • Food Allergies • Food Intolerances

Role of Menus • Portion Sizes • Culinary Nutrition Recipe-Modification Process

CHAPTER 3 Proteins ____________________ 82

Protein Structure • Amino Acids • Protein Formation
Protein Functions • Growth and Maintenance • Fluid Balance • Acid-Base Balance • Transportation •
Blood Clotting • Hormone Production • Enzyme Production • Antibody Production • Energy
Protein Digestion and Absorption
Protein Sources • Complete Proteins • lnoomplete Proteins
Protein Consumption • Protein Recommendations • Protein Excess • Protein Deficiencies
Preparing Proteins • Reactions to Air • Reactions to Heat • Reactions to Moisture • Reactions to pH •
Food Science Experiment: Using Acids to Tenderize Meats

Proteins on the Menu • Presentation • Texture and Flavor

CHAPTER 4 Carbohydrates _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 108
Carbohydrate Classifications • Simple Carbohydrates • Complex Carbohydrates
Carbohydrate Functions
Carbohydrate Digestion and Absorption • Simple Carbohydrates • Complex Carbohydrates •
Dietary Fiber

The Role of Glucose • Storing Glucose • Low Glucose Levels • High Glucose Levels
Carbohydrate Sources • Simple Carbohydrates • Complex Carbohydrates • Grains
Carbohydrate Consumption • Carbohydrate Recommendations • Carbohydrate Excess •
Carbohydrate Deficiencies

Preparing Carbohydrates • Reactions to Air • Reactions to Light• Reactions to Heat • Reactions

to Moisture • Food Science Experiment: Gelatinization • Reactions to pH

Carbohydrates on the Menu • Presentation • Texture and Flavor

CHAPTER 5 Lipids_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 138

The Role of Lipids •Triglycerides • Phospholipids • Sterols
Lipid Functions • Energy • Insulation and Organ Protection • Hormone Production • Cellular
Structure • Nutrient Absorption

Lipid Digestion and Absorption • The Role of Bile • The Role of Lipoproteins
Lipid Sources • Monounsaturated Fats • Polyunsaturated Fats • Essential Fatty Acids • Saturated
Fats • Trans Fats • Cholesterol • Food Science Experiment: Total Fat Content in Foods

Lipid Consumption • Lipid Recommendations • Lipid Excess • Lipid Deficiencies

Preparing Lipids • Reactions to Air • Reactions to Light • Reactions to Heat • Reactions to Moisture
Lipids on the Menu • Presentation • Texture and Flavor
CHAPTER 6 Water, Vitamins & Minerals _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ 164
The Role of Water • Aiding Digestion and Absorption • Regulation of Body Temperature • Health of
Tissues, Organs, and Joints • Maintaining Fluid Balance

Water Intake • Water from Beverages • Water from Foods

Water Output
Vitamins and Minerals • Dietary Reoommendations • Vitamin and Mineral Toxicities • Vitamin and
Mineral Deficiencies • Antioxidants

Water-Soluble Vitamins • Vitamin C • Food Science Experiment: Vitamin C Content • B Vitamins

Fat-Soluble Vitamins • Vitamin A • Vitamin D • Vitamin E • Vitamin K
Major Minerals • Calcium • Phosphorus • Magnesium • Potassium • Sodium • Chloride
Trace Minerals • Iron • Zinc • Iodine • Selenium• Copper • Manganese • Fluoride • Chromium
Preparing Vitamins and Minerals • Reactions to Air • Reactions to Light • Reactions to Heat •
Reactions to Moisture • Reactions to pH
Vitamins and Minerals on the Menu • Presentation • Texture and Flavor

CHAPTER 7 Nutritious Menu Planning _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 208

Menus • Foodservice Venues • Menu Classifications • Menu Types • Menu Regulations
Evaluating Menus • Menu Trends • Menu Mix • Food Science Experiment: Evaluating Entrees •
Purchasing Options
Menu Modifications • Dietary Considerations • Allergen-Free Menu Items • Nutritious Menu Items •
Food Science Experiment: Layering Flavors • Culinary Nutrition Recipe-Modification Process

Marketing Nutritious Menu Items • Menu Descriptions • Menu Item Placement • Perceived
Value • Menu Promotions
CHAPTER 8 Beverages on the Menu _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 234
Beverages • Perceived Value of Beverages • Water • Food Science Experiment: Analyzing Water •
Dairy Beverages • Milklike Beverages • Coffees • Teas • Fruit and Vegetable Beverages • Alcoholic
Beverages • Soft Drinks

Preparing Nutritious Beverages • Water • Dairy Beverages • Milklike Beverages • Coffees • Teas •
Fruit and Vegetable Beverages • Alcoholic Beverages • Soft Drinks

Beverage Menu Mix • Mealtime Beverages • Beverages as Desserts

Promoting Beverages on the Menu • Beverage Houses and Bar Venues • Fine Dining and
Special Event Venues

CHAPTER 9 Egg, Soy & Dairy Products on the Menu _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 266

Eggs • Egg N utrients • Perceived Value of Eggs • Market Forms of Eggs
Preparing Nutritious Eggs • Cooking Eggs • Food Science Experiment: Preparing Eggs Using
Dry and Moist Heat • Flavor Development • Plating Eggs

Egg Menu Mix • Eggs in Beverages • Eggs in Appetizers • Eggs in Soups • Eggs in Sandwiches •
Eggs in Salads • Eggs in Entrees • Eggs in Sides • Eggs in Desserts
Promoting Eggs on the Menu
Soy Products • Perceived Value of Soy Products • Market Forms of Soy Products • Food Science
Experiment: Preparing Soy Milk
Preparing Nutritious Soy Products • Cooking Soy Products • Flavor Development • Plating
Soy Products

Soy Product Menu Mix • Soy Products in Beverages • Soy Products in Appetizers • Soy Products
in Soups • Soy Products in Salads • Soy Products in Entrees • Soy Products in Desserts

Promoting Soy Products on the Menu

Dairy Products • Perceived Value of Dairy Products • Liquid Dairy Products • Semisolid Dairy
Products • Solid Dairy Products • Food Science Experiment: Preparing Ricotta Cheese • Canned and
Dried Dairy Products

Preparing Nutritious Dairy Products • Cooking Dairy Products • Flavor Development • Plating
Dairy Products

Dairy Product Menu Mix • Dairy Products in Beverages • Dairy Products in Appetizers • Dairy
Products in Soups • Dairy Products in Sandwiches • Dairy Products in Salads • Dairy Products in
Entrees • Dairy Products in Sides • Dairy Products in Desserts

Promoting Dairy Products on the Menu

CHAPTER l OPoultry & Meats on the Menu,_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 314
Poultry • Perceived Value of Poultry • Poultry Classifications • Market Forms of Poultry
Preparing Nutritious Poultry • Cooking Poultry • Food Science Experiment: Effect of Heat and
Brine on Poultry • Flavor Development • Plating Poultry

Poultry Menu Mix • Poultry in Appetizers • Poultry in Soups • Poultry in Sandwiches • Poultry in
Salads • Poultry in Entrees

