Indian Geography

 India is located entirely in the northern hemisphere; specifically in the south

central part of the continent of Asia.
 The mainland of India extends between latitudes 8º4'N and 37º6'N Longitudes
and 68º7'E & 97 º 25' E. The southern boundary extends up to 6º45'N latitude
in the Bay of Bengal.
 With an area of 3.28 million square km, India is the 7th largest country of the
world.
 The six largest countries of the world in decreasing order are Russia, Canada,
USA, China, Brazil, and Australia.
 India accounts for about 2.4 percent of the total geographical area ofthe
world.
 India has a total land boundary of about 15,200 km.
 The coastline of India stretches along the Bay of Bengal in the east and the
Arabian Sea in the west.
 From Gujarat (westernmost) to Arunachal Pradesh (easternmost), there is
about 13º difference; hence, because of this difference, there is a time
difference of two hours between Gujarat and Arunachal Pradesh.
 The sun rises in Arunachal Pradesh about two hours earlier as compared to
Jaisalmer in Rajasthan.
 The maximum length of the mainland from north to south is about3214 km.
 The maximum length of the mainland from east to west is about 2933km.
 India's total length of coastline is 6,100km of its mainland and after including
Andaman and Nicobar, and Lakshadweep islands, it is about 7,516 km.
 India's territorial limit further extends towards the sea up to 12 nautical miles
(i.e. about 21.9 km) from the coast.

Indian StandardMeridian

82°30'E Meridian crossing through the Mirzapur city of Uttar Pradesh is taken as
India's Standard Meridian.

Indian Standard Time is ahead of Greenwich (0° or Prime Meridian) Mean Time
by 5 hours and 30 minutes.

Tropic of cancer (23°30'N) passes through Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh,

Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Tripura, and Mizoram.

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  The difference in latitudinal extent influences the duration of day and

night.

India and Neighbours

 India has total 28 States, 7 Union Territories and 1 National Capital Territory.
 India is bounded by young fold mountains (the Great Himalaya) in the North and
North-East.
 Throughout the history, India's connections with other parts of the world has been
heavily influenced by waterways and also the mountain passes.
 India shares its (international boundaries with Afghanistan and Pakistan in the
NorthWest, China, Tibet (China), Nepal, and Bhutan in the North and North-East and
Myanmar and Bangladesh in the East.
 Island countries Sri Lanka and Maldives are India's neighbours across the sea.
 Sri Lanka is an island nation located off the southern coast of India in South Asia and
it is bordered by the Indian Ocean. India and Sri Lanka are separated by a thin water
body called the Palk Strait.
 Maldives is a chain of islands located south-west of Sri Lanka and India in the Indian
Ocean.

India's Extreme Points:

• Northernmost- Indira Col
• Southernmost- Indira point (It is located in Great Nicobar Island. The point
was earlier known as Pygmalion Point and Parsons Point. This was renamed
after Indira Gandhi visited the point in 1984.)
• Easternmost- Kibithu in Arunachal Pradesh
• Westernmost-Ghuar Moti in Kutch district, Gujarat

Neighbouring Countries Sharing Boundaries With States of India

 Pakistan: Punjab, Gujarat, Rajasthan & J&K
 China: Ladakh, Uttarakhand, H.P, Sikkim & Arunachal Pradesh.
 Bangladesh: Assam, Mizoram, Tripura, Meghalaya & West Bengal.
 Nepal: Uttarakhand, U.P, Bihar, West Bengal & Sikkim.
 Bhutan: Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Assam, West Bengal.
 Afghanistan: Ladakh (POK region)
 Myanmar: Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur & Mizoram.

Biggest & Smallest in India

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 1) Biggest State: 1st-Rajasthan , 2nd- M.P 3rd-Maharashtra, 4th- U.P
2) Biggest Union Territory : Ladakh
3) Biggest Population in State :Uttar Pradesh
4) Biggest Population in U.T : Delhi
5) Smallest State: Goa
6) Smallest Population in State: Sikkim
7) Smallest Union Territory - Lakshadweep
8) Smallest Population in U.T – Lakshadweep

Population of India
With 1.21 billion people, India is second most populous country after China.
17.5% of the world population lives in India. Out of 1.21 billion people 62.31 crores are males and
58.74 crores are females.

Literacy rate of India

1) The decadal population growth rate of India is 17.7%. 31.2% population lives in
the cities and 68.8% population lives in rural areas.
2) The total literacy rate of India is 74.04% out of which male literacy rate is 80.9%
and female literacy rate is 64.60%.
Islands
 LAKSHADWEEP ISLAND(Arabian sea)
1) Extend from 8°N—12° N.
2) Consists of 30 small islands, only 10 of which are populated.
3) Population consists of Mappila from Kerala.
4) Some islands are called Attol because of Horseshoe shaped.
5) Minicoy islands lie to the extreme south, it is the largest island of
Lakshadweep.
6) Southern Most island - MINICOY
7) 8 Deg. Channel sparates Minicoy & Maldives.

 ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLAND

• Extend from 6°39 'N to 13°34 'N.

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 • Consist of two groups-Andaman Group and Nicobar Group
• They are submerged part of Arakanyoma (Myanmar). It is a mountain
range.
• 10 channel separates Andaman from Nicobar.
• Little Andaman is separate from Great Andaman by Duncan passage.
• Great Nicobar is the largest island in the group.
• Saddle peak is the highest peak of Andaman and Nicobar island
located in North Andaman.
• Area is prone to earthquakes and tsunamis.
• Port Blair, the capital of Andaman and Nicobar Islands is situated in
South Andaman,
• The barren Island which is India's only active volcano is situated in the
east of Middle Andaman.
• Tribes: Onges, Senthelese, Jarawas, Shompens.
Biggest State Biggest UT

Area- 1st: Rajasthan, 2nd:Madhya Smallest

Area- UT
Ladakh
Pradesh
3rd: Maharashtra, 4th: Uttar Pradesh

Population- Uttar Pradesh Population- New Delhi

Smallest State
Area- Goa Area-Lakshadweep

Population- Sikkim Population- Lakshadweep

THE HIMALAYS
• Himalayas means ‗ Abode of snow‘
• Young fold mountains of tertiary period.
• Folded over tethys sea due to intercontinental collision.(Drift Theory) 
Comprises mainly sedimentary rocks.

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PAMIRS(Roof of the world)- The connecting link between the Himalayas and the
high ranges of central Asia.(width-240-320km.)

HIMALAYAN RANGES
1. Trans Himalaya :
2. Greater Himalaya
3. MiddleHimalaya
4. ShivalikHimalaya/ PurvanchalRanges

Trans himalayas
Karakoram Mountains(Kashmir)
• Zanskar Mountains(Tibet)
• Ladakh Mountains(Ladakh)

• Kailash Mountains(Tibet)
Greater Himalaya (Himadri)

Nanga Parbat(Kashmir) – man eater mountain/Mountain of devil/murder

•
Bander punch Mountains(Uttarakhand)
•
Nanda Devi Mountains(Uttarakhand)
•
Annapurna Mountains(Nepal)
•
Dhaula Giri Mountains(Nepal)
•
Makalu Mountains(Tibet, China)
•
Mount Everest Mountains(Nepal & Tibet)
•
Kanchenjunga Mountains(Border of Sikkim & Tibet)- 5 treasures of snow
•
Important passes: Region
Karakoram Pass Ladkha
Burzil pass Jammu and Kashmir
Zozilan pass Ladkha
Shipkila pass Himachal Pradesh
Yang yap pass Arunachal Pradesh
Jaleplaa pass Sikkim

MiddleHimalaya (Lesser Himalaya)

• Peer Panjal Mountains(J&K)
• Dhauladhar Mountains(Himachal Pradesh)

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Important ranges of Lesser Himalayas Region
The PirPanjal Range Jammu and Kashmir (They are to the
south of Kashmir Vailey)

The Dhaula Dhar Range Himachal Pradesh

The Mussoorie Range and The Nag Uttarakhand
Tibba
Range

Mahabharat Lekh Nepal

• • Mussoorie Mountains(Uttarakhand)
• Mahabharata Mountains (Nepal)
• Nag Tibba Mountains(Uttarakhand)
 Nag Tibba : is the highest Peak in the lesser Himalaya Region of Uttarakhand
State.
 PirPanjal is known to be the Largest Range of the Lower Himalayas.
 Major Crop of the Lower Himalayas is ‗Potatoes‘.

Important hill Resorts; Shimla, Chhail, Mussorie Nainital, Almora, Darjeeling.

JWAHAR TUNNEL
• Also called Banihal tunnel.  2.85km.
• NH44
• Connects Jammu and Srinagar


Rohtang Tunnel
• Also called Atal tunnel
• Connects Manali (Solang valley) to LahaulSpiti (sissu)
• Length -- 9.02km
• Longest highway tunnel in the world, -- 3000m./10,000feet.[ 1m=3.2foot]

Tunnels
•Longest highway tunnel in the world, (High altitude of 3048 m or 10,000
feet) [1 m=3.2 foot]- Atal tunnel (9.02 km) (Connects Manali (Solang valley) to
Lahaul Spiti (sissu))
• Longest Road Tunnel in India- Syama Prasad Mukharjee Road Tunnel
(ChenaniNashari) (9.34 km)
• Longest Railway Tunnel in India- Pir Panjal Railway Tunnel, Jammu &
Kashmir (11.22 km)
• Second Longest Railway Tunnel in India- Sangaldan Railway Tunnel,
Jammu & Kashmir (8 km)

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 Shivalik Range (Outer Himalaya)
•Average height- 900-1200m.
• Youngest part of the mountains.
• Forms the foothills of Himalayas.
• Lies between Himalayas the plains.
Region Name of Shiwaliks
Jammu Region Jammu Hills

Dafla, Miri Abor and Mishmi Arunachal Pradesh

Hills
The Dhang Range, Dundwa Uttarakhand
Range

Mikir Assam
Churia Ghat Hills Nepal

Braille Manipur
Mizo Mizoram
Mount Everest
Regional name of Mount Everest Region

Sagarmatha (The Goddess of the Sky) Nepal

Chomlungma (Mother of the World) China (Tibet)

State Passes of Greater Himalayas

Jammu and 1 Burzil Pass

Kashmir 2. PirPanjal Pass

Himachal Pradesh 1. Bara Lacha La

2. Shipki La [The Hindustan- Tibet
Road connecting Shimla with Gartok in
Wastern Tibet]

Uttarakhand 1. Thaga La

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 2. Niti Pass

3. LipuLekh
Sikkim 1. Nathu La
2 Jlep La [important trade route
connecting Kalimpong (near Darjeeling)
with Lhasa in Tibet, passes through
3.Jelep La [4.386 m)

China- Myanmar (lies on McMohan Diphu Pass

Line)

Important Points to be Remembered

1) Patkoi Bum is the Eastern Range of Himalaya India.

2) NamchaBaruhais the Eastern Range of Himalaya Ranges. (world) 3)

K2/ Godwin Austinis the Highest Mountain of India.

4) Kangchenjungais the Highest Mountain in India.

Hills State

Baba Budan Hills Karnataka

Nilgiri Hills Tamil Nadu

Anamalai Hills Tamil Nadu

Anaimudi Hills Kerala

Agastyamalai Hills Tamil Nadu
Cardamom Hills Kerala
Varushnad Hills Tamil Nadu
Nagari Hills Andhra Pradesh

Nallamala Hills Andhra Pradesh

MahendraGiri Hills Odisha

Palni Hills Tamil Nadu

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 Important Hills in India

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 Valley
Valley- Land between 2 Mountains is called Valley.

