Master`s Thesis

Waste Management challenges and opportunity: Case of Dhankuta Municipality

By

BOHARA Suraj

51218637

September 2020

Master`s Thesis Presented to

Ritsumeikan Asia Pacific University

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of

International Cooperation policy

i
 Abstract

Nepal is a small landlocked country in between two giant super powers India and China. On the other

hand Nepal is one of the under developed countries in the world or we can say a developing economy.

With per capita income just around $1000. But now the work of infrastructural development,

industrialization, urbanization and the steady growth in economy is motivating people to consume

more. More consumption means more economic activity and more economic activity means more

waste. Waste is a problem which can never be got rid of, the only thing that matters now is how to

reduce the waste without any negative impact on social, economic and environmental aspect. Waste

generation in Nepal is has been seen as challenges since more problem are surfacing after the rapid

economic development. The household waste generated by household is 170(g)/capita/day ADB 2013.

Household waste varies or depends on income generated by the people because more the income more

the amount of waste generation. In this thesis we are discussing the challenges and the opportunity of

solid waste management. In context with Dhankuta Municipality, how this particular municipality is

able manage the waste properly, what drives local people to participate in the process of waste

management. Some primary data is also collected according to the need to describe the people’s

perspective towards the waste. In context of Nepal there are only limited number of landfill sites

otherwise most of the waste is disposed in the roads, open lands, bank of river or any public area. In

Nepal most of waste produced is either organic or bio-degradable, which be converted in compost

manure by different methods like one of the easiest and economic ways is composting followed by

some more sophisticated techniques like anaerobic digestion or aerobic digestion. In this study we

describe how Dhankuta Municipality has been able to cope with the matter of waste?

Since solid waste are growing environmental problem around the globe so Nepal is not far going in

the trap of solid waste all along the country. In this study possible challenges and their possible

ii
opportunities in context of Nepal. And suggesting that is economically beneficial and which could

reduce some burden from the environment. .

Keywords: Waste management, waste in Nepal, environmental laws in Nepal, opportunities and

challenges.

iii
Table of Contents

INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 BACKGROUND ..................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 INTEGRATED WASTE MANAGEMENT ......................................................................................................... 5
1.3 WASTE MANAGEMENT METHODS ............................................................................................................ 8
1.4 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM .............................................................................................................. 11
1.5 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY................................................................................................................... 13
1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY ................................................................................................................ 13
LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................................... 14
2.1 THEORETICAL REVIEW......................................................................................................................... 14
2.2 POLICIES REVIEW ............................................................................................................................... 17
2.3 EMPIRICAL REVIEW ............................................................................................................................ 21
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ......................................................................................................... 24
3.1 RESEARCH DESIGN ............................................................................................................................. 24
3.2 SELECTION OF STUDY AREA .................................................................................................................. 24
3.3 NATURE AND SOURCES OF DATA COLLECTION ......................................................................................... 24
DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION ....................................................................................... 25
4.1 BACKGROUND HISTORY OF NEPAL ......................................................................................................... 25
4.2 ECONOMIC ACTIVITY ........................................................................................................................... 26
4.3 WASTE MANAGEMENT IN NEPAL .......................................................................................................... 26
4.4 DHANKUTA MUNICIPALITY BACKGROUND............................................................................................... 28
4.5 WASTE MANAGEMENT IN DHANKUTA MUNICIPALITY ................................................................................ 28
4.6ANALYSIS OF THE DATA ........................................................................................................................ 40
SUMMARY CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................................. 43
5.1 SUMARRY...................................................................................................................................... 43
5.2 CONCLUSIONS .............................................................................................................................. 45
5.3 FUTURE DIRECTIONS FOR SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT IN NEPAL............................................................... 48
5.4 RECOMMENDATION ..................................................................................................................... 49
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................ 51
ANNEXES..................................................................................................................................... 54

iv
 Certificate page

I Bohara Suraj (Student ID 521218637) hereby declare that the content if this
Master`s Thesis/ Research Report are original and true and have nog been
submitted at any other university or educational institution for the award or
diploma.

All the information derived from other published or unpublished sources has been
cited and acknowledged.

BOHARA Suraj

--------------------------------------------

v
 Acknowledgement

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Professor Sudo Tomonori as my

guide who has not only inspired me but also provided constructive suggestions
and outstanding guidance to prepare my Thesis successfully.

I also would like to like say thank you to Mr. Anoop Phago for all the Great support
and help while writing my thesis during this difficult period. Finally, I would like to
express grateful thank to all the respondents who helped me to provide valuable
information which help me to complete this thesis. I like to give thank.

At the end I would like to say thank you all the supportive hands for the suggestion
support.

vi
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background
Solid waste is a mix of two words and has significance. Before waste produced had

not been a very big issue, however, at present, the term solid waste has risen as an emerging issue, the

difficulty that has an immediate bearing on the condition of wherever whatever in the environment.

The waste has consistently been there since the presence of human culture as the waste emerges from

the human exercises. Solid waste incorporates the waste coming about because of person and creature

exercises that are disposed of as futile or then again undesirable or waste is the material that isn't

viewed as valuable. It is an undesirable material of an individual and because of this, waste isn't of

his/her anxiety. Along these lines, it is a serious issue in environmental sanitation. The increasing

amount of solid waste in the earth is unsafe for the wellbeing of humans and all living organism. Not

just that, solid waste is the toxins to the soil, air, and water which are important for the healthy human

being. They are urban issues of the world. In the past, little was wasted; nearly everything was reused,

or recycled or used as the compost because most of the waste was organic. Indeed, even today, in the

rural areas there is the practice of reuse and recycle but with the influence of the urban areas, even the

rural areas are facing the problem of waste like plastic bags. With a couple of limited special cases,

the dumping of natural waste around houses in rural areas messes not many up; regular actions can

retain it and recycle its component as compost for the households, even nature helps to biodegrade the

1
waste and might be able to take the necessary nutrients from the organic waste. In the context of Nepal,

it is on the way of development and urbanization with a higher density of people in some areas where

people are using non-biodegradable material and material that are produced by new sources

(manufacturing house, shops, and other institution) still have the mentality of the rural ways where

they used to throw the waste nearby houses or surroundings. In cities, the dumping of waste around

houses increases the risk of environmental and health hazards.