Promoting Poultry on the Menu • Quick Service and Fast Casual Venues • Casual Dining and
Institutional Venues • Beverage Houses and Bar Venues • Fine Dining and Special Event Venues

Meats • Perceived Value of Meats • Meat Classifications • Composition of Meats • Market Forms
of Meats

Preparing Nutritious Meats • Cooking Meats • Flavor Development• Food Science Experiment:
Preparing Beef Jerky Sliced Along and Across the Grain • Plating Meats
Meat Menu Mix • Meats in Appetizers • Meats in Soups • Meats in Sandwiches • Meats in Salads •
Meats in Entrees

Promoting Meats on the Menu • Quick Service and Fast Casual Venues • Casual Dining and
Institutional Venues • Beverage Houses and Bar Venues • Fine Dining and Special Event Venues

CHAPTER 11 Fish & Shellfish on the Menu ____________ 370

Fish • Perceived Value of Fish • Fish Classifications • Market Forms of Fish
Preparing Nutritious Fish • Raw Fish • Cooking Fish • Food Science Experiment: Effect of Dry
Heat and Moist Heat on Lean Fish • Flavor Development • Plating Fish

Fish Menu Mix • Fish in Appetizers • Fish in Soups • Fish in Sandwiches • Fish in Salads • Fish in
Entrees

Promoting Fish on the Menu

Shellfish • Perceived Value of Shellfish • Shellfish Classifications • Market Forms of Shellfish
Preparing Nutritious Shellfish • Raw Shellfish • Cooking Shellfish • Food Science Experiment:
Cooking Shellfish • Flavor Development • Plating Shellfish
Shellfish Menu Mix • Shellfish in Appetizers • Shellfish in Soups • Shellfish in Sandwiches •
Shellfish in Salads • Shellfish in Entrees
Promoting Shellfish on the Menu • Beverage Houses and Bar Venues • Fine Dining and Special
Event Venues
CHAPTER 12 Vegetables & Legumes on the Menu ________ 410
Vegetables • Perceived Value of Vegetables • Vegetable Classifications• Market Forms of Vegetables •
Food Science Experiment: Evaluating Different Market Forms of Vegetables

Preparing Nutritious Vegetables • Raw Vegetables • Cooking Vegetables • Flavor Development•

Plating Vegetables

Vegetable Menu Mix • Vegetables in Beverages • Vegetables in Appetizers • Vegetables in Soups•

Vegetables in Sandwiches • Vegetables in Salads • Vegetables in Entrees • Vegetables in Sides •
Vegetables in Desserts

Promoting Vegetables on the Menu

Legumes • Perceived Value of Legumes • Legume Classifications
Preparing Nutritious Legumes • Cooking Legumes • Food Science Experiment: Cooking
Legumes in Water, Acid, Alkali, and Salt • Flavor Development • Plating Legumes

Legume Menu Mix • Legumes in Appetizers • Legumes in Soups • Legumes in Sandwiches •

Legumes in Salads • Legumes in Entrees • Legumes in Sides • Legumes in Desserts
Promoting Legumes on the Menu

CHAPTER 13 Fruits, Nuts & Seeds on the Menu __________ 448

Fruits • Perceived Value of Fruits • Fruit Classifications • Market Forms of Fruits
Preparing Nutritious Fruits • Raw Fruits • Food Science Experiment: Fruit Oxidation • Cooking
Fruits • Flavor Development • Plating Fruits

Fruit Menu Mix • Fruits in Beverages • Fruits in Appetizers • Fruits in Soups • Fruits in Salads • Fruits
in Entrees • Fruits in Sides • Fruits in Desserts

Promoting Fruits on the Menu

Nuts and Seeds • Perceived Value of Nuts and Seeds • Nut and Seed Classifications
Preparing Nutritious Nuts and Seeds • Cooking with Nuts and Seeds • Flavor Development•
Plating Nuts and Seeds • Food Science Experiment: Comparing Raw, Toasted, and Roasted Nuts
Nut and Seed Menu Mix • Nuts and Seeds in Beverages • Nuts and Seeds in Appetizers • Nuts
and Seeds in Soups • Nuts and Seeds in Salads • Nuts and Seeds in Entrees • Nuts and Seeds in
Sides • Nuts and Seeds in Desserts

Promoting Nuts and Seeds on the Menu • Beverage Houses and Bar Venues • Fine Dining
and Special Event Venues
CHAPTER 14 Pastas, Grains & Breads on the Menu _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 488
Pastas • Perceived Value of Pastas • Pasta Classifications
Preparing Nutritious Pastas • Cooking Pastas • Flavor Development • Plating Pastas • Food
Science Experiment: Textural Differences in Cooked Pasta
Pasta Menu Mix • Pastas in Appetizers • Pastas in Soups • Pastas in Salads • Pastas in Entrees •
Pastas in Sides
Promoting Pastas on the Menu
Grains • Perceived Value of Grains • Cereal Grains • Pseudocereals • Gluten-Free Grains • Food
Science Experiment: Baking with Various Grain Flours
Preparing Nutritious Grains • Cooking Grains• Flavor Development• Plating Grains
Grain Menu Mix • Grains in Beverages • Grains in Appetizers• Grains in Soups• Grains in Salads •
Grains in Entrees • Grains in Sides• Grains in Desserts
Promoting Grains on the Menu
Breads • Perceived Value of Breads • Bread Classifications
Preparing Nutritious Breads • Yeast Bread Preparation • Food Science Experiment: Yeast
Activation • Quick Bread Preparation • Flavor Development • Plating Breads
Bread Menu Mix • Breakfast Breads • Appetizer Breads • Sandwich Breads • Sides of Bread •
Dessert Breads
Promoting Breads on the Menu • Quick Service and Fast Casual Venues • Fine Dining and
Special Event Venues

CHAPTER 15 Desserts on the Menu _______________ 546

Desserts • Perceived Value of Desserts • Dessert Classifications
Dessert Preparations • Cooking Desserts • Food Science Experiment: Baking Cookies with
Natural, Refined, and Artificial Sweeteners • Flavor Development • Plating Desserts
Dessert Menu Mix • Beverages as Desserts • Cheeses as Desserts • Fruits as Desserts • Nuts and
Seeds as Desserts • Breads as Desserts • Plated Desserts
Promoting Desserts on the Menu

Appendix ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 573

Glo~ a~ ~1
Index 607

igital Resources
• Quick Quizzes® • Culinary Nutrition Recipe Modifications
• Illustrated G lossary • Menu Planning Challe nge
• Flash Cards • Digestion and Absorption Process
• Knowledge Checks and Reviews • Media library
 ulinary Nutrition Recipe-
Modification Process
The Culinary Nutrition Recipe-Modification Process provides a step-by-step procedure for modifying an existi ng
recipe into a healthier version that upholds the flavor and integrity of the original dish. Recipes can be n1odified
to reduce the ainounts of sugars, fats, sodiu111, and/or calories. Recipes can also be 111odified for specific health or
dietary reasons. The six steps of the culinary nutrition recipe-modification process include evaluating the original
recipe for sensory and nutritional qualities, establishing goals, identifying modifications or substitutions, detennin-
ing the functions of identified modifications or substitutions, selecting appropriate n1odifications or substitutions,
and testing the modified recipe to evaluate sensory and nutritional qualities.