Some Important Valleys

• Between Peer Panjal& Greater Himalaya- Kashmir Valley
• Between Dhauladhar& Greater Himalaya- Kullu Valley
• Between Nagtibba& Greater Himalaya- Kangra Valley
• Between Mahabharat & Greater Himalaya- Kathmandu Valley

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Highest peaks of India State wise
• The highest Peak of India->K2 (Godwin Austin) - 8611m. Kanchenjunga [if
Pok is not-
I].
• The highest Peak in Aravallis->Guru Shikhar
• The highest Peak in Satpura ->Dhupgarhi
• The highest Peak in Eastern Ghats ->Mahendragiri
• The highest peak in Western Ghats->Anaimudi
• The highest peak in Uttrakhand ->Nanda Devi
• The highest peak in West Bengal->Tiger Hill
• The highest peak in Jharkhand->Parasnath
• The highest peak in Gujrat ->Sarkala (Gir Hills)
• The highest peak in Maharashtra ->Kalsubai
• The highest peak in Nilgiri. (Tamilnadu ->Doda Betta
• The highest peak in Arunachal pardesh ->Kangto
• The highest peak in Andaman & Nicobar-SaddlePeak
• The highest peak in Nagaland - >Saramati peak
• The highest beak in Mizoram ->Blue Mountains
• The highest peak in SK->Kanchenjunga

Plateau
A plateau is a raised flat area of land. It is a flat-topped table land that rises above
the surrounding terrain.
- The most common example of plateaus includes the East African Plateau in
Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda, as well as Australia's Western Plateau.
- The Tibet Plateau is the world's highest plateau, rising 4,000 to 6,000 meters
above the mean sea level.
- The various process that creates the plateaus are volcanism (Deccan
Plateau), crustal shortening (Tibetian Plateau), and thermal expansion (Ethiopian
Highlands).
-A plateau is formed as a result of the surrounding land being eroded by rivers,
floods, and glaciers.
-A plateau can also develop over time as a result of numerous lava flows.

Plateau in India

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 The Central Highland
• Malwa Plateau

• Bundelkhand
• Chotanagpur Plateau
• MarwarPlateau
• Baster Plateau
• Meghalaya Plateau
The Deccan Plateau
Deccan Trap
Western Ghats
Eastern Ghats
North-East Extension

Central Highland
1) Also called the Madhya Bharat Pathaar or Madhya Bharat Plateau.
2) It is to the east of the Marwar or Mewar Upland.
3) Most of the plateau comprises the basin of the Chambal river which flows in a rift
valley.
4) The Kali Sindh, flowing from Rana Pratap Sagar, The Banas flowing through
Mewar plateau, and The Parwan and the Parbati flowing from Madhya Pradesh are
its main tributaries.
5) It is a rolling plateau with rounded hills composed of sandstone. Thick forests grow
here.
6) To the north are the ravines or badlands of the Chambal river [They are typical to
Chambal river basin].
7) The part of Peninsular plateau lying to the north of the Narmada river covering with a
measured area of Malwa plateau is known as the Central Highlands.
8) The Vindhyan range is bounded by the Central Highlands on the south and the
Aravali on the Northwest.
9) The Central Highlands are wider in the West but narrower in the East. 10) The
general elevation of the Central Highlands ranges between 700-1,000 m above the
mean sea level and it slopes towards the north and northeastern directions.

Marwar Plateau or Mewar Plateau

- It is the plateau of eastern Rajasthan. [Marwar plain is to the west of Aravalis
whereas Marwar plateau is to the east].

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- The average elevation is 250-500 m above sea level and it slopes down
eastwards.
- It is made up of sandstone, shales, and limestones of the Vindhayan period.
- The Banas River, along with its tributaries [Berach river, Khari rivers] originate
in the Aravali Range and flow towards northwest into the Chambal river. The
erosional activity of these rives makes the plateau top appear like a rolling plain.
Rolling Plain: ‘Rolling plains’ are not completely flat: there are slight rises and falls in
the landform. Ex: Prairies of USA

Bundelkhand Upland
1) Yamuna river to the north, Madhya Bharat Pathar to the west, Vindhyan
Scarplands to the east and south-east, and Malwa Plateau to the south.
2) It is the old dissected (divided by a number of deep valleys) upland of the
‘Bundelkhand gneiss’ comprising of granite and gneiss.
3) Spreads over five districts of Uttar Pradesh and four districts of Madhya
Pradesh.
4) An average elevation of 300-600 m above sea level, this area slopes down
from the Vindhyan Scarp toward the Yamuna River.
5) The area is marked by a chain of hillocks (small hill) made of granite and
sandstone.
6) The erosional work of the rivers flowing here have converted it into an
undulating (wave-like surface) area and rendered it unfit for cultivation. 7) The
region is characterized by senile (characteristic of or caused by old age) topography.
8) Streams like Betwa, Dhasan, and Ken flow through the plateau.

Malwa Plateau
1) The Malwa Plateau roughly forms a triangle based on the Vindhyan Hills,
bounded by the Aravali Range in the west and Madhya Bharat Pathar to the north
and Bundelkhand to the east.
Lies in Madhya Pradesh b/w Aravali & Vindhyas
Extension of it is Bundelkhand, Bhaghelkhand& Chota Nagpur Plateau.
2) This plateau has 2 systems of drainage; one towards the Arabian sea (The
Narmada, the Tapi and the Mahi), and the other towards the Bay of Bengal
(Chambal and Betwa, joining the Yamuna).
3) In the north it is drained by the Chambal and many of its right bank tributaries
like the Kali, the Sindh and the Parbati. It also includes the upper courses of the
Sindh, the Ken and the Betwa.
4) It is composed of extensive lava flow and is covered with black soils. 5) The
general slope is towards the north [decreases from 600 m in the south to less than
500 m in the north]
6) This is a rolling plateau dissected by rivers. In the north, the plateau is marked by
the Chambal ravines.

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Baghelkhand
1) North of the Maikal Range is the Baghelkhand.
2) Made of limestones and sandstones on the west and granite in the east.
3) It is bounded by the Son river on the north.
4) The central part of the plateau acts as a water divide between the Son drainage
system in the north and the Mahanadi river system in the south.
5) The region is uneven with general elevation varying from 150 m to 1,200 m.
6) The Bhanrer and Kaimur are located close to the trough-axis. 7) The general horizontality
of the strata shows that this area has not undergone any major disturbance.

Chotanagpur Plateau
1) Chotanagpur plateau represents the north-eastern projection of the Indian
Peninsula.
2) Mostly in Jharkhand, northern part of Chhatisgarh and Purulia district of West
Bengal.
3) The Son river flows in the north-west of the plateau and joins the Ganga.
4) The average elevation of the plateau is 700 m above sea level.
5) This plateau is composed mainly of Gondwana rocks.
6) The plateau is drained by numerous rivers and streams in different directions and
presents a radial drainage pattern.
7) Rivers like the Damodar, the Subarnrekaha, the North Koel, the South Koel and
the Barkar have developed extensive drainage basins.
8)The Damodar river flows through the middle of this region in a rift valley from west
to east. Here are found the Gondwana coal fields which provide bulk of coal in India.
9) North of the Damodar river is the Hazaribagh plateau with an average
elevation of 600 m above mean sea level. This plateau has isolated hills. It looks like
a peneplain due to large scale erosion.
10) The Ranchi Plateau to the south of the Damodar Valley rises to about 600 m
above mean sea level. Most of the surface is rolling where the city of Ranchi (661
m) is located.
11) At places it is interruped by monadnocks (an isolated hill or ridge of erosion-
resistant rock rising above a peneplain. Ex: Ayers Rock in Australia) and conical
hills.
12) The Rajmahal Hills (Jharkhand) forming the north eastern edge of the
Chotanagpur Plateau are mostly made of basalt & are covered by lava flows
{Basaltic Lava}.
13) They run in north-south direction and rise to average elevation of 400 m
(highest mount is 567 m).
Highest Peak in Chhotanagpur Plateau- Parasnath (1366 m, Jharkhand) also
called Sri SammedSikharji

Meghalaya Plateau

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 1) The peninsular plateau extends further east beyond the Rajmahal hills to from
Meghalaya or the Shillong plateau.
2) Garo Raajmahal Gap (Malda Gap)- Separates this plateau from the main
block of Indian Peninsula Plateau.
3) This gap was formed by down-faulting (normal fault: a block of earth slides
downwards). It was later filled by sediments deposited by the Ganga and
Brahmaputra.
a) Down warping along Rajmahal–Garo hills = ‘Malda gap’
b) Ganga-Brahmaputra flow through the Malda gap.
4) The plateau is formed by Archaean quartzites, shales, and schists. 5) The
plateau slopes down to Brahmaputra valley in the north and the Surma and
Meghna valleys in the south.
Its western boundary more or less coincides with the Bangladesh border.
6) The western, central, and eastern parts of the plateau are known as the Garo Hills
(900 m), the Khasi-Jaintia Hills (1,500 m), and the Mikir Hills (700 m). 7) Shillong
(1,961 m) is the highest point of the plateau.

Bastar Plateau
1) Bastar is a district in the southernmost region in the state of Chhattisgarh.
2) It is a forested mineral rich region.
Southern part of Chhattisgarh between the Mahanadi and Godavari rivers. 4)
Bisected into two parts by the Indravati River.
5) Tribal dominated region.
6) Under the strong grip of Naxalism.

Deccan Plateau
• Largest plateau in India: Lies to the south of the Narmada River, Shaped as
inverted triangle.
• Surrounded by Satpura hills, Mahadeo hills, Maikala range, Amarkantak hills and
Rajmahal hills in the north; Western Ghats in the west and the Eastern Ghats in the
east
• Volcanic in origin, made up of horizontal layers of solidified lava forming trap
structure with step like appearance
• Sedimentary layers are also found in between the layers of solidified lava, making it
inter trapping in structure
• Average elevation of Western Ghats is 900-1600 metres; compared to 600 metres
of Eastern Ghats.
• Slopes towards east and south and descends abruptly towards west making
sahayadri ranges.
• The plateau is suitable for the cultivation of cotton; home to rich mineral
resources & a source to generate hydroelectric power.

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Peninsular Plateau - also called Deccan Plateau
FEATURES:
1) Roughly triangular in shape.

2) Area-16 lakh sq. km.

3) Average height - 600 to 900km(above the sea level)

4) Most of the peninsular rivers flow west to east indicating it`s the general slope.
5) Exception – NMSTe( Narmada, Mahi, Sabarmati, Tapti) flows from east to west in
a rift.
6) It is a highly stable block composed mostly of the Archaean gneisses and schists
Rocks.
7) Aggregation of several smaller plateaus.

 Western Ghats
1. Western Ghats
2. Folded parts of Deccan Plateau
3. Also known as Shayadries
4. More Continuous & higher than Eastern Ghats
5. Separated from coast by narrow coastal plains
6. Rich watersheds give birth to large peninsular rivers like Godavari
and Krishna
7. Extends from Tapi in North to Kanyakumari in south
8. Gujarat- Kachchh & Kathiawar Coast
9. Maharashtra- Konkan Coast
10. Karnataka- Kanara Coast & Goan Coast
11. Kerela- Malabar Coast
12. Malabar Coast has Kayals (Backwaters). Every year Nehru
Trophy
Vallamkali (Boat Race) is held in Punnamada Kayal in Kerela

 EASTERN GHATS
• Eastern Ghats form a discontinuous line of hills Parallel to east coast.
• General altitude is 600 m.
• Width is 190 km in north and 75 km is south.
• Its width decreases from north to south because Peninsular Plateau is
triangular in shape.
• Mahendragiri is the highest peak is in Odisha.

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 • It is not a source of any big river.
• It receives less rainfall.
• Hills from north to south-Nallamala- Erralmala- Velikonda- Palkonda- Javadi-
Shevaroy.
• It is known by different names at different places-  Northern circars north of
Godavari.
• Palkonda and Nallamala between Godavari and Palar river.
• Shevaroy and Javadi as Tamil Nadu hills.
• Eastern Coastal Plain is divided into 2 parts- Northern Circars (Andhra)
(b/n Mahanadi & Krishna River) and Coromandal Coast (b/n Krishna & Kaveri)
(Tamilnadu).
Features of Plateau
- Generally, plateaus have an abundance of mineral resources.

- As a result, many of the world's mining sites are situated on plateaus. Gold and
diamond mining are well-known on the African plateau.
- The Chota Nagpur plateau in India contains massive amounts of iron, coal, and
Manganese.
- The Hundru falls on the river Subarnarekha on the Chota Nagpur plateau and the
Jog falls in Karnataka are two instances of such waterfalls in India.
- The lava plateaus have a lot of black soil, which is productive and suitable for
farming. Many plateaus feature beautiful scenery and are popular with visitors.
- The black soil region known as Deccan Trap is one of the distinctive characteristics
of the Peninsular plateau.
- The rocks are igneous because they are of volcanic origin. Actually, these boulders
have depleted through time and are the cause of black soil development.
-The Aravalli Hills are located on the Peninsular Plateau's western and northern
edges.
COASTAL PLAINS
The narrow coastal strip between the edges of the Peninsular plateau and the
coastline of India running for a distance of six thousand kilometres from the Rann of
Kutch in the west to the Ganga-Brahmaputra delta in the east is called Coastal
Plains.
Indian Coastal Plains are of two types i.e.
1) West Coastal Plains

2) East Coastal Plains

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India's Coastline touches-
9 States- Gujarat, Maharshtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerela, Tamil Nadu, Andhara
Pradesh, Odisha and West Bengal
2 Union Territories- Daman & Diu and Puducherry.
 WEST COAST PLAINS
• Extend from Gujarat to Kerala.
• Known by different names at different states-1. Konkan in Gujarat and Goa
2. Kanara in Karnataka.
3. Malabar in Kerala.
• Plains are wider in south and narrower in the north.
• Garsopa falls (Jog falls) on Karnataka coast are highest in India.
• In Kerala, Coast has salt water lakes called lagoons.
• Ashtamudi and Vembanad are important lakes located here.