Solid wastes incorporate waste coming about because of human and animal activities. As

indicated by Pandey every living being during their life, consumes water, food, and different materials.

While consuming these things, living beings produce waste. “These wastes can be classified as solid

waste, fluid waste, and vaporous waste" (Pandey2004). The term “solid waste” has been brought into

use to separate between the current day broad idea including waste management and the past focus on

garbage and other household waste that is because of the current waste is not taken only from the

household but also include all the waste from the industrial commercial and agricultural activities.

Solid waste is presently for the most part taken to incorporate all non-vaporous and non-liquid waste.

Non-liquid waste coming because of the wide network of community, industrial, business, and

agrarian activities is considered as waste. Essentially solid waste implies waste that is firm in structure

and is viewed as waste in its present condition. It tends to be a little pace of paper to a thick book or

something different.

In the Kathmandu valley, various uncontrolled waste dumps grew close nearness to homes.

These dumps of waste have changed the whole urban area into ghettos, damaged the historic beauty of

the towns, and more importantly, comprised a huge danger to the health of the general population

(Thapa, 2008). Waste management in Nepal has consistently been viewed as the duty of

unapproachable cast. Generally, individuals from these casts were (are) recruited by town

organizations to gather transport solid waste, mostly equipped with crude instruments such as shovels
2
or even hands to lift waste and a kharpan (kind of basket on the shoulder) to transport and dump the

gathered waste in close by open field or on river banks (Thapa, 2008)

Comparatively, solid waste management is a relatively new concept that has been accepted

by Nepal. In past days it was just “gather the waste and throw somewhere else outside the community".

But today waste is seen as if managed properly it can be beneficial to the people and can create many

opportunities for the "stakeholders' of the country. Waste management still is a linear system of

collection and disposal, developing health, and environmental hazards (Gupta, 2012).

With developing urbanization and higher populace densities and changing waste

composition and development in the measures of solid waste, conventional acts of waste the

management couldn't keep pace. Solid waste management is one of the most serious environmental

issues of the urban zones in Nepal. Until now individuals had never at any point concentrated on it,

neither in its generation nor at its disposal. Human awareness was to such an extent concentrated on

the fast development of urbanization and infrastructural advancement. One after another individuals

kept them occupied on making their lives quick and best. In this pace of development, they got no

opportunity to consider minor things. Consequently, the management of waste remained undermined,

resulting the waste become the problem of everyone and It has developed as an issue of the country as

well. Each nation around the globe has once faced with this issue. Extraordinarily, developing nations

are facing this problem more than developed ones.

The management of solid waste so has happened to become primary importance

for the country like Nepal. Developing nations like Nepal have a critical issue of solid waste

management. Different resources are to be used correctly; financial conditions must be improved,

policies implementation must be effective, lastly, individuals must be provided with the information

and must be educated about the proper waste management in the households. There are numerous

3
methods of solid waste management. The reduction of solid waste is the least difficult method of

dealing with solid waste. Additionally, manure planning, clean landfilling, burial are other ways if the

waste is mostly organic.

The idea of waste management planning is comparatively new to Nepal. Quick

urbanization since 1950 has constrained numerous towns to attempt to handle the issue by perceiving

the significance of effective solid waste management. Concerning waste, the management, solid waste

act (1988), and city act (1990) were set up by Solid Waste Management and Resource Mobilization

Center (SWMRMC) and City Councils. These organizations are occupied with practicing capacity to

train, forbid and force punishment for unhygienic disposal of solid waste in open space, spots of

public interest streams, and so on but both of these institutions have not been able to give full efforts

to manage the waste.

Solid waste management is one of the rising matter in the newly established urban

or municipality. Solid waste management is a major problem with the current rate of industrialization,

urbanization, infrastructural development for the economic development of the region and the country.

Dhankuta municipality has introduced an integrated solid waste management system that is efficient,

cost-effective, and environmentally sound with maximum involvement of the local community. This

municipality is growing fast which is located in the Dhankuta district. Because it is also the

administrative headquarter of the Dhankuta district. Looking at the growth of the Dhankuta

municipality waste is going to be one of the serious problems in the future. So in this study will help

to analyze the plans and their implementation which can be helpful to grab the opportunities from

waste management for both public and the local government. Nepal is one of the least developed

countries where the majority of the population lives in rural areas. However, in recent years the

urbanization rate became rampant in the country which competes for available land space as well as

generates more wastes. Although proper management of solid waste is essential for urban sanitation
4
and the environment, many municipalities are not able to manage the generated wastes. Due to lack of

infrastructure, technical and financial backup, almost all municipalities are struggling with the

disposal of MSW. The generation of methane from landfills can provide another option for recycling

of organic waste as well as recover biogas simultaneously. Where the other municipalities are

struggling with the management of solid waste on the other hand Dhankuta municipality is the

cleanest city in Nepal. This municipality has proved solid waste doesn't only bring problems of health

and environment but if it managed properly it can be beneficial for the development of the local sector.

In the context of the study area, it has been able to handle the waste very efficiently than any other

municipality in Nepal. From unhealthy dirty municipality to cleanest municipality what were the

challenges and how these can be converted in opportunities are the main thing that other part of the

country needs to know.