Culinary Nutrition Recipe-Modification Process

Step 1 Evaluate original recipe for sensory and nutritional qualities

Step 2

Step 3

Step 4 • •

Step S

Step 6 Test modified recipe to evaluate sensory and nutritional qualities

 ulinary Nutrition Recipe-
Modification Process Index

The Culinary Nutrition Recipe-Modification Processes listed be low target specific food ite111s covered in Chapters 7
throug h 15 and inc lude the follo\ving recipes:

CHAPTER 7 CHAPTER 10
Nutritious Menu Planning Poultry & Meats on the Menu
Ranch Dressing .................... . ... 228 Fried Chicken .......................... 330
Modified Ranch Dressing .. . .. . ...... . . .. 229 Modified Baked Fried Chicken .... . . . . ..... 331
Signature Zesty Ranch Dressing . ...... . . .. 229 Signature Crispy Baked
Chicken Cutlets ...... . . . . .... . . . . ..... 332

Beef Bourguignon ...... . .. . .... . . . . ..... 348

CHAPTER 8 Modified Beef Bourguignon ........ . ...... 350
Beverages on the Menu Signature Stewed Bison
with Root Vegetables .... . ....... . ...... 351
Cafe Mocha ....................... . ... 252
Modified Cafe Mocha ................ . ... 253
Veal Scallopini .......... . ....... . ...... 354
Signature Soy Milk Cafe Mocha ....... . ... 253
Modified Veal Scallopini ........... . ...... 355
Signature Veal Scallopini
White Sangria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 with Grilled Picante ............. . ...... 355
Modified White Sangria .... . .. . ...... . . .. 259
Signature White Sangria Fruit Medley ... . ... 259 Stuffed Pork Chops ..... . .. . .... . .. . ..... 360
Modified Pork Chops with Dressing . .. . ..... 362
Signature Grilled Pork Chops
with Pineapple Salsa .. . .. . .... . . . . ..... 363
CHAPTER9
Egg, Soy & Dairy Products
on the Menu
Quiche Lorraine .. . .. . .... . . . . ...... . . .. 276 CHAPTER 11
Modified Quiche Lorraine ... . .. . ...... . . .. 278
Fish & Shellfish on the Menu
Signature Roasted Vegetable, Fried Fish Tacos ........................ 382
Pear, and Blue Cheese Frittata . . ...... . . .. 279 Modified Sauteed Fish Tacos ....... . ...... 383
Signature Marinated Fish Tacos ... . . . . ..... 384
Chocolate Mousse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Modified Chocolate Mousse ........... . ... 307 Crab Louie Salad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
Signature Tofu Chocolate Mousse ...... . ... 307 Modified Crab Louie Salad .. . .... . .. . ..... 402
Signature Crab Louie Spinach Salad ........ 403
CHAPTER 12 CHAPTER 14
Vegetables & Legumes on the Menu Pastas, Grains & Breads on the Menu
Braised Swiss Chard .. . ....... . ....... . . 424 Fettuccine Alfredo....................... 498
Modified Braised Swiss Chard ... . ......... 425 Modified Fettuccine Alfredo ......... . ..... 499
Signature Marinated Swiss Chard Salad ..... 426 Signature Lemony Fettuccine
Alfredo with Peas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
Red Beans and Rice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
Modified Red Beans and Rice ... . ....... . . 441 Risotto ....... . .. . .... . . . . ...... . . .... 518
Signature Chestnut Lima Beans and Rice .. . . 442 Modified Risotto . .. . .... . .. . ...... . . .... 519
Signature Steel-Cut Oat Risotto ...... . . .... 520

Cinnamon Raisin Sunflower Buns .... . ..... 536

CHAPTER 13 Modified Cinnamon Raisin
Sunflower Muffins ................ . ..... 538
Fruits, Nuts & Seeds on the Menu
Signature Cinnamon Raisin
Peach Pie ............................. 462 Nut Butter Muffins ................ . ..... 539
Modified Peach Pie . . .. . ...... . . ....... . . 463
Signature Peach Tartlet . ...... . . ....... . . 464

Candied Pecans ... . .. . ...... . . ....... . . 478 CHAPTER 15

Modified Candied Pecans ................. 479 Desserts on the Menu
Signature Candied Spiced Walnuts ......... 479 Tiramisu Trifle .. . .. . .... . .. . ...... . . .... 552
Modified Tiramisu Trifle ... . .. . ...... . . .... 553
Signature Orange Espresso Trifle ..... . . .... 554

Black Forest Cake ................ . ..... 562

Modified Black Forest Cake ......... . ..... 564
Signature Gluten-Free
Black Forest Cupcakes .... . ....... . ..... 565
Culinary Nutrition Princip les and Applications con1bines the science of nutrition with the art of food pre paration
to provide learners with the knowledge base needed to plan and prepare healthy n1enu ite111s. The first six chapters
of this e ngaging textbook explain the functions and food sources of proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, \Yater, vita111ins,
and 111inerals and their roles in the digestion and absorption process. The remaining nine chapters describe how to
apply nutrition principles and healthy cooking techniques to create flavorful , nutrie nt-de nse n1enu items that appeal
to guests. A proven method for n1odifying recipes, called the Culinary Nutrition Recipe-Modification Process, is
demonstrated for each 111e nu category. Additionally, access is provided to a dynainic set of online digital resources
that enhance chapter concepts and promote learning.

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Culinary Nutrition Principles and Applications includes digital resources that enhance chapter concepts and pro-
1note learning. QuickLinks and Quick Response (QR) codes, located at the end of each chapter, offer easy access
to digital resources.

Using QuickLinks
To access a QuickLink using an access code,
follow these simple steps:
1. Key ATPeResources.corn/QuickLinks
into a browser.

2. Open the page and type in the access code

provided on the last page of the chapter.
3. Instantly access the digital resources.

The Digital Resources include the following:

• Quick Quizzes"' that provide 20 interactive questions for each chapter, with helpful links to textbook content and
to the Illustrated Glossary
• An Illustrated Glossary that provides a helpful reference to commonly used terms, with selected terms linked
to illustrations or ,nedia clips
• Flash Cards that provide a self-study tool for learning the terms and definitions used in the textbook
• Knowledge Checks and Revie,vs in PDF fonnat that allow learners to demonstrate knowledge of chapter concepts
• Culinary Nutrition Recipe Modifications that provide a proven process for modifying traditional recipes to
create healthier versions of menu ite1ns
• The Menu Planning Challenge, which provides interactive activities in which learners apply their nutrition
knowledge to select healthy menu ite111s
• The Digestion and Absorption Process, ,vhich si111ulates how food is digested and absorbed
• A Media Library that includes animations and video clips that enhance the textbook content
• ATPeResources.com, which links to online resources that support continued learning
Using Quick Response (QR) Codes
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The Culinary Nutrition Principles and Applications Study Guide includes review questions and activities that rein-
force and expand upon the information presented in the textbook.