 EAST COAST PLAINS

• Coastal strip along with Bay of Bengal is broader as compared to the Western
coast.
• Known as Utkal plains in Odisha.
• Chilkalagoonis located in Odisha.
• Kolleru lake lies in Andhra Pradesh.
• Pulicatlake is located here.
• CoromundalCoastis in Tamil Nadu in south.
• It is formed by alluvium brought by rivers.
• Rivers of this coastal plains are longer and less erosine.
• Rivers form deltas.
• This coast is prone to cyclone and floods.
• Ports are lesser than that of Fastern Coast Plains.
SOILS
Ancient Classification :
• Urvara [fertile]
• Usara [sterile]
Rivers bring minerals with them. And these minerals make alluvial soil fertile.
N- Nitrogen helps plant foliage to grow strong.
P-Phosphorous helps roots and flowers grow and develop.
K- Potassium (Potash) is important for overall plant health.

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CLASSIFICATION
1. Alluvial soil [43%]

2. Red soil [18.5%]

3. Black / regur soil [15%]

4. Arid / desert soil

5. Laterite soil

6. Saline soil

7. Peaty /marshy soil

8. Forest soil

9. Sub-mountain soil

10.Snowfields

ALLUVIAL SOIL
• Mostly available soil in India (about 43%)  Widespread in northern plains
and river valleys.
• In peninsular-India, they are mostly found in deltas.
• Area of Alluvial: Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, U.P, Bihar, Chandigarh, Rajasthan,
M.P, West Bengal, Meghalaya, Assam, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka,
Kerala, Goa, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha.
• Highly fertile.
• Indus-Ganga-Brahmaputra plain, Narmada-Tapi plain etc are examples.
• They are depositional soil transported and deposited by rivers, streamsetc. 
Crops: Wheat, rice, maize, sugarcane, pulses, oilseed etc are cultivated .
• New alluvium is termed as Khadar and old alluvium is termed as bhangar.
• Colour: Light Grey to Ash Grey.
• Texture: Sandy to silty loam or clay.
• Rich in: potash
• Poor in: phosphorous.
• Bhabar, bhangar, khadar and teraiaregeologicaldivisions of alluvial soils.
• Bhabar region lies along the foot of the Siwaliks from the Indus to the Tista.
But Terai belt lies to the south of Bhabhar and run parallel to it.Bhabhar
comprises of pebblestudded rocks in the shape of porous beds. But Terai is
composed of comparatively finer alluvium and is covered by forest.
• Bhabar: It is found in the foothills of Shivaliks. It is 8 to 16 kms wide.

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 RED SOIL
• Seen mainly in low rainfall area.
• Also known as Omnibus group.
• Porous, friable structure.
• Area: Chhattisgarh, Tripura, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Nagaland,
Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerela.
• Absence of kankar (impure calcium carbonate).
• Deficient in: lime, phosphate, manganese, nitrogen, humus andpotash.
• Colour: Red because of Ferric oxide. The lower layer is reddish yellow or
yellow.
• Texture: Sandy to clay and loamy.
• Crops:Wheat, cotton, pulses, tobacco, oilseeds, potato etc are cultivated.

BLACK SOIL/REGUR SOIL

• Most of the Deccan is occupied by Black soil.
• Area of Black Cotton Soil: M.P, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Telangana,
U.P, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh.
• Mature soil.
• High water retaining capacity.
• Swells and will become sticky when wet and shrink when dried.
• Self-ploughing is a characteristic of the black soil as it developswide cracks
when dried.
• Rich in: Iron, lime, calcium, potassium, aluminium and magnesium.
• Deficient in: Nitrogen, Phosphorous and organic matter. Colour: Deep black
to light black.
• Texture: Clayey.
• Crops: Cotton, Wheat, Jowar, Linseed, Castor, Sunflower, Virginia, Tobacco &
Millets.

LATERITE SOIL
• Name from Latin word 'Later' which means Brick.
• Become so soft when wet and so hard when dried.
• In the areas of high temperature and high rainfall.
• Area: Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Goa, Odisha, Telangana, West
Bengal.
• Lime and silica will be leached away from the soil.
• Organic matters of the soil will be removed fast by the bacteria as it is high
temperature and humus will be taken quickly by the trees and other plants.
Thus, humus content is low.
• Rich in: Iron and Aluminium
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 • Deficient in: Nitrogen, Potash, Potassium, Lime, Humus  Colour: Red
colour due to iron & Aluminium.
• Crops:Rice, Ragi, Sugarcane and Cashew nuts are cultivated mainly.
SALINE SOIL
 Salinity becomes a problem when enough salts accumulate in the root zone to
negatively affect plant growth.

DESERT / ARID SOIL

• Seen under Arid and Semi-Arid conditions.  Area of Arid Soil : Rajasthan,
Gujarat  Deposited mainly by wind activities.
• High salt content.
• Lack of moisture and Humus.
• Kankar or Impure Calcium carbonate content is high whichrestricts the
infiltration of water.
• Nitrogen is insufficient and Phosphate is normal.
• Texture: Sandy
• Colour: Red to Brown.
• Crops:Barley, Cotton, Wheat, Millets, Maize & Pulses.

PEATY / MARSHY SOIL

• Areas of heavy rainfall and high humidity.
• A large quantity of dead organic matter/humus which makes the soil alkaline.
• Area: Kerala, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Bihar, Uttaranchal.
• Heavy soil with black colour.
• Crops:This soil is best for crops like Rice, Oilseeds,Citrus, Tobacco,
Sugarcane etc.

FOREST SOIL
• Regions of high rainfall.
• Humus content is less and thus the soil is acidic.

MOUNTAIN SOIL
• In the mountain regions of the country.
• Immature soil with low humus and acidic.

COLOUR MEANS (IMP)

 Black -Iron, Aluminium, Humus
 Grey/ Blue Grey- Waterlogged Dry and. Wet
 Greenish- Sulphur

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  Red- Iron, Magnesium, Phosphorous

FOREST
Sir HG Champion categorised India’s forested types of for the first time in
1936 preliminary survey of forest Type of India and Burma
Classification of Vegetation
• Tropical Evergreen and 'Semi Evergreen forests.
• Tropical Deciduous forests.
• Tropical Thorn forests.
• Montane forests.
• Littoral and Swamp forests
• Mangroves
Tropical Evergreen Forests
• Tropical evergreen forests are found in the regions that receive annual
precipitation of over 200 cm and mean annual temperature above 22°C.
• Tropical evergreen forests are found in the western slope of the Western
Ghats, hills of the north eastern region, and the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands.
• In tropical evergreen forests, trees reach great heights, i.e.. up to 60 m or
even above. And, largely these trees do not have fixed time to shed their
leaves.
• Major examples of evergreen forests are rosewood, Mahogany, Aini,
ebony, etc.
(A) Plant Species in Tropical Evergreen Forests
• 1) Ebony
• 2) Mahogany
• 3) Rosewood
• 4) Rubber Chinchona

(B) Animal Species in Tropical Evergreen Forests
• 1) Elephants
• 2) Monkeys
• 3) Lemur
• 4) Deer
• 5) One-Horned Rhino

• 6) Birds
• 7) Bats

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 • 8) Sloth
• 9) Scorpions
• 10) Snails
Semi-evergreen Forests
• Semi-evergreen forests are a mixture of evergreen and moist deciduous
trees, found in the regions that receive less precipitation than the evergreen
forests.
• Main species of semi evergreen white forests are cedar, hillock, and kail.
Tropical Deciduous Forests
• Tropical Deciduous Forests are the most widespread forests of India and are
popularly as Monsoon Forests.
• Tropical deciduous forests are found in the regions, which receive rainfall
between 70 and 200cm.
• Tropical deciduous forests are further categorized as the Moist deciduous
forests and Dry deciduous forest.
• The moist deciduous forests are found in the regions, which record rainfall
between 100 and 200 cm.
• The moist deciduous forests are found along the foothills of the Himalayas,
eastern slopes of the Western Ghats, and Odisha.
• Teak, sal, shisham, hurra, mahua, amla, semul, kusum, and sandalwood etc.
are the main species of the moist deciduous forests.
• Dry deciduous forests are found in the regions that receive precipitation
between 70 and 100cm.
• As the dry season begins, the trees of deciduous forests shed their leaves
completely.
• Tendu, palas, amaltas, bel, khair, axlewood, etc. are the major trees of dry
deciduous forests.
Tropical Thorn Forests
• Tropical thorn forests are found in the areas, which receive rainfall less than
50 cm.
• Tropical thorn forests are found in the areas of south west Punjab Haryana,
Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh.
• Babool, ber, and wild date: palm, khair, neem, khejri, palas, etc. are the
important species of tropical thorn forests.
Mountain Forests

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 • Mountain forests in India are normally classified into two types,i.e. the
northern mountain forests and the southern mountain forests.
• Deciduous forests are found in the foothills of the Himalayas.
• Temperate forests found between an altitude of 1,000 and 2,000m.
• In the higher hill ranges of northeastern India, for example, hilly areas of West
Bengal and Uttaranchal, evergreen broad leaf trees such as oak and chestnut
are predominant.
• Chir deodar pine, etc. are the important species of temperate forests.
• Between 3,000 and 4,000m. Silver firs, junipers, pines, birch, and
rhododendrons, etc. are found.
• However, at higher altitude, the tundra vegetation is found and major
speciesare mosses and lichens.
• At a higher altitude, the southern mountain forests largely belong to the
temperate type, which are locally known as 'Sholas in the Nilgiris, Anaimalai,
and Palani hills.
• Some of the trees of economic significance include magnolia, laurel,
cinchona, and wattle.
Littoral and Swamp Forests
• India is rich in Littoral and Swamp Forests.
• Chilika Lake (in Odisha) and Keoladeo National Park (in Bharatpur,
Rajasthan) are protected as water-fowl habitats under the Convention of
Wetlands of International Importance (i.e. Ramsar Convention).
• Mainly found in Deccan Plateau.
• Also found in sealine cost of Gujarat & Rajasthan, Gulf of Kutch, Eastern
coast Deltas and Lakes & Rivers of Kashmir & Ladakh.
• 3 Types- a) Beach Forests b)Tidal (Mangrove) c) Fresh water Swamp
Forests.
• Twiners and climbers are significant features of littoral forests.
Mangrove Forests
• Grows along the coasts
• Consist of several salt - Tolerant species
• Sundarbans of West Bengal (largest Ramsar Site of India)
• Andaman and Nicobar island
• Mahanadi, Godavari and Krishna deltas
• Shrub/tree that grows in coastal saline/brackish water
• Mangrove grows along the coasts in the salt marshes, tidal creeks, mud flats,
and estuaries; and, it has a number of salt-tolerant species of plants.
• In India, the mangrove forests spread over 6,740 sq. km, which is 7% of the
world's mangrove forests.

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 • Mangroves are largely found in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the
Sunderbans of West Bengal.

FOREST COVER IN INDIA

• Report - based on the aerial photograph and satellite imageries
• Total forest tree -24.56%
• According to the ‘Indian state of the forest report 2019’
• Area wise - MP has the largest forest cover in the country
• 2nd Arunachal Pradesh
• Percentage-wise – Mizoram(85.41%), Arunachal Pradesh (79.63%)
• Top 2 states showing increase in forest cover -Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh
• Forest conservation
• Forest policy, 1988
• Bringing 33% of the geographical area under forest cover
CLIMATE
The factors affecting the climate
Climate of India is affected by the factors of latitude, distance from the seas,
monsoon wind, relief features and jet stream.

Latitude
1) Latitudinally, India lies between 8°4'N and 37°6'N latitudes. The Tropic of
cancer divides the country into two equal halves.
2) The area located to the south of Tropic of cancer experiences high
temperature and no severe cold season throughout the year whereas, the areas to
the north of this parallel enjoys subtropical climate.
3) Here, summer temperature may rise above 40°C and it is close to freezing
point during Winter.