1.2 Integrated waste management

Waste management is the problem of the world but the developing or

underdeveloped countries have more or severe problems than developed countries. Solving the

problem of waste is getting only more difficult for the developing countries because of the lack of

proper amount of capital and these kinds of problems are not properly recognized by the population of

the particular country. For the first time, integrated waste management was realized during the 1970s

at a point U.S environmental protection agency expressed that ways of waste management cannot be

common around in the country or around the globe due to the nature of the waste(Nordon, et al., 2009).

IWM not only takes environmental aspect but also economic and social aspects as well. The reason

for applying this kind of method is to become cost-effective, socially acceptable, and which could

decrease the environmental impact. The planning process includes all the dimensions of waste from

the creation of waste to the collection, care until the ending to the dumping sites. The highlights are,

5
 o Waste flow is taken from generation to disposal to landfill,

o Use of the different method of collection, treatment and disposal methods,

o Economically possible to implement,

o Accepted by the social norms and society,

o Finally helpful to contribute to the sustainable environment.

As described above the most crucial factor of IWM is to use a mixture of different kinds of

techniques for a different kind of waste according to its nature, to have a low effect on the

environment with the maximum profit to the society. Integrated waste management (IWM) is widely

used in developed countries but it can also be implemented in developing countries the only difference

will be the approach and the final result because of the nature of waste and the availability of means to

cope with the problem.

Table 1 waste management developing and developed countries comparision (Un-HABITAT,

2010).

Developed countries Developing countries

Big investment Small investment

Skillful labor Unskilled/semi-skilled labor

Expensive worker Cheap worker

A high content of dry packaging high content of wet packaging

Waste monitored waste is monitored

6
 In this report, the Dhankuta municipality of Nepal is taken as the case study. The country is

located in South Asia. Nepal is taken as a lower-income country according to the World Bank. The

characteristics of Nepal are the same as any developing nation basis of economic activity and waste

production. The living standard differs vastly in urban and rural areas but the study area is a mixture

of urban and rural since it is a comparatively newly founded municipality. But the composition of

waste is similar to other parts of the country where most of the waste is organic or bio-degradable.

This part of the country is one of the cleanest cities in Nepal some of the integrated waste

management (IMW) is implemented.

An IWM is an attractive solution as it creates a situation of "win-win-win" between social

benefit, economic profitability, and environmental protection. Nevertheless implementing such

management is based on a complete picture of the situation and the use of a combination of techniques.

A community willing to use an IWM will have to take a few steps before having efficient waste

management. They are summarized below:

• Waste analysis and monitoring

• Move from uncontrolled dumping to sanitary landfill

• Separation of the organic fraction

• Involvement of the informal sector

Once a good and reliable overall perspective of the waste flow is known, the IWM process can

be carried out with the implementation of a panel of techniques to treat the wastes to have the most

efficient waste management plan.

7
1.3 Waste management methods
Different kinds of methods can be used to reduce the effect of waste on the general population

and the environment. But the important thing that matters is not only the proper allocation of the waste

but also the fund that is available for the management of the waste.

1.3.1 Incineration

Incineration is mostly used in the developed nation because this process is very expensive to build and

keep it running. During this process, waste is burnt down to reduce the amount of waste and the

byproduct is heat. Further heat can also be used in the industrial purpose for heating or the production

of energy in the form of electricity. This method is expensive because of the equipment needed not

only for the process of burning but also for the types of equipment needed for the control of the gas

coming during the burn and even the final product which is ash is ending in landfill which also needs

other equipment.

1.3.2 Anaerobic Digestion

This process can be very useful in developing or underdeveloped countries because a big portion

of the waste is organic. But the problem for the implementation of this process segregation of the

waste which is normally is not done in developing parts of the world. This process is done with the

help of microorganisms with very strict rules and methods, during the process of digestion no oxygen

is used with a very low amount of water. The final product is fertilizer and it is used in agriculture like

mentioned above it can only be done with organic material that needs to be sorted before the process

is started.

1.3.3 Composting

8
 This is the most commonly used method of reducing waste. This method is applied even at the

household level to get manure for the kitchen garden. This process is almost the same as digestion

because it also uses the microorganism but with the aerobic condition. This method needs waste from

food and garden waste also including paper and biodegradable material. This method is comparatively

cheap and easy to implement than other method but it might be a little expensive if done in a huge

quantity because it should be done under strict methods to get high-quality end products which are

manure. The give good economic by selling the manure since it is not chemical fertilizer and helps to

maintain a good quality of the soil. But the difficulty for this method is the market when everyone is

using chemical fertilizer to increase productivity. If proper channels are made with good policy to

promote this method it can be very beneficial in countries like Nepal.

1.3.4 Recycle and Reuse

Recycle and Reuse is one of the best methods to control and reduce the amount of waste. This

method is popular in both developed and developing countries but the big difference is in developed

countries it is done by creating a formal way on a big scale to extract high-value material and in

developing countries is done on a small scale. The other thing that affects this process is segregation

of the waste. Because if separation is done at the source it is less costly to scavenge the recyclable

material in other words is it becomes cost-effective. Even though this process is promoted widely but

recycling or reuse is only if there are potential markets. This suggests that there must easily access and

availability of the companies from the place of segregation. Recycling depends on various factors like

price, transport facility, and roads. Recycle is beneficial or applicable to any kind of economy because

if any country can provide high-end equipment it can be done in big quantity with maximum

economic benefit on the other hand if there is no such facility it can be done by the informal sector in

small scale.
9
 The problem with recycling in a developing country is it is mostly done by the informal sector

because it is taken as a work of low cast or poor people. So people doing this of work help to divert a

large amount of waste from landfills to recycling industries. The scavengers are most likely to get

different kinds of diseases because they are who visit the landfill and extract the valuable material in

developing countries like Nepal. The informal sector or the scavenging is popular on the one hand

because it is cheap on the other side it is not appreciated by the local people. After all, they think

scavengers get the money from their waste. So in Nepal, the scavengers who visit the homes of people

buy the recyclable material. This provides a win-win situation for both parties.