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Reviews for each chapter include true-false,

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 ulinary arts is an exciting and dynamic field in-
fluenced by individual eating behaviors, industry
...__, trends, and the discovery of new foods, informa-
tion, and practices. Chefs have the opportunity to help shape
eating behaviors by using healthy preparation techniques
and sound nutrition principles to combine flavors that excite
and tempt all the senses. The result is meals that are visu-
ally appealing, flavorfu l, and nutritious.

Chapter Objectives
1. Identify primary influences that shape food choices.
2. Describe sustainable influences that affect food
choices.
3. Differentiate between food allergies and food intol-
erances.
4 . Identify the dominant senses that are used to detect
flavor.
5. Identify common flavor profiles.
6. Explain how presentation, texture, taste, aroma, and
temperature can influence food choices.
7. Describe the primary tastes recognized by the taste
buds.
8. Explain how layers of flavors are created.
9. Identify common flavorings and seasonings.
10. Explain common techniques used to develop flavor.
11. Describe the heat transfer methods used to cook food.
12. Describe the main cooking techniques.

3
Another random document with
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regularity:—varying their phases from full to new and from new to
full, and frequently eclipsing the sun and each other, at least to the
equatorial parts of Jupiter; and almost in every revolution suffering
eclipses themselves by falling into Jupiter’s shadow; excepting that
the outermost will seem, like a traveller fond of the sun-beams,
cautiously to avoid the shadow for whole years together. Since we
are advanced so far, if not tired of the journey, let us proceed a step
further; it is but 400 millions of miles to the globe of Saturn. Here
again all will be lost, but Jupiter itself. The Sun will put on something
of a starlike appearance, but with excessive brightness. The five[A33]
satellites of Saturn will exhibit appearances similar to those of
Jupiter, but they will very rarely eclipse the Sun, or suffer eclipses
themselves. The particular phænomena of Saturn’s ring, we cannot
explain, unless we knew the time and plane of Saturn’s revolution on
his axis. But this we know, that it must sometimes appear, by night,
like a prodigious luminous arch, almost equal to one quarter of the
heavens; and at other times, dark, so as to afford no light itself, but
to intercept the light of every star beyond it, by night, and of the sun
itself by day. And to conclude, if borne on the wings of a comet we
should travel with it to the remotest part of its orbit; our whole
planetary system would disappear, and the sun become a star, only
more refulgent than Sirius perhaps, because less distant.

The opinion of the earth’s rotation on its axis was once violently
opposed, from a notion of its dangerous tendency with respect to the
interests of religion:[A34] But, as truth is always consistent with itself,
so many new proofs were furnished from time to time by new
discoveries, that a mistaken interpretation of some passages in the
bible was compelled to give way to the force of astronomical
evidence. The doctrine of a plurality of worlds, is inseparable from
the principles of Astronomy; but this doctrine is still thought, by some
pious persons, and by many more I fear, who do not deserve that
title, to militate against the truths asserted by the Christian religion. If
I may be allowed to give my opinion on a matter of such importance,
I must confess that I think upon a proper examination the apparent
inconsistency will vanish. Our religion teaches us what philosophy
could not have taught; and we ought to admire with reverence the
great things it has pleased divine Providence to perform, beyond the
ordinary course of Nature, for man, who is undoubtedly the most
noble inhabitant of this globe. But neither religion nor philosophy
forbids us to believe that infinite wisdom and power, prompted by
infinite goodness, may throughout the vast extent of creation and
duration, have frequently interposed in a manner quite
incomprehensible to us, when it became necessary to the happiness
of created beings of some other rank or degree.

How far indeed the inhabitants of the other planets may resemble
man, we cannot pretend to say. If like him they were created liable to
fall, yet some, if not all of them, may still retain their original
rectitude. We will hope they do: the thought is comfortable.—Cease,
Galileo, to improve thy optic tube: and thou, great Newton, forbear
thy ardent search into the distant mysteries of nature: lest ye make
unwelcome discoveries. Deprive us not of the pleasure of believing
that yonder radiant orbs, traversing in silent majesty the etherial
regions, are the peaceful seats of innocence and bliss: where neither
natural nor moral evil has ever yet intruded; where to enjoy with
gratitude and adoration the creator’s bounty, is the business of
existence. If their inhabitants resemble man in their faculties and
affections, let us suppose that they are wise enough to govern
themselves according to the dictates of that reason their creator has
given them, in such manner as to consult their own and each other’s
true happiness, on all occasions. But if, on the contrary, they have
found it necessary to erect artificial fabrics of government, let us not
suppose that they have done it with so little skill, and at such an
enormous expence, as must render them a misfortune instead of a
blessing. We will hope that their statesmen are patriots, and that
their kings, if that order of beings has found admittance there, have
the feelings of humanity.—Happy people! and perhaps more happy
still, that all communication with us is denied. We have neither
corrupted you with our vices, nor injured you by violence. None of
your sons and daughters, degraded from their native dignity, have
been doomed to endless slavery by us in America, merely because
their bodies may be disposed to reflect or absorb the rays of light, in
a way different from ours. Even you, inhabitants of the moon,
situated in our very neighbourhood, are effectually secured, alike
from the rapacious hand of the haughty Spaniard, and of the
unfeeling British nabob. Even British thunder impelled by British
thirst of gain, cannot reach you: And the utmost efforts of the mighty
Frederick, that tyrant of the north and scourge of mankind, if aimed
to disturb your peace, becomes inconceivably ridiculous and
impotent.

Pardon these reflections; they rise not from the gloomy spirit of
misanthropy. That being, before whose piercing eye all the intricate
foldings and dark recesses of the human heart become expanded
and illuminated, is my witness with what sincerity, with what ardor, I
wish for the happiness of the whole race of mankind: how much I
admire that disposition of lands and seas, which affords a
communication between distant regions, and a mutual exchange of
benefits:[A35] how sincerely I approve of those social refinements
which really add to our happiness, and induce us with gratitude to
acknowledge our great Creator’s goodness:—how I delight in a
participation of the discoveries made from time to time in nature’s
works, by our Philosophic brethren in Europe.

But when I consider, that luxury and her constant follower tyranny,
who have long since laid in the dust, never to rise again, the glories
of Asia, are now advancing like a torrent irresistible, whose weight
no human force can stem, and have nearly completed their conquest
of Europe; luxury and tyranny, who by a vile affectation of virtues
they know not, pretend at first to be the patrons of science and
philosophy, but at length fail not effectually to destroy them; agitated
I say by these reflections, I am ready to wish—vain wish! that nature
would raise her everlasting bars between the new and old world; and
make a voyage to Europe as impracticable as one to the moon. I
confess indeed, that by our connections with Europe we have made
most surprising, I had almost said unnatural, advances towards the
meridian of glory; but by those connections too, in all probability, our
fall will be premature. May the God of knowledge inspire us with
wisdom to prevent it: let our harbours, our doors, our hearts, be shut
against luxury. But I return to my subject, and will no longer indulge
these melancholy thoughts.