Altitude
• When the altitude increases, the temperatures decreases. Temperature decreases
at the rate of 6.50C for every 1000 metres of ascent. It is called normal lapse rate.
• Hence, places in the mountains are cooler than the places on the plains.
• That is why the places located at higher altitudes even in south India have cool
climate.
• Ooty and several other hill stations of south India and of the Himalayan ranges like
Mussourie, Shimla etc., are much cooler than the places located on the Great
Plains.

Distance from the Sea

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1) Distance from the sea does not cause only temperature and pressure
variations but also affects the amount of rainfall.
2) A large area of India, especially the peninsular region, is not very far from the
sea and this entire area has a clear maritime influence on climate.
3) This part of the country does not have a very clearly marked winter and the
temperature is equable almost throughout the year.
4) Areas of central and north India experience much seasonal variation in
temperature due to the absence of seas.
5) Here, summers are hot and winters are cold. The annual temperature at Kochi
does not exceed 30°C as its location is on the coast while it is as high as 40°C at
Delhi, since it is located in the interior part.
6) Air near the coast has more moisture and greater potential to produce
precipitation. 7) Due to this fact, the amount of rainfall at Kolkata located near the
coast is 119 cm and it decreases to just 24 cm at Bikaner which is located in the
interior part.

Monsoon Wind
a) The most dominant factor which affects the climate of India is the monsoon winds.
b) These are seasonal reversal winds and India remains in the influence of these
winds for a considerable part of a year.
c) Though, the sun's rays are vertical over the central part of India during the mid-
June, the summer season ends in India by the end of May.
d) It is because the onset of southwest monsoon brings down the temperature of the
entire India and causes moderate to heavy rainfall in many parts of the country.
e) Similarly, the climate of southeast India is also influenced by northeast monsoon.
Relief
a) Relief of India has a great bearing on major elements of climate such as
temperature, atmospheric pressure, direction of winds and the amount of rainfall.
b) The Himalayas acts as a barrier to the freezing cold wind blows from central Asia
(e.g. Bulunkul village in Tajikistan EXTREME TEMP. = -63 degree C) and keep
the Indian subcontinent warm.
c) As such the north India experiences tropical climate even during winter.
d) During southwest monsoon, areas on the western slope of the Western Ghats
receive heavy rainfall.
e) On the contrary, vast areas of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra
Pradesh and Tamil nadu lie in rain shadow or leeward side of the Western Ghats
receive very little rainfall.
f) During this season, Mangalore, located on the coast gets the rainfall of about
280 cm. whereas the Bengaluru located on the leeward side receives only about
50 cm rainfall.

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Jet Streams
1) Jet streams are the fast moving winds blowing in a narrow zone in the upper
atmosphere.
2) According to the Jet stream theory, the onset of southwest monsoon is driven
by the shift of the sub tropical westerly jet from the plains of India towards the
Tibetan Nateau. 3) The easterly jet streams cause tropical depressions both during
southwest monsoon and retreating monsoon.

Monsoons
1) It blows from the south-west to north-east during summer and from the north-
east to south-west during winter
2) Monsoon wind originates due to the seasonal migration of planetary winds and
pressure belts following the position of the sun.
3) During summer solstice, the sun's rays fall vertically over the Tropic of cancer.
Therefore, all the pressure and wind belts of the globe shift northwards.
4) At this time, Inter -Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) also moves northward,
and a major part of Indian landmass comes under the influence of southeast trade
winds. 5) While crossing equator this wind gets deflected and takes the direction of
southwest and becomes southwest monsoon.
6) During the winter season, the pressure and wind belts shift southward, thereby
establishing the north-east monsoon (trade winds) over this region. Such systematic
change in the direction of planetary winds is known as monsoon.

The meteorologists recognize the four distinct seasons in India.

1. Winter or cold weather season (January-February).
2. Pre-monsoon, summer or hot weather season (March-May).
3. Southwest monsoon or rainy season (June - September).
4. Northeast monsoon season (October-December)

Winter or cold weather season

1- During this period, the vertical rays of the sun falls over tropic of capricorn
which is far away from India.
2- Hence, India receives the slanting sun's rays which results in low
temperature. 3- The cold weather season is characterized by clear skies, fine
weather, light northerly winds, low humidity and large day time variations of
temperature.
4- During this season a high pressure develops over north India and a north-westerly
wind blows down the Indus and Ganges valleys.
5- In south India, the general direction of wind is from east to west.

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6- The mean temperature increases from north to south, the decrease being sharp
as one moves northwards in the north-western part of the country.
7-The mean daily minimum temperatures range from 22°C in the extreme south, to
10°C in the northern plains and 6°C in Punjab.
8-The rain during this season generally occurs over the Western Himalayas, Tamil
nadu and Kerala.
9- Western disturbances and associated trough in westerlies are main rain bearing
system in northern part of the country.
10- The jet stream plays a dominant role in bringing these disturbances to India.
11- These disturbances cause rainfall in Punjab, Haryana and Himachal Pradesh,
and snowfall in the hills of Jammu and Kashmir. This rainfall is very useful for the
cultivation of winter wheat.

Pre Monsoon or summer or hot weather season

1) During this season, the vertical rays of the sun falls over the peninsular India.
Hence, there is a steady increase in temperature from south to north.
2) During this season, temperature starts increasing all over the country and by
April, the interior parts of south India record mean daily temperatures of 30°C-35°C.
3) Many stations in Gujarat, North Maharashtra, Rajasthan and North Madhya
Pradesh exhibit high day-time and low night-time temperatures during this season
4) Because of the atmospheric pressure conditions, the winds blow from
southwest to northeast direction in Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal.
5) They bring pre monsoon showers to the west coast during the month of May.
There are few thunder showers called "Mango Showers" which helps in quick
ripening of mangoes along the coast of Kerala and Karnataka.

Southwest monsoon or Rainy Season

1) The southwest monsoon takes place normally over the southern tip of the
country. 2) The monsoon is influenced by global phenomenon like EINino. Prior to
the onset of the southwest monsoon, the temperature in north India reaches upto
46°C.
3) It lowers the temperature of India to a large extent. The monsoon wind strikes
against the southern tip of Indian land mass and gets divided into two branches.
4) One branch starts from Arabian sea and the other from Bay of Bengal. The
Arabian sea branch of southwest monsoon gives heavy rainfall to the west coast of
India as it is located in the windward side of the Western Ghats.
5) The other part which advances towards north is obstructed by Himalayan
Mountains and results in heavy rainfall in north.
6) As Aravalli Mountain is located parallel to the wind direction, Rajasthan &
western part donot get much rainfall from this branch.

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7) The wind from Bay of Bengal branch moves towards northeast India and
Myanmar. This wind is trapped by a chain of mountains namely Garo, Khasi and
Jaintia are mainly responsible for the heaviest rainfall caused at Mawsynram located
in Meghalaya. 8) Later on, this wind travel towards west which results in decrease in
rainfall from east to west.
9) Over all about 75% of Indian rainfall is received from this monsoon. Tamil nadu
which is located in the leeward side receives only a meagre rainfall.

El Nino, as is commonly known, refers to an abnormal warming of surface

waters in equatorial Pacific Ocean. It is known to suppress monsoon rainfall.
The opposite phase, La Nina, which is the abnormal cooling of sea surface
waters in the same region, is known to aid rainfall over India.

Post monsoon or Retreating or Northeast monsoon season

1) The southwest monsoon begins to retreat from north India by the end of
September due to the southward shifting pressure belts.
2) The southwest monsoon wind returns from Indian landmass and blows
towards Bay of Bengal.
3) The coriolis force deflects this wind and makes it to blow from northeast.
Hence, it is known as Northeast monsoon or Post-monsoon season.
4) The season is associated with the establishment of the north-easterly wind
system over the Indian subcontinent
5) Andhra Pradesh, Tamil nadu, Kerala and south interior Karnataka receive
good amount of rainfall accounted for 35% of their annual total.
6) Many parts of Tamil nadu and some parts of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka
receive rainfall during this season due to the storms forming in the Bay of Bengal.
7) Large scale losses to life and property occur due to heavy rainfall, strong
winds and storm coastal regions.
8) The day time temperatures start falling sharply all over the country. The mean
temperature over northwestern parts of the country shows a decline from about
38°C in October to 28°C in November.

Distribution of rainfall

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1) The average annual rainfall of India is 118 cm. However, spatial distribution of
rainfall in the country is highly uneven.
2) About 11% area receives over 200 cm of annual rainfall, 21% area receives 125
to 200 cm, 37% area receives 75 to 125 cm, 24% area gets 35 to 75 cm and 7%
area gets less than 35 cm.
3) The Western coast. Assam, South Meghalaya, Tripura, Nagaland and Arunachal
Pradesh are the heavy rainfall areas which get more than 200 cm rainfall.
4) The whole of Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, Western and Southwestern parts of
Uttar
Pradesh, Western Madhya Pradesh, the entire Deccan Trap or Plateau region east
of Western Ghats except for a narrow strip along Tamil nadu coast receive a low
rainfall of less than 100 cm.
5) The rest of the areas receive a rainfall ranging between 100 and 200 cm

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 Rivers
India is known as the land of rivers. There are seven major rivers (Indus,
Brahmaputra, Narmada, Tapi, Godavari, Krishna and Mahanadi along with their
numerous tributaries that make up the river system of India.
 Rivers in India can be categorized in many ways out of which some prominent
ways are:
1. Perennial and Non-Perennial River
2. East flowing Vs West flowing Rivers
3. On the basis of their origin

Perennial River- Rivers that flow throughout the year are called perennial river.
They usually originate from mountains. They are also known as Permanent River.
Almost all the rivers originating in the Himalayan region are perennial rivers. They
are found in regions with humid climate where evaporation rates are much lesser
than the rainfall.Perennial rivers include The Ganges and The Yamuna.
Non-Perennial River- Rivers which do not have a constant flow throughout the year
are known as non-perennial rivers. It mainly consists of those rivers which flow only
during the rainy season and usually originate in plateau region. They are also called
Periodic Rivers. These rivers are found in areas with arid climates where
evaporation tends to be greater than precipitation. Examples of Non-perennial river
are Godavari,, Krishna, Kaveri, etc
East flowing Vs West flowing river:If the river falls into Bay of Bengal then it is
east flowing river whereas if it drains into Arabian Sea then it is west flowing
river.
On the basis of their origin :There are three main sources form which rivers
originate andthey are:
1. The Himalaya and the Karakoram ranges.
2. Vindhya and Satpura ranges and Chotanagpur plateau in central India.