A better situation can be created with the implementation of the IWM system among the society,

economy, and environmental aspects. But the implementation of IWM is only possible with a clear

view of the situation of waste and utilization of various techniques. Any economy can adopt an

integrated waste management system but they have to follow some preliminary process to achieve

maximum benefits. Depending on the nature of waste and for the successful waste management

following process can be followed,

1.3.5 Landfill

The landfill is the most popular and commonly used method of waste management in both the

developed and developing worlds. Landfill can be seen in two ways first one is which are in

developing countries where mostly open dumping is done which cause environmental problem leading

to health hazards, the other one is controlled dumping found mainly in developed countries or where

there is proper policy for waste management. Controlled dumping can be very beneficial in terms of

the environment and economically. Controlled landfill sites are built in a way that it doesn’t let the
10
pollutants getaway which affects the environment not only this with this process or method there is the

possibility of extracting one of the very potential gas called methane and it can be used in mostly in

two ways, first is used as fuel for cooking and heating, the other one is for the generation of electricity.

1.4 Statement of the problem

Urbanization or expansion of the urban areas is needed for the increase of economic activity in

certain areas. But the rate of urbanization may be different concerning the place and with the

availability of facilities like health, education, transport, employment opportunities, and many others.

And places which are just developing these infrastructures for the future in this case urbanization may

bring one of the biggest problems of the 21st century that is waste and its management. This becomes

a major problem if proper attention and management are not from the beginning. Urbanization helps

to develop a country on one hand but the other, it brings out the problem like overpopulation and

environmental degradation, etc. urbanization and waste generation go simultaneously. These things

create the problem of coping with waste and its management.

Nepal is on the way to rapid overall development within the country. (UN DESA, 2014)

Currently, Nepal is one of the less urbanized nations around the globe but it is one of the fastest top

ten urbanizing countries with a rate of 18.2% in the urban areas and the overall rate of urbanization is

3%. With rapid urbanization, there is also a rapid increase in solid waste. Still, a large proportion of

the population lives in semi-urban or rural areas of Nepal who are trying to upgrade their life and want

to move to urban areas but these moving populations from rural areas have the same consciousness as

11
it was. Where they dispose of the waste to open sites, water sources, or where people don't live. This

creates challenges for the proper management of the waste. Due to rapid development and

urbanization, the matter of waste management has been out of the picture creating problems on human

health and the environment. But with the increased waste, it brings challenges with the opportunity

which might b helpful for the country to work on waste management and development.

Waste has been taken as a problem since late 1980 in Nepal. From the beginning to till now the

waste management has been considered as the work of the low caste people or “Dalit” in Nepal. In the

past, people from these castes were assigned to clean the cities with very few assistants from any local

or governmental body. Traditionally people from these castes were hired by town administrations to

collect solid wastes, most often equipped with primitive tools such as a buffalo rib to lift waste and a

Kharpan (basket slung on the shoulder) to carry and dump the collected waste in the nearby open field

of on river banks (Thapa, 2008).

Nepal used to be a Hindu nation in the world with very deep-rooted traditional and religious

values. And the concept of being or feeling the responsibility for one’s waste produces management

conflicts with traditional beliefs and cultures. Traditionally waste management or the work of cleaning

were thought to be done by the low caste people and when the work was finished the disposal was

done to the nearby rivers or the open field (IUCN, 1989).

The activity of waste collection, disposal is the responsibility of local municipal or city

offices generally they have been lacking the waste management ability. But in recent years

municipality like Dhankuta has seen the waste management is not the wok of the low caste people but

the responsibility of all the members of the society. These changes were only possible because of the

education provided by different organizations including governmental and the Non-Profit

Organization (NGOs) which might be organized by the international institution or the government.

12
1.5 Objectives of the Study
The first objective of this study is an analysis of the current situation of solid waste management in

Nepal while discovering the challenges and the opportunities with the case of Dhankuta municipality.

The specific objectives are as follows:

i. To find the current solid waste management system.

ii. To analyze the sources and composition of solid waste

iii. To determine the challenges and opportunities for solid waste management

1.6 Significance of the Study

At present solid waste management has emerged as a serious urban environmental

problem. Currently, some efforts are being made to tackle these problems. However, it does not seem

to be sustainable. This study tries to view the overall waste problem and waste management system of

the Dhankuta municipality. The present study is important as it gives information about how the

concerned authorities are dealing with the solid waste problem to manage them properly using modern

and advanced technology and with the involvement of the local people.

13
 CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Theoretical Review

Urbanization, industrialization and rapid economic growth around the globe has seen the

complicated task of waste management which is generated daily from various sources. Waste depends

on the way of life of the people, which means the income, consumption habits of people. Urban

establishment and migration to urban areas have increased the pressure of the waste around the world.

“Increasing urban establishment industrialization and the migration is going to make the process of

waste management more difficult if the better ways are not approached" (Gupta, 2012). Waste

generation is an everlasting process because human consumption is also everlasting, so the right way

to cope with the problem is to find them before the problem gets much worse for the future generation.

Giving attention to waste management will provide a healthy environment hygienic living conditions

to the future generation. All these topics have attracted a lot of studies by many scholars with several

scientific pieces of research, empirical studies, and reports. So the literature review has been

constructed based on all available journals, articles, reports, academic researches, and published books.

Underdeveloped or developing countries' nature of waste depends on the level of income. The higher

level of income means people living in more urban areas and consumption and on the other hand,

people from a rural area with low levels of income consume from what they have around them. So in

context to Nepal, most of the high-level people dwell in or around the capital city Kathmandu. Most

waste is also generated in the capital city. Since the amount of waste is increasing the problem of

waste management is not effective because there were not appropriate plans and policies for the future.