Some have observed, that the wonderful discoveries of the

microscope ought to go hand in hand with those of the telescope;
lest whilst we contemplate the many instances of the wisdom and
power of divine Providence, displayed in the great works of creation,
we should be tempted to conclude that man, and other less
important beings of this lower world, did not claim its attention. But I
will venture to affirm, without at all derogating from the merits of
those who have so greatly obliged the world with the success of their
microscopical enquiries, that no such danger is to be apprehended.
Nothing can better demonstrate the immediate presence of the Deity
in every part of space, whether vacant or occupied by matter, than
astronomy does. It was from an astronomer St. Paul quoted that
exalted expression, so often since repeated; “In God we live, and
move, and have our being.” His divine energy supports that universal
substratum on which all corporal substances subsist, that the laws of
motion are derived from, and that wings light with angelic swiftness.

If the time would permit, how agreeable the task to dwell on the
praises of Astronomy: to consider its happy effects as a science, on
the human mind. Let the sceptical writers forbear to lavish
encomiums on their cobweb Philosophy, liable to be broken by the
smallest incident in nature. They tell us it is of great service to
mankind, in banishing bigotry and superstition from amongst us. Is
not this effectually done by Astronomy? The direct tendency of this
science is to dilate the heart with universal benevolence, and to
enlarge its views. But then it does this without propagating a single
point of doctrine contrary to common sense, or the most cultivated
reason. It flatters no fashionable princely vice, or national depravity.
It encourages not the libertine by relaxing any of the precepts of
morality; nor does it attempt to undermine the foundations of religion.
It denies none of those attributes, which the wisest and best of
mankind, have in all ages ascribed to the Deity: Nor does it degrade
the human mind from that dignity, which is ever necessary to make it
contemplate itself with complacency. None of these things does
Astronomy pretend to; and if these things merit the aim of
Philosophy, and the encouragement of a people, then let scepticism
flourish, and Astronomy lie neglected; then let the names of
Berkeley, and Hume, become immortal, and that of Newton be lost in
oblivion.

I shall conclude this part of my discourse with the words of Dr.

Barrow—It is to Astronomy we owe “that we comprehend the huge
fabric of the universe, admire and contemplate the wonderful beauty
of the divine workmanship, and so learn the invincible force and
sagacity of our own minds, as to acknowledge the blessings of
heaven with a pious affection.”

I now come, in the last place, to point out some of the defects of
Astronomy at this day. Which I am induced to undertake by the
hopes I entertain that some of those defects may be removed under
the auspices of this society, and of you my fellow citizens, who have
so zealously promoted its institution. “The advantages arising from
Astronomy, the pleasure attending the study of it, the care with which
it was cultivated by many great men among the ancients, and the
extraordinary attention paid to it in Europe by the present age,” all
contribute to recommend it to your protection, under which we have
the best reason to expect that it will flourish.

The mildness of our climate and the serenity of our atmosphere,

perhaps not inferior to that of Italy, and likewise our distant situation
from the principal observatories in the world (whence many curious
phænomena must be visible here that are not likely to be observed
any where else) are so many circumstances greatly in our favour.

And I trust there will not be wanting men of genius, to arise in this
new world, whose talents may be particularly adapted to
astronomical enquiries. Indeed I am persuaded that nature is by no
means so nigardly in producing them, as we are apt to imagine.
Some are never tempted forth from obscurity, some are untimely
snatched away by death, a striking instance whereof we have in
Horrox; and many are accidentally led to other pursuits.
 The Astronomy of comets is still in its infancy; not that the
attention of the learned and ingenious has at all been wanting for
more than a century past; but because it will necessarily require
many ages to bring it to perfection. I wish we were in a condition to
promote it in some degree, by carefully observing such comets as
may appear. As yet we scarce dare affirm that any one has or will
return a second time. It has never, that I know of, been certainly
proved by observation, that a comet has descended within a
parabolic orbit, and until that is done we have only a coincidence of
periods and orbits (none of which have been very precise) to depend
on for their return. Far less are astronomers able to determine the
changes that may, and probably do, happen in their orbits[A36] and
velocities in every period, so as to predict their nearer or more
remote approach to the earth or any planet. Whether their business
be to repair or destroy, whether they are worlds yet in formation or
once habitable worlds in ruins; whether they are at present habitable
and regular attendants of our Sun only, or whether they are the vast
links that connect the distant parts of creation by surrounding more
suns than one, we know not.

If we descend to the Planetary System, there are still many things

wanting to compleat Astronomy.

The orbits of the primary planets have at one time been supposed
moveable with various irregularities, at other times fixed and
permanent. It seems now generally granted, that according to the
theory of gravity they must change their situations; yet not long
since, some great astronomers warmly contended that this change
was altogether insensible.

According to the best tables we now have, the planes of the orbits
of Jupiter, the Earth and Mercury are immoveable, though the orbits
themselves have a progressive motion in their planes. On the
contrary, the poles of the orbits of Saturn, Mars and Venus are
supposed to revolve about the poles of the earth’s orbit, with such
velocities as at present nearly reconcile calculation to appearances.
But there is good reason to apprehend that such a supposition is not
true in fact, and a mistake in this matter will have some important
consequences. More probable is it, that the poles of the orbits of all
the planets, the earth not excepted, revolve about some common
centre. The several quantities of these motions, I am confident, are
to be had from observation, and not from theory alone. If such a
motion of the earth’s orbit be admitted, it will account for the
diminution[A37] of the obliquity of the ecliptic; which seems now
incontestible; and that in whatever manner we divide the forces
producing such motion, amongst the two superior planets and
Venus, or even amongst all of them. And I should suspect the further
diminution of obliquity, from this cause, will amount to about one
degree and an half.

But as Astronomy now stands, it seems doubtful whether this

change is owing to a deviation in the diurnal or annual motion of the
earth; which introduces a very disagreeable uncertainty in
conclusions drawn from some nice and useful observations.

The Lunar Astronomy has been brought so much nearer to

perfection, by the celebrated Mayer,[A38] than could have been
expected, that I shall mention no deficiency in it, but this. We do not
certainly know whether that apparent acceleration of the moon’s
motion, which Mayer with other great astronomers has admitted,
ought to be attributed to a real increase of velocity in the moon, or to
a diminution of the earth’s diurnal motion. If to the former, the
destruction of this beautiful and stupendous fabric, may from thence
be predicted with more certainty than from any other appearance in
Nature: But if to the latter, it may be prettily accounted for, by Dr.
Halley’s ingenious hypotheses concerning the change of variation in
the magnetical needle. The Doctor supposes the external crust or
shell of the earth to contain a nucleus detatched from it, and that the
impulse which first caused the diurnal motion, was given to the
external parts, and from thence in time communicated to the internal
nucleus, by means of an intervening fluid; but not so as perfectly to
equal the velocity of the superficial parts of the globe. Whence it will
follow, that the external shell of the earth is still communicating
motion to the internal parts, and losing motion itself proportionably.
The diurnal motion must therefore become slower and slower, yet
can never be retarded, by this cause, beyond certain limits; nor can
we conceive that any inconvenience will follow.