3. Sahyadri or Western Ghats in western India.

INDUS River :West Flowing River
• Origin:Chemayungdung Glacier
• Length: 3180 Km
• India 709 kilometre
• Place: BokharChuGlacier Range: Kailash Range (Home of Lord Shiva) 
Location: Tibet
• Route: Tibet>> India >> Pakistan

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 • India Entry: Damchauk (J&K)
• India Exit: Chillas (POK)
• In Tibet, called- singikhamban/ lions mouth
• Flows Between Ladakh &Zansker Range
• It makes Gorge (V Shape Valley) in POK Region
• Ends – Arabian Sea from Karachi
• Tributaries: Chenab, Jhelum, Ravi, Satluz & Beas

LEFT BANK TRIBUTARIES RIGHT BAMK TRIBUTARIES

• Zaskar • shyok
• Suru • gilgit
• Soam • hunza
• Jhelum • swat
• Chenab • kunnar
• Ravi • Kurram
• Beas • Gomal
• Satluj • Kabul
• Panjnad • Shigar

INDUS WATER TREATY

• Water distribution treaty between India and Pakistan.
• Arranged by World Bank. And Signed in Karachi 1960.
• Indian commissioner for Indus water is Shri A K Dal
SATLUJ
• Origination- Rakesh tal, Mansarovar lake, Kailash range, Tibet.
• Sometimes called Red River.
• Enter HP at shipti (Kinnaur) and Leaves at Bhakra (world’s highest gravity
dam)
• India's second highest dam- 226 metre and Highest- Thiri(UK)-261m
• It’s water is mainly used for power generation and irrigation.
• Other dams- Koldam(HP), NathpaJhakhri (HP).
• Flows in HP- 320 kilometre.
• Cities- Ludhiana, Firozpur Bilaspur.
• Tributaries- Spiti, Baspa, Noglikhad.
• Merges with bias at harikapatan, firozpur Punjab.
• End : Indus

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 JHELUM
• Origination- Sheshnag, lake, verinag, Kashmir.
• Tributaries of Chenab River.
• Largest tributary of Jhelum- Kishanganga River.
• The water of Jhelum are collected to Pakistan under Indus water treaty.
• Merges with Chenab in Trimmu.
• Cities- Srinagar Baramulla, Anantnag.
• By ancient Greek it was called Vitasta.
• Length: 725 Km
• End :Jhang District (Indus)
• Dams-Uri Dam, Mangla Dam, Kishanganga hydro-electric project.
• The Greeks regarded this river as God.
• Jhelum town named after this river.
CHENAB
• Origination- near Barlacha, pause Zanskar range, Lahaul, Spiti.
• Formed by the confluence over Chandra and Bhaga.
• Also called Chandrabhaga.
• Flows in Himachal Pradesh, Chamba, Jammu and Kashmir.
• Dams- Baglihar dam, Dulahasti dam, Sulal.
• Cities- Kishtwar, Udhampur, Jammu.
• Largest Tributary of INDUS
• Length: 960km
• End : Indus

RAVI/Parushani
• Origination- Barangal, Tuladhar, range, Kangada, Rohtang pass, Chamba
(H.P)  The water of Ravi River allocated to India.
• Flowers in Himachal Pradesh Jammu Kashmir and Pakistan.
• Meets Chenab in jihang district.
• Cities- Chamba and Lahore.
• Tributaries- Saho, Siul, Budhil, Chirchind Nala.
• Dams Ranjit Sagar Dam and Chamera Dam.
• Length: 720 Km
• End: Indus
BEAS/Vipasha
• Origination- Beas kund, Rohtang pass, Kullu, Himachal Pradesh.
• Total length- 460 kilometre.
• Himachal Pradesh- 256 kilometre.

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 • Merges with Satluj near ‘Hari ka patan’ Firozpur.
• Tributaries- luni, Banganga.
• Cities-Manali.
• Dams- Pandor Dam, Pong dam, Largi hydro-electric project.  End: Indus

Ganga River System

• GANGA River :
• Origin: Gangotri Glacier (Nanda Devi Mountains)in Uttarakhand
• Route: Haridwar > Varanasi >Pryagraj> Kanpur > Ghazipur > Patna >
Kolkata.
• End: Bay of Bengal
• Length: 2525 km
• Triveni Sangam is formed due to the confluence of three sacred rivers namely
Ganga, Yamuna and Saraswati at Prayagraj i.e. Allahabad.
• Sundarbans Delta is the place where the rivers Ganga and Brahmaputra meet
i.e they form 'Delta'.
• Ganga enters plains at Haridwar.
• Rudraprayag is situated at the confluence of rivers Alaknanda and Mandakini
in Uttrakhand.
• Alaknanda joins Bhagirathi River at Devprayag hereafter, it is known as
Ganga.
• Mandakini River is also known as Kali Ganga.
• Biggest river system of India
• Made up of Alaknanda and Bhagirathi.
• Longest river of India.
• 4 States: UK-110km. UP-1450 BH-445km. WB-520km.
• KOSI- SORROW OF BIHAR
• DAMODAR-SORROW OF BENGAL
• Cities-Haridwar, Kanpur, Allahabad, Patna, Varanasi, Kolkata.
• Exit point-Merges with Brahmputra(near Gwalando)
• Dams-Tihridam(UK)- Bhagirathi, Frakha Dam(WB)

LEFT BANK TRIBUTARIES RIGHT BANK

TRUBUTARIES
• Ramganga • Yamuna
• Gomti • Son
• Kosi • Rihand
• Rapti • Ajay
• Kali • Punpun

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 • Gandak • Falgu
• Ghagra • Damdar
• Mahamadi • Haldi

TRIBUTARIES OF Ganga
• Yamuna:Longest Tributary of Ganga
• Origin:Yamnotri Glacier (champasar Range)
• End: Sangam ( Triveni, Prayagraj)
• Length:1376 Km
• Alaknanda:
• Origin:Sathopant Glacier (Uttarakhand)
• Length: 195 Km
• Gandak/ Narayani:
• Origin:Nhubine Glacier (Nepal)
• Length: 814 Km
• Sone:
• Origin: Amarkantak Hills ( M.P)
• Length: 784 Km
• Gomti:
• Origin: Gomat Tal (U.P)
• Length: 475 km
• Kosi:
• Origin: Sunkosi Glacier (Tibet)
• Length: 729 km
• Route: Tibet > Nepal > India
• Meets Ganga at: Kursela (Bihar)
• Ghaghra:Largest Tributary
• Origin: Mansarovar Lake
• Length: 1080 km
• Meets Ganga at:Chapra (Bihar)

Yamuna River System

• The Yamuna River is the largest tributary of the Ganga River.
• Origin- From the Yamunotri glacier, at the Bandarpoonch peak in
Uttarakhand.
• Tributaries - Sindh, Hindon, Betwa Ken, Banas and Chambal.
• The Tons is the largest tributary of the Yamuna.
• Route: The catchment of the river extends to the states of Delhi, Himachal
Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Madhya Pradesh.

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 • End- It meets Ganga at Prayagraj& Ganga finally ends at Bay of Bengal.

RIGHT BANK TRIBUTARIES

YAMUNA:
• Western most and longest tributary of Ganga
• Origination -- western slope of BandarpunchYamunotri glacier, Uttarakhand
• Meets Ganga at Allahabad
• Cities- Delhi Mathura Agra and Allahabad
• SON
• Origination SonbhadraAmarkantak heels MP (Meets Ganga Near Patna)
DAMODAR:
• Origination -- Chandwa, latehar, distt. Jharkhand.
• Most polluted river of India series-- Dhanbad, Durgapur, Raniganj,
vardhamanAssansal
RAPTI:
• Origination -- Between western Dhaulagiri, Himalaya and Mahabhartal
range, Nepal  Gorakhpur Sorrow -- Floods.

LEFT BANK TRIBUTARIES

Ramganga:

• Origination -- Southern slope of Dushtoli, Hills in the Chamoli distt. UK.

• Also flow through the dun Valley of Corbett National Park.
• Meets Ganga near Kannauj
• Damn --Kalagarh dam
• Cities -- Bareilly, Ramnagar
GOMTI:
• Origination -- Gomattal (Fulhar lake) Near Madho Tanda, Pilibhit, UP
• At Gazipur meets Ganga
• City- Lucknow,Lakhimpur, Sultanpur, Jaunpur.

SHARDA:
• Origination-- Kalapani, Milam glacier, near Kama Yum, Nepal, Himalayas
• Indian Nepal called gori Ganga
• Also called river Mahakaliin Nepal Kali temple situated in Kalapani

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 •Cities -- Tanakpur
•Dam --sharda dam\Pancheshwar dam
• Meets river Ganga at Behram Ghat  Tributaries --Sarju, Suheli.
GANDAK
• Also called Kaligandaki, KrishnAgandagi and naarayani.
• Origination --Dhauligiri Range, Tibet- Nepal border.
• Merger with Ganga at Sonpur, Patna.
• Cities -- Narayangarh, Devghat, valmikinagar.

KOSI
• Origination -- Gosainath, Mt. Everest also called Saptakoshi for its 7.
• Himalayan River (tributaries)
• Meets Ganga at Kathiar Distt.
• Tributaries-- Bhangmati, Arun.
• ―Sorrow of Bihar‖
• Cities- Brihatnagar, Purnia, Kathiar.

GHAGHARA
• Origination -- Mapchachungo Glaciers, Rakastal, Mansarvor Lake, Tibat
and China.
• Also called Karnali/ Kauriala
• Meets Ganga at Chhapra, Bihar.

• Tributaries -- ChhattiGandak, Sharda

The Panch Prayag are as follows:

1).Vishnuprayag: Dhauli Ganga originates from Niti pass, after traveling a distance
of 25 km
2) Nandprayag: Nandakini joins the Alaknanda. The Nanda Prayag is second
prayag.
3) Karnprayag: Pindar River joins the Alaknanda River.
4) Rudraprayag: River Mandakini joins the Alaknanda.
5) Devprayag: Bhagirathi joins the Alaknanda to form Ganga in Garhwal division
of state Uttarakhand.
BRAHMAPUTRA River System
• Brahmaputra River : Also called as RED River.
• Origin :Chomayungdung Glacier (Tibet)
• In Tibet called Tsangpo

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 • Route: Tibet > India > Bangladesh
• It is calledJamuna in Bangladesh.
• Majuli (Assam)is the biggest River Island in the world located in
Brahmaputra River.
• Enters India in Arunachal Pradesh, called Siang/Dihang.
• Brahmaputra and Ganga meets at Bangladesh (Gwalando) and
thereafter is called padma.
• Last tributary of Brahmaputra before going to Bay of Bengal --
Meghna
• Originates on the South of ―konggyuTsho‖ lake
• Flows in 4 countries; Tibet, Bhutan, India, Bangladesh
• World’s biggest delta- Sundarbans (Brahmputra+Ganga)major
part Bangladesh
• Volume wise largest river of India.
• Length: 2900km
Tributaries of Brahmaputra
• Length in INDIA : 900 km

• End : Bay of Bengal

Nyang:
•Origin: China
Parlung/ Yarlung:
• Origin: Tibet
•  Largest Tributary 
Kolong:
• Origin: Assam
• Length: 212km

Lhasa:
•Origin: China (Nyenchen Mountain)
• Rich in Minerals :Gold, Copper, Borax
Dhansiri:
• Origin: Laisang Peak (Nagaland)
Lohit:
• Origin: Tibet
Manas:
• Origin: Himalaya
Beki:
• Origin: Bhutan

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 Teesta: (India-Nepal issue on Teesta)
• Origin: Tso Lhamo Lake (Sikkim)
Raidok:
• Origin: Himalaya (Bhutan)
• Via India meets Bangladesh
Kameng:
• Origin: Glacial Lake (Indo-Tibet Border)
Subansiri: Longest Tributary of Brahmaputra
• Origin: Tibet
• Route: Arunachala Pradesh > Assam(Jamurighat- meets with
Brahmaputra)

Godavari River System

• Godavari River :
• Origin :Trembakeshwar (Maharashtra)
• Route:Maharashtra> Telangana > Chhattisgarh > Andhra Pradesh
>odisha
• Length: 1465 km
• End : Bay of Bengal

TRIBUTARIES OF Godavari
Peinganga:
• Origin: Aurangabad (Maharashtra)
Weinganga:
• Origin: Mahadev Hills (M.P)
Wardha:
• Origin:satpura Range (M.P)
Pranhita: Largest Tributary of Godavari
• Origin:Kautla (Maharashtra)
Purna:
• Origin: satpura Range (M.P-BetulDistrict)
Purvara:
• Origin: Ahmad Nagar (Maharashtra)
Manzira: Longest Tributary of Godavari
• Origin: Beed District (Maharashtra)
• Length: 725 km
• Route: Maharashtra > Karnataka > Telangana
Sabri:
• Origin:Sinkaram Hills (Eastern Ghats-Odisha)
Indravati:

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 • Origin: Dandkaranya (Eastern Ghats-Odisha)

Krishna River System

• Krishna River :
• Origin : Mahabaleshwar (Maharashtra)
• Length: 1400 km
• Route: Maharashtra> Karnataka> Andhra Pradesh>Telangana 
End: Bay of Bengal
TRIBUTARIES OF Krishna
•TungaBhadra : Largest Tributary of Krishna
•Length: 531 km,
•meets Krishna at Gundimalla, Jogulamba Gadwal, Telangana.
• Confluence of 7 Rivers: Sangameshwaram Village, Kurnool (Andhra
Pradesh)
TungaRiver:
• Origin: VarahParvat (Karnataka)
Bhadra River:
• Origin: Anant Giri Hills (Karnataka
Bhima:Longest Tributary of Krishna
• Origin: BhimshankarJyotirling (Maharashtra)
GhataPrabha:
• Origin: Sidhudurg(Maharashtra)
Malprabha:
• Origin: Belagum District (Karnataka)
Musi:
• Origin: Anant Giri Hills (Telangana) .
Koyna :
• Origin: Mahabaleshwar (Maharashtra)

Tungbhadra Krishna River :

• Tungbhadra (PAMPA) is largest tributary of the river Krishna.
• It is formed by the confluence of river Tunga and river Bhadra.
• The river Tunga and Bhadra originates at Gangamula in
Chikmagalur district in Karnataka near the origin of Nethravati river which
flows into Arabian sea.
• The famous Hampi site (UNESCO World Heritage site) lies on the
bank of river Tungbhadra.
• The famous Virupaksha temple also is on the banks of river
Tungbhadra.