Kathmandu is one of the dirtiest cities in Asia. Here are some of the quotes made by scholars around

14
the world about waste management fo the literature review. Palnitkar (2000) has defined solid waste

as a term especially used to describe non- liquid waste material that comes from the household,

internal trade, commercial, agricultural, and manufacturing or industrial activities.

In developing countries even with waste management, it only concentrates where there are high

profile people, commercial areas, etc. Cointreau (1991) analyzed the effectiveness of waste collection

in developing countries. He concluded that waste collection differs rather strongly and priority is

usually given to commercial areas, main streets, and more prosperous neighbors. Besides, many poor

urban areas live in unmanaged and unauthorized areas which exclude this population of urban area

from municipal service. Most municipal solid waste management schemes spend the maximum

amount of their budget on the collection and transportation of waste, but only 50% to 70% of the

waste generated is collected and less than 50% of the population is served. Urbanization and

industrialization have increased the problem of waste. (Spreen 1995), analyzed that the waste products

are the result of urbanization and Industrialization, Migration from rural to urban areas, and improved

medical care, combined with birth rates, led to an enormous growth of urban population a

development, which of course, increased waste volume greatly. Industrial development has led to the

manufacture of many new inorganic substances. He concluded that since these substances cannot

decompose; the natural process of waste transformation does not absorb these substances.

With the increase in urbanization, the consumption also starts to change and people go to non-

biodegradable and inorganic material in the same context Becker (1997), made a study on community

organization and assessed that change in quality and composition of municipal solid waste in south

Asian cities is directly related to political- economic and social factors. He assessed that the

composition of waste in Nepal has shifted toward more inorganic and non- biodegradable waste since

the 1950s. Besides, the major reasons for the change in composition can be traced to the rising

standard of living and change in public taste. Since the amount and composition of waste are
15
increasing and changing Miller (1998), has discussed the 3 major ways to deal with solid waste: throw

away output approaches, resource recovery output approaches, and input approaches. He said that the

throw-away output approaches on which we primarily rely should be shifted to sustainable earth or

low-waste approach. With this approach, most of what we throw away would not be viewed as solid

waste but as wasted solids, which should be reused, recycled, or burned to provide energy. He further

adds this resource recovery output approach can be coupled with input approaches designed to

produce less solid waste.

Jumelet (1999), referenced solid waste management as a basic urban administration, which

expects to accomplish the targets, for example, insurance of general wellbeing, the advancement of

cleanliness, recycling of materials, and decrease of emission and residuals. According to him, the

sound city must have an arranged program for the collection, proper taking care of, and removal of

solid waste to make a sheltered and pleasant urban condition.

Booth (2001), has stated that solid waste includes the whole range of rubbish, garbage, sludge, and

other discarded solid materials, including those from industrial, commercial, and agricultural

operations and from community activities that are no large wanted or needed by their users.

Garg et. al. (2002), studied the Management and Handling of solid waste in India. Further, they have

mentioned the Municipal solid wastes (Management and Handling) Rules, 2000 notified by the

Ministry of Environment and Forest (India) on 27th September 2000 to regulate the management and

handling of the municipal solid waste. This is an attempt to provide a set of rules and responsibilities

for all municipal solid waste in a scientific manner.

UNDP, (2007) shows that appropriate solid waste management could not be always functioned well

because of a lack of common consciousness, frequent communication, and technical knowledge and

skill in addition to the existence of a kind of the territorial imperative. However, through the study, it
16
can be set a high valuation on the fact the all concerned especially Technical Working Group (TWG)

and Task Force (T/F) members could stand up and work together for proper management of solid

waste.

Divan and Rosencranz (2011), carried out the study on the environmental law and policy in India in

which they discussed the report prepared for the Planning Commission in 1995 in India. This report

acknowledges the progressive decline in the standard of services concerning the collection and

disposal of waste.

Thapa and Devkota (2013), carried out the study of the Waste Management System in Kathmandu and

have categorized the management system of solid waste into three categories primary or household,

secondary, and tertiary level of management. They assessed that if these three levels of waste

management go systematically then obviously there will be appropriate solid waste management. But

there is dissatisfaction in every level of management due to which the service has been inadequate and

ineffective and urban people are facing problems.

Sinha (2014), presented a paper about solid waste management in urban areas in Malaysia. In this

paper, she mentioned that the proper storage, collection, transportation, and disposal of urban solid

waste were essential to protect public health. She emphasized that the disposal of municipal's solid

waste was an obligatory and function of the local authorities under the existing urban legislation

2.2 Policies Review

2.2.1 The Constitution of Nepal, 2072 (2015):
17
 The Constitution of Nepal, 2072 has made a notable provision in the field of environmental

protection. As per the constitution of Nepal Article 30, Rights regarding a clean environment: (1)

Every citizen shall have the right to live in a healthy and clean environment. (2) The victim of

environmental pollution and degradation shall have the right to be compensated by the pollutant as

provided for by law. (3) Provided that this Article shall not be deemed to obstruct the making of

required legal provisions to strike a balance between environment and development for the use of

national development works. (4). Imposes substantial political obligations upon the State in the sense

that environmentally concerned citizens and interest groups can utilize this provision to command

public attention on the environmental performance of the national government. As per the constitution

of Nepal Article, 51 (4) Making proper utilization of land through proper regulation and management

based on productivity of land, its nature, and also by maintaining environmental balance. Policy

regarding the conservation, management, and use of natural resources: (1) The State shall pursue a

policy of conserving the natural resources available in the country by imbibing the norms of inter-

generation judicious use of it and for the national interest. It shall also be about its sustainable use in

an environmentally friendly way. The policy shall ensure the fair distribution of the benefits generated

by it by giving local people the priority and preferential rights. (5) The State shall pursue a policy of

making sustainable use of biodiversity through the conservation and management o forests, fauna and

flora, and by minimizing the negative impacts of industrialization and physical development by

promoting public awareness on environmental cleanliness and protection. (6) The State shall pursue a

policy of keeping necessary landmass as a forest area to strike an environmental balance.