There is another physical question relating to the moon, which to

me appears extremely curious; it is this—Whence is it that the moon
always turns the same side to us? or, which is the same thing, How
comes the moon’s rotation on her axis, and her monthly revolution
about the earth, to be performed in the same time? None I believe
will suppose it to be accidental, nor will the astronomer be easily
satisfied with a final cause. Was it not originally brought about by a
natural cause which still subsists? Can the attraction of any foreign
body change a rotatory motion into a libratory one, and a libratory
motion into rest, in spaces so very free from all resistance as those
wherein the planets move? There are other defects in Astronomy
that are purely optical. Removing of those, depends on the further
improvement of telescopes, or rather on the more judicious use of
them, at times and places the most favourable.

In speaking of telescopic discoveries I purposely reserved those

made on Venus for this place, because they are still uncertain.
Burratini in Poland first discovered spots in Venus, then Cassini in
Italy; and afterwards Bianchini got a sight of them. But from all their
observations it is uncertain, whether Venus revolves on its axis once
in 23 hours, or once in 24 days. Perhaps it does neither. Nor is their
determination of the axis’ situation much more satisfactory. These
spots on Venus are not to be seen but through an excellent
telescope and a pure atmosphere.

In the year 1672 and 1676 Cassini saw a small star near Venus,
which he thought might be a satellite attending on her. It appeared to
have the same phase with Venus. In 1740 Mr. Short with a telescope
of 16 inches saw a small star at the distance of ten minutes from
Venus, which from its apparent shape he likewise thought might be a
satellite. And in 1761 Mr. Montaigne, in France, saw what he took to
be the satellite of Venus, on the 3d, 4th, 7th and 11th of May.[A39] But
whether Venus has a satellite or not, must still be left amongst the
doubtful things of Astronomy.

The spots on the sun, and those on the surfaces of several

planets, have been many years observed without our approaching
any nearer towards discovering their nature and cause. Dr. Wilson of
Glasgow, has lately succeeded in advancing one step at least, with
respect to those of the sun. He has proved from observation that
those spots are vast cavities, whose bottoms lie far below the
general surface of the sun, and whose sloping sides form the border
which we generally see surrounding them. If I should venture to add
one conjecture of my own, to those of this ingenious gentleman, I
would suppose that those prodigious cavities in the surface of the
sun, some of them capable of containing half our earth, are not
repeatedly formed by unaccountable explosions of a semifluid
substance, but permanent and solid, like the cavities within the
moon. And that it is the dark matter sometimes lodging in them, that
distinguishes them, and is only accidental.

The diurnal rotations of Saturn and Mercury are yet unknown; but
when further improvements shall be made in the art of using
telescopes, this circumstance will hardly escape the vigilance of
astronomers.

These are a few of the many things that are still left to the industry
of the ingenious in this science.

But if all higher and more sublime discoveries are not reserved for
us in a future and more perfect state; if Astronomy shall again break
those limits that now seem to confine it, and expatiate freely in the
superior celestial fields; what amazing discoveries may yet be made
amongst the fixed stars! That grand phænomenon the Milky-Way
seems to be the clue that will one day guide us. Millions of small
stars compose it, and many more bright ones lie in and near it, than
in other parts of heaven. Is not this a strong indication that this
astonishing system of worlds beyond worlds innumerable, is not
alike extended every way, but confined between two parallel planes,
of immeasureable, though not infinite extent? Or rather, is not the
Milky-Way a vein of a closer texture, running through this part of the
material creation? Great things are sometimes best explained by
small and small by great. Material substances, such as we daily
handle, have been thought composed of impenetrable particles in
actual contact: then again it has seemed necessary to suppose them
at a distance from each other, and kept in their relative situations by
attraction and repulsion. Many appearances require that those
distances should be very great in proportion to the size of the
particles. Hence some, with no small reason, have concluded that
matter consists of indivisible points endued with certain powers. Let
us compare these smaller portions of it with that great aggregate of
matter which is the object of Astronomy; Light will then appear to
have as free passage through a piece of glass, as the comets have
in the planetary regions; and several other new considerations will
arise.

If instead of descending we ascend the scale. If we consider that

infinite variety which obtains in those parts of nature with which we
are most intimate: how one order of most curiously organized
bodies, infinitely diversified in other respects, all agree in being fixed
to the earth, and receiving nourishment from thence: how another
order have spontaneous motion, and seek their food on different
parts of the earth, whilst by gravity they are confined to its surface,
but in other respects diversified like the former. How a third float in,
and below the surface of, a dense fluid, of equal weight with their
bodies, which would soon prove fatal to both the others: And a fourth
consisting of a vast variety too, have this property in common, that
by a peculiar mechanism of their bodies, they can soar to great
heights above the earth, and quickly transport themselves to distant
regions in a fluid so rare as to be scarcely sensible to us. But not to
pursue this boundless subject any further, I say, when we consider
this great variety so obvious on our globe, and ever connected by
some degree of uniformity, we shall find sufficient reason to
conclude, that the visible creation, consisting of revolving worlds and
central suns, even including all those that are beyond the reach of
human eye and telescope, is but an inconsiderable part of the whole.
Many other and very various orders of things unknown to, and
inconceivable by us, may, and probably do exist, in the unlimited
regions of space. And all yonder stars innumerable, with their
dependencies, may perhaps compose but the leaf of a flower in the
Creator’s garden, or a single pillar in the immense building of the
Divine Architect.

Here is ample provision made for the all-grasping mind of man!

If it shall please that Almighty Power who hath placed us in a

world, wherein we are only permitted “to look about us and to die;”
should it please him to indulge us with existence throughout that half
of eternity which still remains unspent; and to conduct us through the
several stages of his works; here is ample provision made for
employing every faculty of the human mind, even allowing its powers
to be constantly enlarged through an endless repetition of ages. Let
us not complain of the vanity of this world, that there is nothing in it
capable of satisfying us: happy in those wants, happy in those
restless desires, forever in succession to be gratified; happy in a
continual approach to the Deity.

I must confess that I am not one of those sanguine spirits who

seem to think, that when the withered hand of death hath drawn up
the curtain of eternity, almost all distance between the creature and
creator, between finite and infinite, will be annihilated. Every
enlargement of our faculties, every new happiness conferred upon
us, every step we advance towards the perfection of the divinity, will
very probably render us more and more sensible of his inexhaustible
stores of communicable bliss, and of his inaccessible perfections.