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 • The tributaries of river Tungbhadra are:
• Left bank: Tunga, Varada.
• Right bank: Bhadra, Vedavati, Hindri.
• Almati dam on Krishna river

Cauvery / Kaveri River System

• Origin :Talkaveri, Brahmagiri Hills (Karnataka)
• Route:Karnataka> Tamil Nadu
• Length: 800 km
• End: Bay of Bengal
TRIBUTARIES Of Kaveri
Bhavani : Largest Tributary of Kaveri
• Origin: Nilgiri Mt. Ranges (Tamil Nādu)
Amravati: Longest Tributary of Kaveri
• Origin:Mujampatti Valley
Hemavati:
• Origin: Balur (Chikamanglore - Karnataka)
Harangi: Smallest Tributary of Kaveri
• Origin: Pushpa Giri Hills (Karnataka)
Kabini:
• Origin: Waynod District (Kerala)
Suvarnawati:
• Origin: Nasur Ghat Hills (Mysore)

Important Points :
1. Narmada—Longest Westward Flowing River.
2. Brahmaputra – known asYarlungTsangpo in Tibet.
3. Ganga known asPadma in Bangladesh.

Narmada RIVER SYSTEM

• It is located mainly in Madhya Pradesh.
• The Narmada River is also known as the Rewa River.
• Origin- From Maikala range near Amarkantak.
• It is a West flowing river(peninsular river)
• Route: It flows through Gujarat, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, and
Maharashtra.
• Tributaries of Narmada River- Kolar River, Shakkar River, Dudhi River, Tawa
River, and Hiran River.

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 • Major Hydro Power Projects in this river Maheshwar Dam, Sardar Sarovar
Dam, and Indira Gandhi Sagar Dam.
• End:At Arabian Sea
TAPI RIVER SYATEM
• It is located mainly in Madhya Pradesh.
• Origin-From Multai reserve forest.
• It is a West flowing river.
• Route: It flows through Madhya Pradesh,Maharashtra and Gujarat.
• Tributaries of Tapti River- The Suki, theGomai, the Arunavati, the Vaghur, the
Amravati, the Purna, the Mona, and the Sipna.
• Major Hydro Power Projects Kakrapar Dam, Ukai Dam, Girna Dam
•  End:At Arabian Sea

World‘s Highest Peak

Peak Height Location

Mt. Everest 8852m Nepal-Tibet

K2 (Godwin Austin) 8611m India

Kanchenjunga 8586m Nepal-India

Lhotse 8516m Nepal-Tibet

Makalu 8466m Nepal-Tibet

Cho-yu 8201m Nepal-Tibet

Dhaulagiri Nepal

Mansalu 8163m Nepal

Nanga Parbat 8126m India (J&K)

Annapurna 8091m Nepal

International Boundaries
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 Boundary Countries
Red Cliff India – Pakistan

McMohan India – China

 Maximum Thermal Power Plants are in – Gujarat.

National Highway Route Length

NH 8 (longest) Delhi to Mumbai 2807 km

NH 9 (shortest) Delhi- Meerut Expressway 82 km

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 Top Spices Producer States
Crop Producer State

Saffron Jammu & Kashmir

Black Pepper Kerela

Cardamom Kerela

Ginger Kerela

Cumin Rajasthan

Clove Tamil Nadu

Chili Andhra Pradesh

Turmeric Andhra Pradesh

Coriander Rajasthan

Fenugreek Rajasthan

Garlic Gujrat

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 Top Fruits Producer States
Fruit Producer State

Mango Uttar Pradesh

Banana Maharashtra

Grapes Maharashtra

Guava Jharkhand

Gooseberry Uttar Pradesh

Papaya Andhra Pradesh

Coconut Kerela

Orange Maharashtra

Apple J&K

lychee Bihar

Pomegranate Maharashtra

Pear Himanchal Pradesh

Cashew Kerela

National Parks
S.No. National Park State Established

1 Papikonda National Park Andhra Pradesh 2008

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 2 Rajiv Gandhi National Park Andhra Pradesh 2005

3 Sri Venkateswara National Park Andhra Pradesh 1989

4 KasuBrahmananda Reddy National Park Telangana 1994

5 Mahavir HarinaVanasthali National Park Telangana 1994

6 Mrugavani National Park Telangana 1994

7 Namdapha National Park Arunachal Pradesh 1983

8 Mouling National Park Arunachal Pradesh 1986

9 Dibru-Saikhowa National Park Assam 1999

10 Kaziranga National Park Assam 1974

11 Manas National Park Assam 1990

12 Nameri National Park Assam 1998

13 Rajiv Gandhi Orang National Park Assam 1999

14 Valmiki National Park Bihar 1989

15 Indravati National Park Chhattisgarh 1982

16 Kanger Valley National Park Chhattisgarh 1982

17 Guru Ghasi Das (Sanjay) National Chhattisgarh 1981

Park
18 Bhagwan Mahavir (Mollem) National Park Goa 1992

19 Blackbuck National Park, Gujarat 1976

Velavadar

20 Gir Forest National Park Gujarat 1975

S.No. National Park State Established

21 Marine National Park, Gulf of Kutch Gujarat 1982

22 Vansda National Park Gujarat 1979

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 23 Kalesar National Park Haryana 2003

24 Sultanpur National Park Haryana 1989

25 Pin Valley National Park Himachal Pradesh 1987

26 Great Himalayan National Park Himachal Pradesh 1984

27 Inderkilla National Park Himachal Pradesh 2010

28 Khirganga National Park Himachal Pradesh 2010

29 Simbalbara National Park Himachal Pradesh 2010

30 Dachigam National Park Jammu and Kashmir 1981

31 Hemis National Park Jammu and Kashmir 1981

32 Kishtwar National Park Jammu and Kashmir 1981

33 Salim Ali National Park Jammu and Kashmir 1992

34 Betla National Park Jharkhand 1986

35 Bandipur National Park Karnataka 1974

36 Bannerghatta National Park Karnataka 1974

37 Kudremukh National Park Karnataka 1987

38 Nagarhole (Rajiv Gandhi) National Karnataka 1988

Park
39 Anshi national park Karnataka 1987

40 Eravikulam National Park Kerala 1978

41 Mathikettan Shola National Park Kerala 2003

42 Periyar National Park Kerala 1982

43 Silent Valley National Park Kerala 1984

44 Anamudi Shola National Park Kerala 2003

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 45 Pambadum Shola National Park Kerala 2003

46 Bandhavgarh National Park Madhya Pradesh 1968

47 Kanha National Park Madhya Pradesh 1955

48 Madhav National Park Madhya Pradesh 1959

49 Mandla Plant Fossils National Park Madhya Pradesh 1983

50 Panna National Park Madhya Pradesh 1981

51 Pench (Priyadarshini) National Park Madhya Pradesh 1975

52 Sanjay National Park Madhya Pradesh 1981

53 Satpura National Park Madhya Pradesh 1981

54 Van Vihar National Park Madhya Pradesh 1979

55 Dinosaur National Park Madhya Pradesh 2010

56 Chandoli National Park Maharashtra 2004

57 Gugamal National Park Maharashtra 1975

58 Navegaon National Park Maharashtra 1975

59 Sanjay Gandhi (Borivilli) National Park Maharashtra 1983

60 Todoba National Park Maharashtra 1955

61 Pench National Park Maharashtra 1975

62 KeibulLamjaa National Park Manipur 1977

63 Balphakram National Park Meghalaya 1985

64 Nokrek National Park Meghalaya 1986

65 Murlen National Park Mizoram 1991

66 Phawngpui Blue Mountain National Mizoram 1992

Park

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 67 Intanki National Park Nagaland 1993

68 Bhitarkanika National Park Odisha 1988

69 Simlipal National Park Odisha 1980

70 Sariska National Park Rajasthan 1982

71 Ranthambore National Park Rajasthan 1980

72 Mukundra Hills (Darrah) National Park Rajasthan 2006

73 Desert National Park Rajasthan 1992

74 KeolodeoGhona National Park Rajasthan 1981

75 Khangchendzonga National Park Sikkim 1977

76 Mudumalai National Park Tamil Nadu 1990

77 Mukurthi National Park Tamil Nadu 1990

78 Indira Gandhi (Annamalai) National Tamil Nadu 1989

Park
79 Guindy National Park Tamil Nadu 1976

80 Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park Tamil Nadu 1980

Important Passes of India

 Passes in JAMMU & KASHMIR

• Banihal Pass:
Across the PirPanjal Range After Jawahar Tunnel (1956) no longer used for
road transport
• PirPanjal Pass: Also called Pir ki Gali.
• Burzil Pass:
Best-known route connecting Gilgit & Srinagar
Now a conflict territory and partitioned
Passes in LADAKH
 Zoji La:
Zanskar Range. Connects Srinagar with Kargil and Leh town Part of NH1

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 • Pensi La-Known as the Gateway to Zanskar.
• KhardungLa:

Ladakh Range - gateway to Shyok and Nubra valleys. Used to carry supplies to
Siachen Glacier.
• Umling La -World's highest motorable pass in Ladakh
Passing through Uminlga top)
Height of over 19,300 feet (Khardung La-2nd highest)
Constructed by Border Roads Organisation (under its Project Himank)

 Passes in LADAKH
• Mintaka Pass -Means 'thousand goats'.
Near trijunction of India-China and Afghanistan border.
• Aghil Pass - Karakoram Range - near K2 peak
• Qara Tag La -Karakoram Range
 Passes in HIMACHAL PRADESH
• Shipki La: Located on Indo-China border
Passes through Jhelum Gorge
Link between Himachal Pradesh and Tibet region
• Rohtang Pass- link between Kullu, Lahul&Spiti valleys of Himachal
Pradesh
• Bara Lacha La - Zanskar Range
ConnectsHimachal Pradesh with Ladakh
situated along the Leh-Mandi Highway.
 Passes in UTTARAKHAND
• LipuLekh:
Near trijunction of India, Tibet and Nepal borders.
Pilgrims use this pass to reachKailash-Mansarowar.
• Mana Pass - connects Uttarakhand with Tibet.
• Niti Pass - connects Uttarakhand with Tibet region.
• Muling La -situated North of Gangotri.
 Passes in SIKKIM
• JelepLa: Lies at Sikkim-gives way to Bhutan
Route that connects Lhasa to India
Tista River has created this pass

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 • Nathu La-situated on India China border.
Important auxiliary route making up the ancient Silk Route
Nathu La connects Sikkim with Tibet region.
This pass was closed after Indo-China war in 1962 but was reopened in 2006.
 Passes in ARUNACHAL PRADESH

• Diphu pass - Lies on the trijunction of India, China and Myanmar. Lies
on Macmohan Line.
• Bom Di La - connects Arunachal Pradesh with Lhasa (Tibet)
• Yonggyappass-on Indo-China border and joins Arunachal Pradesh with
Tibet region.
 Passes in MADHYA PRADESH
AsirgarhPass :Satpura Range
Popularly Known as DakkaniDarwaza or Doorway to the Deccan/ Key to
the Deccan.
Connects North India with Deccan Plateau. & Connects the Narmada and Tapti
Valleys.
 Passes in Western Ghats (MAHARASHTRA)
• ThalGhat:Northern Sahyadri , Links Nasik to Mumbai.
• Bhor Ghat -In Northern Sahyadri &Links Mumbai to Pune
 Passes in Western Ghats (Kerala)
• Pal Ghat :Also called Palakkad Gap Between Nilgiri
and Annamalai hills. And Connects (Kochi) Kerala
to(Chennai) Tamil Nadu
• Senkota Pass - Between the Nagercoil and the
Cardamom hills. Links Thiruvanathpuram (Kerala) and
Madurai (Tamil Nadu)
Projects of India
S. Name of the Project Location State Purpose
No.
1. Omkareshwar Narmada River M.P Hydropower &
Irrigation
2. Tapovan- Alaknanda River U.P Hydroelectricity
Vishnugarh
3. Pamba Project Pamba River Kerala River

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 Conservation &
Irrigation
4. Gima Project Gima River Maharahtra Irrigation &
River Link
5. Daman Project River Daman Ganga Gujarat Irrigation &
River Link
6. Farakka Project Ganga West Bengal Irrigation