2.2.2Environment Protection Act, 2053 (1997):

Although no direct provision relating to the solid Waste Management exists in the

Environmental Protection Act, 2053, it has provisions relevant to the management of solid waste. As
18
per the constitution of Nepal environment protection act 2053(1997) sections 3 and 4 of the act, there

are provisions for carrying out of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) or Initial Environmental

Examination (IEE) and the prohibition on Implementation of a proposal requiring EIA without

approval. This is particularly significant for the operation of a few facilities like landfill sites,

dumping sites, etc. Section 7 of the act emphasizes the prevention and control of pollution. Under the

provisions of subsection under section 7, nobody shall create pollution in such a manner as to cause

significant adverse impacts on the environment or likely to the hazardous to public life and people's

health. In case any person commits, any acts under the Act or the rules or guidelines framer under the

act, the prescribed authority can close down such acts immediately and punish the offender according

to the degree of offense, with a line up to fifty thousand rupees.

2.2.3 Environment Protection Rules, 2054 (1997):

The Environment Protection Rules (EPR) is framed on the grounds of the power

conferred by Section 24 of the constitution of Nepal Environment Protection Act, 2054. The rules

prescribed in the Environment Protection Rules (EPR) also have significance in the management of

solid waste. According to rule 3 of the EPR, a proponent (of a project) is required to carry out an IEE

of the proposals mentioned in Schedule 1 and an EIA of the proposals mentioned in Schedule 2. The

proposals related to municipal solid waste management in Schedule 1 and 2 of the EPR are given

below.

2.2.4 Constitution of Nepal environment protection rule 2054 Schedule 1:

1. Waste Management activities to be undertaken to provide facilities to public between 2,000 and

10,000

2. Following activities regarding to waste generated from households and residential areas:

a) Land fill between 100 to 1000 tons of waste a year.

19
b) Transfer station and resource recovery area should not be expanded more than 3 hector.

c) Dispose and recycle of waste with chemical or biological way should be conducted in an area of 2

hector.

d) Compost plant can be installed between an area of 1 to 5 hector.

2.2.5 Constitution of Nepal environment protection rule 2054 Schedule 2:

1. Waste management activities to be undertaken to provide services to a population of more than

10,000.

2. Activities relating to waste generation from households and residential areas:

a) Land filling with more than 1000 tons of waste per year.

b) Transfer station and resource recovery area should done more than 3 hector

c) Dispose and recycle of waste with chemical or biological way should be conducted in an area of

more than 2 hector.

d) Compost plant can be installed in area of over 5 hector.

2.2.6 Solid Waste Management National policy, 2053(1996)

National Policy for Solid Waste Management is another important legal documents concerned with

the solid waste management. The policy has the following objectives

• Effective and simple waste management.

• Utilization of the solid waste for resources recovery

• Minimization of environmental pollution and adverse effect on human life by waste

20
• Privatization of solid waste management

• Increase in public awareness towards the sanitization for public participation.

The strategy adopted by the policy for achieving its objectives is the promotion of public participation,

technology, resource mobilization, and privatization. The policy points out the national and local level

institutions responsible for the management of solid waste and describes the responsibilities and legal

authority of these institutions. According to the policy, a national level institution should be formed by

His Majesty's Government Nepal for the management of solid waste. In the case of local institutions,

the policy mentions the Mahanagarpalika, Nagarpalika, and Village Development Committees (VDC)

as responsible for the management of solid waste and related activities.

2.2.7 Local Self Governance Act, 2055 (1999):

The Local Self Governance Act in the section 96 subsection C under the heading of Functions Duties

and Power of Municipality and Relating to Water Resources, Environment and Sanitation authorities

and makes the municipality responsible to carry out or cause to be carried out and manage the acts of

collection, transportation, and disposal of garbage and solid wastes.

2.3 Empirical Review

Udash, (2004) discussed the public health hazards in Kathmandu city and found out that though the

city has urbanized and modernized, water supplied for public sewage disposal system, and public

sanitation are not actively constructed. Thapa (2008) Ringeltaube, in the article, 'The need for a

system to Solid Waste Disposal and Collection' mentions that the waste management system needs

active co-operation and participation of all citizens. It describes that the method of collection of waste

from streets and its transfer to community sins and from there to vehicles need to be modified so that

21
the waste is carried out more effectively and the chances of adversely affecting the health of workers

reduced. Equipment will have to be designed which satisfies the typical local problems and give

economical operations. Spreen (2009), in the article 'Solid Waste Management with people's

participation' describes the urban SWM project in Katmandu valley and shows the appropriate

approaches that can provide a successful solution. The article concludes that urban waste management

has the crucial task to provide the urban poor with proper sanitary living conditions. The financial and

technical resources generally available in the third 14 world are inadequate to cope with this issue.

Lastly, it focuses that, urban change must not mean copying modern lifestyle from the so-called

developed world. Traditional ways of life should be enhanced. They proved to be sustainable for

centuries and should be given proper consideration in urban programming. Pradhan, (2011) in a report

on solid waste management practice in Kathmandu cited the problem in locating landfill sites at

Gokarna with the increase in urbanization and population. The study on the Gokarna landfill site

mention that the local people opposed for landfilling when they realized that they were not involved

when their locality was selected to landfill. The detailed study on the Gokarna landfill site indicates

that the frequent opposition from the local people was also because SWMRMC/KMC was unable to

provide them the total amount of money that was to be provided for as per the agreement made for the

village development works. Sharma (2012) has made a study on the impact of domestic and industrial

wastes on river pollution in Kathmandu. The study was based on a two-year monitoring exercise.