Were we even assured that we shall perish like the flowers of the
garden, how careful would a wise man be to preserve a good
conscience, during the short period of his existence; because by his
very constitution, which he cannot alter, this is his pride and glory,
and absolutely necessary to his present happiness; because this
would insure to him at the approach of death, the soothing reflection,
that he was going to restore, pure and uncorrupted, that drop of
divinity within him, to the original ocean from whence it was
separated. How much more anxiously careful ought we to be, if we
believe, as powerful arguments compel us to believe, that a conduct
in this life depending on our own choice, will stamp our characters
for ages yet to come. Who can endure the thought of darkening his
faculties by an unworthy application of them here on earth, and
degrading himself to some inferior rank of being, wherein he may
find both his power and inclination to obtain wisdom and exercise
virtue, exceedingly diminished? On the other hand, if that humble
admiration and gratitude, which sometimes rises in our minds when
we contemplate the power, wisdom and goodness of the Deity,
constitutes by far the most sublimely happy moments of our lives,
and probably will forever continue to do so, there cannot be a
stronger incitement to the exercise of virtue and a rational
employment of those talents we are entrusted with, than to consider
that by these means we shall in a few years be promoted to a more
exalted rank amongst the creatures of God, have our understandings
greatly enlarged, be enabled to follow truth in all her labyrinths with a
higher relish and more facility, and thus lay the foundation of an
eternal improvement in knowledge and happiness.

[TRANSLATED FROM THE LATIN ORIGINAL.]

To the illustrious and celebrated Society of Sciences, at Philadelphia,

Christian Mayer, Astronomer to the most serene Prince, the

Elector Palatine, wisheth prosperity.

I have concluded on due reflection, that the opportunity of writing,

afforded me by the eminent Mr. Ferdinando Farmer, ought the less to
be neglected, as by this means I might make some small return for
the honour which the illustrious Society conferred on me, when they
enrolled me in the list of their members.

I learnt with great pleasure, by a work printed in Philadelphia, and

transmitted to me about three years since, that even there
Astronomy is cultivated. That book, together with my own
astronomical papers, having been destroyed by an unfortunate fire
about two years ago, I have been induced to address something to
your illustrious Society, concerning some of my new discoveries in
the heavens.

I occupy a new Observatory at Manheim, accommodated to all

astronomical purposes: nor is it deficient in any of the most valuable
London-made instruments. Among these, the one which principally
excels, is a mural quadrant of brass, of eight feet radius, made by
that celebrated artist Bird, in the year 1776; fitted with an achromatic
telescope, and firmly affixed to a wall, in the meridian; which I use
daily, when the weather permits. I observed, nearly two years since,
that, among the fixed stars, many of them from the first to the sixth
degree of magnitude, other small attendant stars (or satellites) were
distinguishable: some of which, by reason of their steady and dim
light, resemble an order of planets, while others do not exceed the
smallness of the telescopic size. The circumstance which principally
excited my surprize, is, that I found none of those little attendant
stars, a very few only excepted, contained in any known catalogue;
although I could clearly discover that their use, for the purpose of
determining the proper motion of the fixed stars, is very obvious. For
where the difference of right ascension and declination, of a few
seconds at most, is found between the brighter fixed star and its
attendant, the lapse of time could scarcely give any other variation to
the fixed star, than to its satellite: from what cause soever that
variation may arise, whether from the precession of the equinoxes,
the variation in the obliquity of the ecliptic, the deviation of the
instrument, or from the aberration of light or the nutation, or from any
other cause whatever, which may depend on the mutable state of the
atmosphere or the latitude of places, the fact is evident, that every
change of situation, observed, between the fixed star and its
satellite, affords the most certain proof of its actual motion; whether
this be referred to the fixed star or its satellite.

I knew that Halley, the celebrated English astronomer, was the

first, who, in the year 1719, from an actual comparison of
Flamstead’s observations with those of Ptolemy, respecting some
few fixed stars, Syrius, Arcturus, and Aldebaran, discovered that
these stars moved, with a motion peculiar to themselves: But I knew
at the same time, that in Flamstead’s British Celestial History, so
long ago as the year 1690, the name of attendant (or satellite) was
assumed by Flamstead; when that great man had not even thought
of the proper motion of the fixed stars.

Other astronomers, since the time of Halley, so far as they

examined the proper motion of the fixed stars, have followed the
Halleian method, in a comparison of their own observations with
those of the ancients. This method requires long and laborious
calculations; and continues liable to many doubts, on account of its
uncertainty, as well by reason of the inaccurate nature of the
instruments, as of the observations of the ancients. But this is not the
case with my new method; from which, by means of the variation
observed between the satellite and its brighter fixed star, it
necessarily results, that the appropriate motion, either of the one star
or the other, is to be attributed to it. Hence it is, that, within two years
past, I have observed almost two hundred attendants of divers fixed
stars; moving nearly in the same parallel, immediately before or after
their respective fixed stars: and I have communicated many
observations of this kind to the celebrated English astronomer, Nevil
Maskelyne, who assures me they prove highly acceptable to him.

From amongst many of my observations, I transmit to your

illustrious society a few, by way of specimen; the corresponding
observations to which, I find in the Britannic Celestial History of
Flamstead; whence at the same time it is obvious, that observations
of this kind are eminently useful, for the purpose of discovering the
proper motion of such stars.

[The Table, containing the Observations here referred to, will be

found in the second volume of the Society’s Transactions, annexed
to Mr. Mayer’s communication: he then proceeds thus, referring to
that Table.]
 The first and second left-hand column of the following Table are
easily understood, from the title. The third column shews the
difference of right ascension, in mean time, between the star and its
satellite: The attendant, preceding the fixed star, is set down in the
first place, in the table; the attendant, following, is placed after its
fixed star. The fourth column notes the difference between the fixed
star and its attendant, as I have observed it at Manheim. The letter A
denotes, that the attendant is to the southward; letter B more
northward. The following columns contain the observations of the
same star, made by Flamstead.

It appears from the whole of the observations, that, of all the stars,
Arcturus is carried with the greatest celerity, by his own motion,
westward; since the same attendant, which in Flamstead’s time, on
the 14th of February, 1690, preceded Arcturus 5″ in time, now enters
the meridian 6″ after him. From the diminished difference also, of
declination between Arcturus and his attendant, it is evident, that
Arcturus progresses annually, by his own appropriate motion, nearly
2″ in a circular course, towards the south. From this it clearly results,
that the declination of the attendant, as observed by me, reduced to
the parallel of Greenwich, produces the same altitude of the
Greenwich pole, as that deduced from Flamstead’s observation; but
not so, the declination of Arcturus, observed at the present day, even
with the aberration and nutation corrected.

A similar investigation may be made, with respect to the other

fixed stars and their attendants; and, from the comparison already
begun with other fixed stars, it may be ascertained whether an
appropriate motion is to be attributed to the fixed star or its
attendant, or to both.

All my observations are made in a meridienal plane with a mural

quadrant, at Manheim, in his Serene Highness the Elector Palatine’s
new Observatory, erected for me: its longitude, East from
Greenwich, is nearly 34′ 6″, in time; its latitude, nearly 49° 27′ 50″.

It will give me very great pleasure, if I shall learn that these

observations of mine do not prove unacceptable to your illustrious
society: to whose goodness I most respectfully commend myself;
being ever the very devoted admirer and humble servant of your
illustrious and celebrated Society.

Christian Mayer,
Astronomer to his Serene Highness the Elector
Palatine and Duke of Bavaria.
Manheim, in Germany, April 24, 1778.

Letter from Mr. Rittenhouse to Professor Mayer of Manheim, in

Germany.