7. Tehri Project Bhagirathi River Uttarakhand Hydroelectricity

8. Loktak Project Loktak Lake Manipur Hydroelectricity

9. Papanasam Thamirabarani River Tamil Nadu Hydroelectricity

Project
10. Rana Pratap Chambal River Rajasthan Hydroelectricity
Sagar
Project
11. Pallivasal Project Munnar Abuja River Kerala Hydroelectricity

12. Mettur Project Kaveri River Tamil Nadu Hydroelectricity

13. Mayurakshi Project Mayurakshi River West Bengal Irrigation,

Hydroelectricity
14. Sharda Sahayak Beas River Punjab Hydroelectricity
&Haryana
15. Sardar Sarovar Narmada River Gujarat &M.P Irrigation,
Project Hydroelectricity
16. Bansagar Project Son River M.P & Irrigation
Chhattisgarh
17. DulHasti Project Chenab River J&K Hydroelectricity

18. Salal Project Chenab River J&K Hydroelectricity

19. Theri Dam Ravi River Punjab Irrigation,

Hydroelectricity
20. MalaPrabha MalaPrabha River Karanataka Irrigation
Project
S. Name of the Project Location State Purpose
No.
21. Jayakwadi Project Godavari River Maharashtra Irrigation

22. Beas Project Beas River Punjab Hydroelectricity

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 &Haryana
23. Nagarjun Project Krishna River Andhra Irrigation
Pradesh
24. Pochampad River Godavari Andhra Irrigation
Project Pradesh
25. Lower Sileru River Andhra Hydroelectricity
SileruProject Pradesh
26. Kakrapur Project Tapi River Gujarat Irrigation

27. Kothagudem Singreni Coal Fields Andhra Thermal Power

Project Pradesh
28. Kosi Project Kosi River Bihar Flood Control,
Irrigation,
Hydroelectricity
29. Gandak Project Gandak River U.P & Bihar Irrigation,
Hydroelectricity
30. Dhuvaran Power Kheda District Gujarat Thermal Power
Station
31. Sabarigiri Project Pamba-kakki River Kerala Hydroelectricity

32. Idukki Project Periyar, Cheruthoni, Kerala Hydroelectricity

Idukki River
33. Chambal Project Chambal River Rajasthan, M.P Irrigation

34. Tawa Project Narmada(Tawa) M.P Irrigation

River
35. Korba Project Near Korba Coalfields Chhattisgarh Thermal Power

36. Satpura Power Patharkada M.P Thermal Power

Station Coalfields
37. Koyna Project Koyna River Maharashtra Hydroelectricity

38. Nagpur Power Koradi, Near Nagpur Maharashtra Thermal Power

Station
39. TungaBhadra TungaBhadra River Karanataka, Irrigation,
Project Andhra Hydroelectricity
Pradesh
40. Upper Krishna Krishna River Karnataka Irrigation
Project

S. Name of the Location State Purpose

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No. Project
41. Sharavathi Project Sharavathi River Karnataka Hydroelectricity

42. Hirakund Project Mahanadi River Odisha Irrigation

43. Bhakra Nangal Sutlez River H.P , Punjab Irrigation,

Project &Haryana Hydroelectricity
44. Rajasthan Canal River Sutlez Rajasthan Irrigation
Project
45. Kundah Project Kundah River Tamil Nadu Hydroelectricity

46. Ramganga Project Chuisot Stream Uttarakhand Irrigation,

near Kalagarh Hydroelectricity
47. Matatila Project Betwa River U.P, M.P Irrigation,
Hydroelectricity
48. Rihand Project Rihand River U.P Irrigation,
Hydroelectricity
49. Damodar Project Damodar River Jharkhand Irrigation,
Hydroelectricity
50. Ukai Project Tapi River Gujarat Irrigation

51. Mahi Project Mahi River Gujarat Irrigation

52. GhataPrabha GhataPrabhaRiver Andhra Pradesh, Irrigation

Project Karnataka
53. Bhima Project Bhima River Maharashtra Irrigation

Hirakud Dam is built across the Mahanadi River, about 15 kilometres from
Sambalpur in the state of Odisha in India. It is the longest earthen dam in the world.
Behind the dam extends a lake, Hirakud Reservoir, 55 km long.

River Disputing States

Krishna Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka

Godavari Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha,

Karnataka

Cauvery Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu. Puducherry

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Narmada Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra

Mahanadi / Odisha & Chhattisgarh

mandovi

Vansadhara Andhra Pradesh and Odisha

Ravi and Beas Punjab and Haryana

Mullaperiyar Kerala and Tamil Nadu

Rivers and Disputing States

Water Fall Height in Meters River Location

Kunchikal falls 455 Varahi Karnataka

337 Kynshi Meghalaya

Nohkalikai falls 335 - Meghalaya

Nohshgithiang 315 - Meghalaya

Dudhzagar falls 310 Mandovi Goa

Kynoemfulls 305 - Meghalaya

Meenmutty 300 Karimpuzha Kerala

falls

Thalaiyar falls 297 Majjalar Tamil Nadu

Barkana falls 259 Sita Karnataka

Barchipani falls 399 Budhabalanga Orissa

THE GREAT PLAINS OF INDIA

• To the south of Himalayas & to the North of Peninsula.
• Total length-2400km ,width -- 150-300km

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BHANGAR(Old Alluvium) KHADAR(New Alluvium)

1. Found away from the river 1. Found near the rivers

2. Less fertile 2. Very fertile
3. Contains calcareous deposits 3. Fine grained
called kankar 4. The deposit of fresh alluvium
4. These are low plains every year brought by the
Himalayas makes this belt.

• Formed by deposition works of 3 major rivers-Indus, Ganga and

Brahmaputra

ALLUVIAL TYPES

BHABAR PLAINS
• Long narrow plain along the foothills.
• Pebble studded zone.
• 9-16 km. wide.
• Unsuitable for agriculture. .
TARAI PLAINS
• Broad long zone south of bhabar plain.
• Damp area covered with dense forests.
• 20-30km wide.
• suitable for agriculture:

DOAB REGION
 BIST DOAB Between Beas and Sutlej
 BARI DOAB Between Beas and Ravi
 RACHNA DOAB Between Ravi and Chenab
 CHAJ DOAB Between Chenab and Jhelum
 SIND SAGAR DOAB Between Jhelum and Indus

PUNJAB-The land of five waters- Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej, Beas

• The only River between Yamuna and Sutlej considered -Ghaggar (successor of
Saraswati river)

THE GANGA PLAIN:

• Extends from Delhi to Kolkata States -- UP,Bihar,WB,UK.

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 • The Ganga and its tributaries deposit large amount of alluvium and make this
extensive plain more fertile.
• Largest unit of great plain of India.
• Rivers -- Chambal, Betwa, Kein, Son
• General Slope -- East to South East
• KOSI -- sorrow of Bihar.
THE BRAHMAPUTRA PLAIN:
• Low level plain formed by Brahmaputra river system
•  Also called AS valley / AS plain.
THE COASTAL PLAINS
• Indian coastline -- 7516.6km. (including Island)

• Indian coastline -- 6100km.(without Island)

• Indian coastline touches --13 states + UT`S.
• India is a country surrounded by the sea on three of its sides.

On the basis of location:1. Eastern coastal plains 2. Western coastal plains

EASTERN COASTAL PLAINS

• Rivers like Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Kaverifrom deltas (very fertile and

agriculture) in eastern coastal plains.

• The delta of river Krishna->Granary of the south India.

Deltas: Wetlands that from as rivers as empty their waterand sediment into another
body of water such as ocean lake etc.

• Lies between eastern Gates and Bay of Bengal.

• Extends from Ganga delta to Kanyakumari.
• Important geographical features; CHILKA LAKE
PULICAT LAKE

REGIONAL NAMES OF EASTERN COAST:

• Orissa --Utkal Coast.
• From the southern limit of Utkal coast -- Andhra Coast.
• Tamil Nadu –Tamil Nadu Coast
• TN Coast +Parts of Andhra Pradesh Coast– Coromandal Coast/Payan
Ghat

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 WESTERN COASTAL PLAINS
• Stretches from Gujrat(Gulf of Khambat) North to Kerala in the south,
passing through Karnataka, Goa and Maharashtra.
• Stretches for 1500km from North to South.
• Width -- 10-25 km
• The continental shelf is at its widest off the Bombay coast.
• Form estuaries. (of the Narmada &Tapi).
• It is narrower than the Eastern Coast
• 4CATEGORIES: 1. Kachchh & Kathiawar Coast. (Gujarat)
2.Konkan Coast. (Daman in north Goa in south)
3.Kannada Coast. (Marmagaon)
4.Malabar Coast. (mangalore)

ESTUARIES: An estuary is an area where a freshwater river meets the ocean-

brackish water (salty but not as much as ocean water).
Regional Names
• KONKAN COAST = MH Coast, Goa coast (coastline of submergence)
• MALBAR COAST= Kerala coast, Karnataka Coast
• COROMANDAL COAST= Coastline of Emergence
• MALABAR COAST (KERALA)=Coastline of Emergency
ISLANDS OF INDIA
Islands->Body of land surrounded by the water.

ANDAMAN AND NICOBARS ISLANDS

• Group of 572Islands.
• Formed by volcanic activity
• Northern part – AndamanIsland
• Southern Part --Nicobar
• 10°Channel separates them
• Ritchies' Archipelago & labyrinth Islandare the two groups.
• India’s only active volcano -- Barren Island(Nicobar islands)

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 • Formed due to collision between Indian Plate &BurmaMinor Plate [part of
Eurasian plate).
• These are divided into 3 main islands - North, Middle & South.
• Duncan passageseparates Little Andaman from south Andaman
• Port Blair(lies in the south Andaman) -capital
• Among the Nicobar Islands , Largest -- the great Nicobar
• The Great Nicobar-- Southern Most island very close to Sumatra island
( Indonesia)  These islands are made up at tertiary sandstone, limestone
and shale.
• Most of the island -thick forests &Some of the island- coral reefs
• Highest peak- saddle peak(North Andaman)  Andaman's State Animal --
Dugong (sea Mammal).
• Also called Emerald Islands.
• The sentinels -- the only known Palaeolithic people Live here
• Coconut
LAKSHADWEEP ISLAND:
• Located in the Arabian Sea. :
• Previously called Lacadive, Minicoy &Aminidive (1956-1973)
• Minicoy + Aminidive group – PrimaryIslands  Group of many islands.
• Inhabitable - only 10.
• In Malayalam, &Sanskrit, Lakshadweep means» "Hundred Thousand
Lands"Called
"Coral Islands‖
• Northern most- Aminidive islands
• Southern most - Minicoy islands
• The Largest & most advanced - Minicoy Island.
• Capital --kawaratti( Largest city in the U.T)
• Primary source of Income- fishing
• Biggest island- Minicoy Island
• Island of Pitti -- Bird sanctuary

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 RAILWAY ZONES
Total 17 + 1 non-operational is equal to 18
South Coast railways HQ- Visakhapatnam AP youngest railway zone
ZONE HQ
 Control Railway Mumbai
• Eastern railway Kolkata
• East control railway Hajipur, Bihar
• East coast railway Bhubaneshwar
• Western railway Mumbai(church gate)
• West-control railway Jabalpur, MP
• Northern railway(largest) New Delhi
• North- Gorakhpur
Easternrailway(smallest) Malegaon, Guwahati, AS
• North eastern frontier railway Allahabad, UP
• North central railway Jaipur, RJ
• North western railway
• Southern railway Chennai
• South central Securndarabad, Telangana
• South eastern Kolkata
• South east central railway Bilaspur, Chhatisgarh
• South west railway Hubli

TRANSPORT -- ROADWAYS
• The first road development plan was formulated in 1943 (Nagpur plan)

• According to first 5 year plan (1951-1956) --NH, SH, District

roads ,Village roads
• Largest roads network in the work --USA,India 2nd
• National highways – constructed byCPWD

NHAI National Highway Authority of India

• 1995(act1988)

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 • Responsible for management of highway
• Ministry of road, transport and highways
• HQ- New Delhi
 Longest NH-NH44,from Srinagar to Kanyakumari, old name -NH7, 3745 KM
 Shortest NH-NH966B, old name -NH47A, Kundanoor and Willingdon
island in Kochi, Kerala
 NH5 – Easten coast
 NH17 – western coast

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 TRANSPORT-WATERWAYS
• Cheapest and oldestmode of transport.
• Does not require huge capital investment in the construction and
maintenance of track.
• Suitable for carrying bulky goods over long distances.