According to the study, the daily per capita waste generation in the Kathmandu valley is 400 gm. The

density of waste was estimated to be 350- 400gm/cm3 .the domestic sewage and industrial effluents

are discharged directly into the Bagmati and Bishnumati rivers and other streams in Kathmandu. The

major industries discharging into rivers in Katmandu are Banswari Tannery, The Balaju Industrial

District, several carpet factories, The Jawalakhel Distillery, and The Patan Industrial District. The

bacteriological study of the sample showed the total number of coliform bacteria per 100 ml of

22
effluents on the Bagmati River was more than 4800. A chemical study of the affluent and the river

water showed high conductivity of 9.73 µs/cm, BOD was 420mg/l, and chloride 396 mg/l which

indicates the maximum bacterial activities and it also indicates the presence of a large amount of

organic substance. Gautam, (2015), "Solid Waste Management System in Kathmandu Metropolitan

City" presented the solid waste management situation in ward 27 of Kathmandu Valley. He has also

mentioned the involvement of NGOs in that area and conflict arose between local people, kuchikars,

and ward representatives. He also describes that the solid waste in the study area are residential and

commercial which consists of both organic and inorganic. The daily waste production in the study

area ranges from 15 0.17 kg/head /day in Tyouda to 0.25 kg in Ason. 58.3percent of the households

use a plastic bag to collect solid waste which has retarded for effective SWM. So, he suggests

adopting alternative tools such as a basket for collecting the wastes. Kathmandu Metropolitan City

(2016) According to research launched on Kathmandu by KMC, the book "Chikitsajanya Phohar

Byawasthapan Nirdeshika" mentions that, from the hospitals of Kathmandu, of the waste produced

average 1.72 kg/patient /day, only 26percent is found to be harmful. Simply 80percent of waste

produced from houses and hospitals or offices were equivalent to simple wastes. Only 20percent are

harmful but if we do not separate them properly, the whole waste will be a harmful one. So, it

suggests separating the waste at the source before managing it. The Katmandu Post April 9, 2017,

published the article that 1,000 cubic meters waste produced in Katmandu in bulk. If this bulk volume

is stored, we can get 67percent of organic materials, 11percent of plastics, 5percent of construction

scraps, 4percent of fibers, 2percent of glass, and 1percent of metals. Analyses revealed that about

70percent of waste could be composted.

CHAPTER III

23
 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research Design

Both analytical and descriptive research design was used to complete this study. Quantitative data

were analyzed by using analytical research design because such types of data indicate the perception

of the respondents in quantitative mode and qualitative data were analyzed by using descriptive

research design by using paragraph description and finding the opportunities and the challenges of

waste management.

3.2 Selection of study area

Dhankuta Municipality is taken as the case study. This municipality is developing in terms of

infrastructure and other economic activities and the amount of solid waste is also increasing

proportionately but the municipality has been able to manage the waste to some extent. Not only this

there has been an increase in economic activities brought by proper waste management like building

the park on top of dumping site from the organic material waste, recycling of non-biodegradable waste.

The selected area is the cleanest city in Nepal with the reference of this municipality the challenges

and opportunities will be discussed. Even the amount of waste in a bigger municipality is very bigger

but with the same policies and implementation, the problem of waste management can be solved or

handled.

3.3 Nature and Sources of Data Collection

The present study was based on both primary and secondary data. Secondary data were used in the

literature review and that were collected through library study methods and books, articles, journals,

previous thesis are used as the main sources of secondary data. Primary data were collected from the

field by using various data collection techniques such as questionnaires and observation chick lists.

24
 CHAPTER IV

DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

4.1 Background history of Nepal

Nepal is the oldest country in South Asia because it is never colonized. But the

modernizations of the nation started after the fall of the Rana regime in the late 1940s. After the fall of

the Rana regime infrastructural development and reforms were introduced in Nepal. Nepal has seen a

lot of political changes from the past to the current period. In the 1990s people, the movement started

so the king had to accept constitutional reforms and to establish a multiparty democracy. But after the

massacre of the royal family in 2001 brother of the king was ascended in the throne. During 1996 a
25
different kind of movement had been started by the Maoist party which caused the death of 16000

lives around the country. And on 28 May 2008, Nepal is declared as a Federal republic country.

Afterward, on 20 September 2015 new constitution was introduced. Since then there has been no civil

war and the country is going on the way of prosperity with stability. The first president of Nepal was

Ram Baran Yadav.

The population of Nepal is 26,494 505 according to the census of 2011 (CBS 2011 Nepal).

4.2 Economic activity

Nepal is one of the low-income countries in the world. After the declaration of the Federal

Democratic Republic Nepal is trying to have steady growth in the economy. According to the World

Bank economy of Nepal depends mainly on remittance, tourism, and agriculture. In the last three

years, economic growth has been stable with 7.1% in the fiscal year 2019(World Bank 2018a). The

economy of Nepal is supported significantly by the service sector with a contribution of 57% followed

by an agricultural activity which is 24% (World Bank 2018a). Nepal also depends on the remittance of

the working migrants in different parts of the world. After the declaration of the Federal Democratic

Republic, Nepal has been trying to decrease the gap of trade deficit and to some extent, it has been

achieved in the year 2019. After the civil war number of tourists has increased largely which has

promoted a lot of service industry in the country. Tourism has pushed different sectors like the retail

sector, real state, transport, and hotel business (World Bank 2018a). Nepal’s stable revenue is mainly

supported by the income tax on individual revenue of 2 million Nepali rupees which is 20% higher

excise duty on alcohol and tobacco and the luxury items (World Bank 2018a).