Philadelphia, August 20th. 1779.

Sir,

I am directed by the Philosophical Society to acknowledge your

letter of the 24th of April, 1778, and to return you their thanks for
communicating the Observations it contains, wishing you success in
further prosecuting so curious a Discovery. They likewise embrace
this occasion to replace the volume of their Transactions which
shared the fate of your more valuable papers.

This country having been the seat of war, our meetings have been
interrupted for two years past, and the publication of a second
volume thereby prevented; but as the Society is again revived, and
we have materials for the purpose, it will not be much longer
delayed.

You will please to accept, by this conveyance, a discourse

delivered some years ago before the Philosophical Society, which I
the rather present you with, because I, therein, gave my opinion that
the fixed stars afforded the most spacious field for the industry of
future Astronomers, and expressed my hopes that the noblest
mysteries would sometime be unfolded in those immensely distant
regions.[A40] Your excellent discovery has proved that passage to be
well founded, and I shall be happy in hearing farther from you on this
subject. It is unnecessary for me to suggest to you a comparison
between the many Observations you have made, in order to
determine whether the several changes observed will agree with any
imagined motion of our system. Those you have communicated
seem to favour such a supposition. I am, Sir, your most obedient and
humble servant.

David Rittenhouse, Vice-President.

Some Remarks of Mr. Rittenhouse, on the famous Problem of

Archimedes.[A41]
To the Printers of the Pennsylvania Gazette.

Philadelphia, Oct. 8th. 1767.

Gentlemen,

In your paper, No. 2017, an ingenious gentleman who signs

himself T. T. has favoured the public with remarks upon that
celebrated saying of the famous Syracusean geometrician: “Give me
a place to stand on, and I will move the Earth.” When these remarks
appeared, I was engaged in matters that would not allow me to pay
that attention to them, which they deserved. The justice, however,
due to Archimedes, and the respect I bear for that truly great man’s
memory, oblige me now (though late) to offer my sentiments upon
this interesting subject.

I readily agree with your sensible correspondent, as to the

conclusion he has drawn from the principles whereon he seems to
have founded his calculation, without being at the trouble to examine
his numbers. All that I propose is, to place this grand mechanical
problem in another light, wherein it will appear more feasible.

If a ball of earth, weighing 200 pounds, were left at liberty near the
surface of this globe, it would descend, by its own gravity, about 15
feet in one second of time, and about 20 miles in 80 seconds: And if,
as this gentleman supposes, there are about 2000 trillions of such
balls in the whole Earth,—the Earth, by their mutual attractions, in 80
seconds of time; will move toward the ball 1/1736,000,000,000,000
of an inch; and if the same force were to act continually for 105
years, it would move about one inch. Therefore, the force wherewith
a man acts, when he lifts a weight of 200 pounds, if applied without
intermission for the space of 105 years, is sufficient, without any
machinery, to move the Earth one inch in that time;[A42] and it must,
from the velocity received by that force alone, continue for ever after
to move at the rate of one inch in about 50 years.

A Mechanic.

Letter from Mr. Rittenhouse, to the Rev. Mr. Barton.

Norriton, July 20th. 1768.

Dear Brother,

In Hall and Sellers’ paper of last Thursday, we have some curious

remarks on an Essay for finding the Longitude, lately published in
the Pennsylvania Chronicle, and which I had before seen in the
London papers.

The first remark is no doubt just, and is perhaps the only one
made, which Mr. Wood’s essay gave just occasion for; how he could
commit such a mistake, is not easy to conceive. But the remarker
immediately charges him with another: for he tells us, that he (Mr.
Wood I suppose) says, that Mr. Harrison’s Machines were finished
about Christmas 1765; whereas his father (whether Wood’s father or
Harrison’s, is not clear,) made three, which the remarker saw in
motion about 18 years since. He then proceeds to assure us, (by the
spirit of prophecy I presume, at least I cannot conceive how he could
come by this piece of knowledge in a natural way,) that neither the
father or his son will ever be able to finish their machines.

A machine, says the remarker, to measure the mean motion, will

be far preferable to any other method yet proposed; and immediately
afterwards he confesses, he cannot conceive that a true meridian
can be found at sea, to several minutes. Now this “uncertain error”
must certainly affect any other machine for that purpose, as well as
Wood’s Sand-Glass, and exceed the error occasioned by turning the
glass somewhat quicker at one time than another. Besides, it would
not be easy to shew, why a machine to measure the Earth’s mean
motion on its axis, with respect to the Sun, will be preferable to one
that will measure the Earth’s true motion on its axis, with respect to
the fixed Stars.

I would not be thought to recommend Wood’s project. He himself

takes notice of two disadvantages attending it, viz. the wearing of the
orifice through which the sand passes, and the sand itself becoming
polished in time, so as to run more freely; to which if we add, that
perhaps it may be greatly affected by heat and cold, there seems to
be but little probability of its usefulness. Nor do I see how it can even
have the merit of being new: for the scheme itself, with all the
remarker’s objections that have any weight in them, must readily
occur to every person that thinks at all on the subject. I shall only
observe, that it appears doubtful to me, whether the remarker does
not equally deserve the censure he so freely bestows on Mr. Woods
—“His works are full of errors, and his writings of contradictions.”

* * * * * * * * * *

I remain your affectionate brother.

David Rittenhouse.
 Dr. Rittenhouse’s Chronometer.
The construction of this Time-piece is thus described by Mr. Henry Voight, chief
coiner in the Mint, heretofore an eminent clock and watch maker in
Philadelphia; an artist of great ingenuity, and well known for the excellence of
his workmanship. The description is given in Mr. Voight’s own words.

“The Clock which Dr. Rittenhouse made use of in his Observatory

was a construction of his own. It had but three wheels in its
movement, of high numbers. Only one pinion, without a wheel,
driven by the main wheel; whose axis goes through the front plate,
that carried the dial-work; and this wheel[A43] has a perpetual rochet.
[A44]
The seconds are eccentric, as in the common clocks.

“The pallet-wheel moves outside of the back-plate, and the pallets

are fastened to the rod of the pendulum, which has double
suspending springs fixed in a cross-bar, to which the rod is rivetted in
the middle. These springs are suspended as in common; but they
are not so long as in general, and have only one-and-an-half inch
free action, which keeps the pendulum very steady in its vibrations.

“On the rod of the pendulum there is fixed a glass tube, of the
thickness of a strong thermometer-tube, and is in the whole as long
as the rod: but it is bent, about one-third upwards; like a barometer,
but longer; and upon that end, on the top, the tube is as wide again
as it is below, for about one-and-an-half inch in length: the other two-
thirds of the length is filled with spirits of wine; and at this end, the
tube is hermetically sealed. The shorter part is filled with mercury, so
high as to fill the widest part of it, about half an inch, and is not
sealed but remains open. The bend is close together, and there is no
more space between the tubes than three-eighths of an inch.

“This tube is fastened to the pendulum-rod with common sewing-

thread, and rests upon two pins fixed in the bob of the pendulum, as
high up as possible. The bob has no slide, but is immoveable; and