MAJOR WATERWAYS OF INDIA

LONGEST-NW1 -- Allahabad- Haldia(1620km.), Ganga River

SHORTEST-NW69 --Tamiklnadu (5km.), Manimutharu River

IWAI: Inland Waterways Authority of India

• Under IWAI- 1985 Act
• Statutory Body ( i.e. made by act of Parliament)
• Formed- 1986
• HQ- Noida
• Ministry of ports, Shipping and Waterways

PORTS IN INDIA
• The waterways Authority in India has divided Ports in 3 categories:
1. MAJOR PORTS (13)

2. MINOR PORTS (190 appx.)3. INTERMEDIATE PORTS

POINTS TO REMEMBER:

• Jawahar Lal Nehru Port Trust (JLNPT) -- Best Global port in India.
Third time in arrow in the Atal Shastra Markenomy Award 2020.

6 New Mega Ports --to be developed underSAGAR MALA

PROJECT

PORTS ON THE EASTERN COASTS

• Located along the Bay of Bengal
• Extends from Ganga to Kanyakumari region
• Cuts 3 Indian states: Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu.
• The Deltas of Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri are present here.
• Deltas --- very fertile, Suitable for agricultural purposes.
 • Delta of Krishna River -Granary of South India

1. CHENNAI PORT:
•Also called Madras port
nd
• 2 largest port of India
rd
• 3 oldest port of india
• Lies on the Coromandal Coast
2. TUTICORIN PORT:
• Tamil Nadu
• Connected by railways and roads
• Mainly trades with Sri Lanka
• Pearl city ->Pearl fishery
3. VISHAKHAPATNAM PORT:  Andhra Pradesh
• 1933– lord Willingdon inaugurated it.
• Serves the Bhilai and Rourkeila steel plant
4. PARADIP PORT:
• Orissa
• Major deep water seaport
• Allows it to handle heavy and bulk containers
• Mainly deals with the trade of coal and iron ores
• Has its own railway for the transportation of goods
5. KOLKATA PORT
• On the bank of river Hooghly
• Oldest port of India (constructed by EIC)
• Mainly trades with Australia and SE Asian countries.
• ‗Gateway of easternIndia‘
• Main centre for the trade of Jute
• Only port having two dock system: Kolkata Dock, Haldia Dock
6. ENNORE PORT
• First corporatized major port in India
• Major exporter of coal
• Railway + Roads links – Transportation
• coromandel coast
• Tamil Nadu
PORTS ON THE WESTERN COASTS:

KANDLA PORT:

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 •Also calledkandlaGreek(place)Gujrat
• Busiest and richest port of India
• First export processing port of India
• Currently – Highest profitable port of India
MUMBAI PORT:
Largest port of India
•
• Handles 1/5th of India’s foreign trade also called front bay or gateway of
India
COCHIN PORT:
Kerala, highly growing ports on Arabian sea,
•
• lies between 2 islands: Willingdon and vallarpadam.
MANGALORE PORT:
• Indira Gandhi – Inauguration – 1974
• Also called Panamburport(Karnattka)
MURMUGAO PORT :
• Goa – Major port – 1963
th
• 13 major port– Port Blair port, Andaman and Nicobar islands, Bay of
Bengal.
FAMOUS HILL STATIONS

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 • Coonor Tamil Nadu
• Delhouse Himachal Pradesh
• Darjeeling West Bengal
• Gangtok  Gulmarg Assam
• Kalimpong J&K
• Kasauli West Bengal
• Khandala Himachal Pradesh
• Kullu valley Maharashtra
• Landoune Himachal Pradesh

• Lonawala Uttarakhand

• Mahabaleshwar Maharashtra

• Mannar Maharashtra

• Manali Kerala

• Mandi Himachal Pradesh

Himachal Pradesh
• MT. Abu
Rajasthan
• Mukteshwar
Uttarakhand
• Musoorie
Uttarakhand
• Nainital
Uttarakhand
• Ooty
Tamil Nadu
• Pahalgam
J&K
• Panchgani
Maharashtra
• Periyar
Kerala
• Ranikhet
Uttarakhand
• Shimla
Himachal Pradesh
• panchmarhi
Madhya Pradesh
CROPS IN INDIA
• All crops do not grow in the same season
• Different crops -- Different suitable climatic conditions
KHARIF CROPS:

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 • At the beginning of 1st Monsoon rains
• Sown – June to July
• Harvesting –Sep to Oct
• Require good rainfall
• Turmeric, pulses, Soyabean, Sugar cane, Jawar, Bajara, Makka, Rice.

RABI CROPS:
• Also called Winter crops  Sown – Oct to Nov.
• Harvesting –March to April (spring season)
• Require frequent irrigating; because they are grown in dry areas 
Wheat, potato, peas, mustered, Chickpeas.
ZAID CROPS:
• Grown, between kharif and Rabi seasons i.e, between march to June
• Require warm and dry weather
• Groundnut, Cucumber, Pumpkin, Watermelon, Muskmelon,
Sugarcane.
CASH CROPS:
• Cultivated to be sold in the market.
• To earn Profits.
• Trading -- National and International market
• Coffee, Tea, Cotton, Sugarcane, Groundnut, Rice, Wheat

RAINFALL IN INDIA
• The average rainfall in India – 118cm[ According to annual data report from
Meteorological Department]
Area of High Rainfall:

• Rainfall=Above 200cm
• NE part (Meghalaya, Tripura, Mizoram,
Naga Land, Myanmar), Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim)

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 • Western Coast
Area of Medium Rainfall:

• Rainfall – 100 to 200cm

• Eastern Slopes of WG
• Northern plains
• Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh &Tamil Nadu

Area of law Rainfall:

• Rainfall - 50 – 100 cm
• Gujrat, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Eastern Rajasthan

Areas of Inadequate Rainfall

• Rainfall – below 50cm

• All the arid & semi – arid areas of India
• Western Rajasthan, Kachchh region Ladakh
Indian Meteorological Department:

• IMD:1875
• New Delhi
• Ministry of earth Sciences
• Agency responsible for meteorological observations & weather forecasting
FOREST IN INDIA
• Sir HG Champion categorised India’s forested types of for the first time in 1936
preliminary survey of forester Type of India and Burma

TROPICAL EVERGREEN FOREST

• Annual rainfall = 200 centimetre
• Annual temperature = >20 degree Celsius
• Trees height = 60 metre or above
• Western slope of western ghats
• Andaman and Nicobar islands
• Northern eastern region-Hills

TROPICAL DECIDUOUS FOREST

• Most widespread forest in India,

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 • Monsoon forest,
• Annual rainfall – 70 to 200 centimetre
• On the basis of availability of water
• MOIST DECIDUOUS FOREST
• Rainfall – 100 - 200 centimetre
• TEAK, SHISHAM, MAHUA, KUSUM, SANDALWOOD

TROPICAL DECIDOUS FOREST

• Rainfall – 70 to 100cm
• winter region- moist
• Drier- Thorny Fore
• Plains of UP, Bihar
• Peninsula Reiner area

TROPICAL THORN FOREST

• Rainfall – Less than 50cm

• Semi Arid areas- Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan,
Gujrat, Madhya Pradesh, UP
• Variety of grasses & shrubs.  BABOOL, BER, KHAIR, NEEM
MONTANE FOREST
• Mountains areas – Temperature decrease and altitude increase
• Causing change in natural vegetation
• Tropical area – Tundra area
• Vegetation – variation
• Deciduous forest – Foothills of Himalayas
• PINE FOREST, CHIR, DEODAR
• Evergreen Broad leaf Trees
• Wet temperate type of forest - 1000m – 2000m
MANGROVES
• Grows along the coasts
• Consist of several salt - Tolerant spices
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 • Sundarbans of West Bengal
• Andaman and Nicobar island
• Mahanadi, Godavari and Krishnadeltas
•Shrub/tree that grows in coastal saline/brackish water
FOREST COVER IN INDIA
• Total forest tree -24.56%
• According to the ‘Indian state of the forest report 2019’
• Area wise - MP has the largest forest cover in the country
• 2ndArunachal Pradesh
• %age-wise – Mizoram(85.41%), Arunachal Pradesh (79.63%)
• Top 2 states showing increase in forest cover -Karnataka and Andhra
Pradesh

Forest conservation
• Forest policy, 1988
• Bringing 33% of the geographical area under forest cover

TYPES OF FARMING
SHIFTING AGRICULTURE
• A piece of land is cleared by tribal peoplemainly
• By burning trees
• Crops grown under the type of agriculture
• Paddy, maze, beat, Tobacco,Sugarcane
• Practised in–Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, Mizoram, Nagaland, Myanmar&
Jharkhand

Various names of Shifting agriculture

State Agriculture
Assam Jhum
Kerala Ponam
Andhra Pradesh & Orissa Podu
Madhya Pradesh Beewar&Mashan

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INTENSIVE FARMING
•Cultivator uses – Large amount of labour on a relatively small Area
EXTENSIVE FARMING
•Cultivator uses – Limitedamount of labour on a relatively Large Area
• Regions: population is Small & land is Enough
SUBSISTENCE FARMING
• Majority of farmers in India practice it.
• Entire Production – Consumed
• No Surplus to sell in the market
• Cultivation Techniques – simple
• Total absence of modern equipment.
COMMERCIAL FARMING

 Opposite of above -- Irrigation, Chemical Fertilisers, Pesticides , HYV of seeds

 Some of the major commercial crops of Indian -- Cotton,Jute & Sugarcane

PLANTATION FARMING
• Growing & Processing of a Single cash Crops – purely meant for sale.
• Example – Tea, coffee, Rubber & Banana.
MIXED FARMING
• When both rising crops & rearing Animals are carried on Simultaneously.
AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTIONS IN INDIA

GREEN REVOLUTION IN INDIA

• The term ‘Green Revolution’ was first used by - William guard

• Father of green revolution- Norman Borlaug

• It led to him winning the Nobel Peace Prize in
1970 for his work in developing HYV ofwheat
• Also called the ‗Third Agricultural Revolution‘ after the nealitflic revolution
what is green revolution

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 • Rapidly increase in wheat and rice yields
• Led to increase in agricultural production – Punjab, Haryana, Uttar
Pradesh
WHITE REVOLUTION IN INDIA
• Also called operation flood
• GOI initiated it with the motive of increasing milk production
• To make the country one of the largest producer of milk in the world
• Today - India is a world‘s largest producer of milk
• Doctor VergheseKurien father of white revolution in India

• Started in 1970 and Aimed -to create a nationwide milk grid

• NDDB- National Dairy Development Board
• Introduced operation flood to increase the speed of milk production

REVOLUTIONS PRODUCT
Round Revolution Potato
Green Revolution Food grains
Grey Revolution Fertilisers
Pink Revolution Onion Production
White Revolution Milk Production
Blue Revolution Fish related
Red Revolution Meat /tomato Production
Brown Revolution Leather Production
Golden Revolution Fruits/ honey
Golden FiberRevolution Jute Production
Silver Revolution Egg Production
Silver FiberRevolution Cotton
Protein Revolution Agricultural
Black Revolution Petroleum Production
Evergreen Revolution Overall dew of agriculture
Yellow revolution Oilseed production

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 WATERFALLS IN INDIA
• Ranchi -city of waterfalls in India
• Nohsngithiang falls-Meghalya (also called 7 sister waterfalls)
• NohkalikaiFalls- Tallest plunge waterfall in India
• Athirapally waterfall –‘The Niagara of India’
CULTIVATION TECHNIQUES
CULTIVATION TECHNIQUES
POMICULTURE Fruit Cultivation
OLERICULTURE Vegetable Cultivation
FLORICULTURE Flower farming
VITICULTURE Grapes Cultivation
ARBORICULTURE tree farming
PISCICULTURE Fish farming
VERMICULTURE Earthworm’s Breeding
SILVICULTURE Forest planting
TISSUE CULTURE Cultivating single cell from a plant
SERICULTURE Rearing of silkworms
MORICULTURE Mulberry Cultivation
MARICULTURE Marine fish farming
HORTICULTURE Flower, fruit, ornamental, plant Cultivation
CUNICULTURE Rearing of rabbits
APICULTURE Beekeeping
AQUACULTURE Fish farming
AEROPONIC CULTURE To grow plant in air (soil less agriculture)

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