4.3 Waste management in Nepal

Since Nepal is one of the under-developed countries the current focus is on infrastructural

development for better economic growth because of that still there are few data available for waste

26
management. In 2011 the Government of Nepal introduced the Solid Waste Management Act to be

implemented from 15 June 2011. This Act aimed to ensure a clean and healthy environment for all by

reducing the impact of solid waste on society and the environment. After the declaration of the

constitution with this new Act, all the local authorities were made responsible for the management of

generated in the respective municipality. Taking control over the waste in urban areas is one of the

challenging tasks. In the same way with rapid urbanization, Nepal is also struggling with the problem

of unwanted waste.

Nepal is also struggling with keeping the data of waste generation because of a lack of scientific ways

to track waste and its final disposal. Due to a lack of financial and management skills, most municipal

or urban areas are struggling with the proper management of waste. But this not work that can be

achieved only by the effort of the authorities but it needs the proper involvement of the public. Still, in

the Cities, most of the waste is discarded on the sides of roads or nearby rivers or water sources. And

wastes discarded in this manner are cleaned by the municipal street sweepers and according to

Kathmandu Metropolitan City office “1300 people are working to clean the street and this number is

almost 60% of the total staff of municipal office.”According to a survey done by Asian Development

Bank in Nepal(2013) “in major cities collection of the range between 70% to 90% but the small

municipality, it is only about 50% and the remaining waste is either dumped nearby road or burnt

down without any proper way”. The data provided by the municipality about the collection of waste

may be overestimated by the municipalities because there is no scientific way of data collection and

compilation (ADB, 2013). Transport and final disposal is also the main problem most of the cities due

to lack of sanitary landfill sites, there are only 6 sanitary landfill sites and other municipalities use the

open dumping sites (ADB, 2013).

27
According to the study conducted by Asian Development Bank (2013) waste generation in

Nepal(0.32kg/capita/day) is still lower than low-income countries(0.60kg/capita/day) and south Asian

countries (o.45kg/capita/day).

4.4 Dhankuta Municipality Background

Dhankuta district is one of the 14 districts in province 1 in the eastern region of Nepal. Dhankuta

is a hilly district of the eastern hill region of Nepal. This district covers the total area of 891 km2 with

a population of 163,412 (CBS 2011 Nepal). Headquarter of the district is Dhankuta municipality

which is the most populated urban settlement of the district with 36,619 (CBS 2011 Nepal). The

municipality is considered as small-sized municipality due to the low population. Almost all parts of

the municipality have good access to roads, communication, and transportation. However, only a little

part of the municipality has a rural area which has a large population. Dhankuta municipality was

established in 1987 since it is a small-sized municipality still most of the land is used as agricultural

land.

4.5 Waste management in Dhankuta Municipality

In Nepal where most of the municipalities are struggling with the problem of waste, on the other

hand, Dhakuta was declared as the cleanest city in the country by the Government of Nepal in 2017

and was able to receive the prize money of 10 million of Nepalese rupee. It was the second time when

Dhankuta Municipality was listed as one the cleanest city before that second place was secured.

Before being recognized as the cleanest city in the country Dhankuta Municipality was no different

than any other problem facing the municipality.

This became only possible when the World Bank mobilized the project of the Output-Based Aid

(OBA) project in solid waste management (2013). During that selection of target municipality, 5

municipalities were selected by the OBA project Tansen Municipality, Dhankuta Municipality,

28
Ghorahi sub-Metropolitan city, Pokhara Metropolitan City, and Lalitpur Metropolitan city and target

of the project was to benefit 800,000 people around these cities in solid waste management. After the

selection, Dhankuta Municipality utilized the full potential of the project and gained a lot and was able

to be the cleanest city. The purpose of the OBA project in SWM was to reduce the gap between the

cost of proper Solid waste Management and income that the municipal office can collect from services

provided and make the municipality independent in solid waste management (GPOBA World Bank

2015). Following the lesson learned from the project, Dhankuta Municipality continued proper waste

management.

According to the data provided by the Municipal office every day 10 tons are produced. And the

portion of the organic or bio-degradable is more than 50%. People after getting proper training from

the project now can utilize organic waste as animal fodder, compost manure which is mostly used in

the kitchen garden at home, and the excess amount is sold in the market. The other half which is non-

biodegradable goes to the dumping sites is managed or taken care of by local entrepreneurs by

recycling. For business, the municipal office receives 50,000 Nepalese rupees as the royalty the

business also provides jobs to 9 people. The workers go every day to the landfill site and collect the

recyclable and reusable material and those materials are sold to enterprises in other metropolitan like

Dharan, Ithari, Biratnagar, and even to Jogbani in India. Municipal offices have created a different

source of income from the dumping site because there is a small park is built on top of dumped waste

and office collect 5,000 Nepalese rupees from the government official who comes to visit the site.

And annual income is around 20 million Nepalese rupees according to Dhankuta Municipality.

For the purpose of study population size is chosen randomly from different area of Dhankuta

Municipality regardless any ethnicity, religion, occupation, age or sex. The purpose of taking random

population is that mostly waste is concentrated in market are where population density is higher than

surrounding area if data collection is done in that particular area there might be the possibility of
29
misinterpretation of data. The result might show higher rate waste management when the collection of

differ on the basis of population. There were total 50 respondent who were interviewed and the

collected data explains the understanding ways of taking care of refuse from their particular household,

and finally their opinion about the waste management system in Dhankuta Municipality.

4.5.1 Composition of waste

Composition of municipal solid waste is similar to other municipalities; organic waste has the

biggest part in the waste. The rapid growth of urbanization and high density of population give rise to

many problems like solid waste management etc. Like in many urban areas, Dhankuta municipality is

also facing the problem of solid waste management. The increasing amount of municipal solid waste

being generated has become a serious problem to urban managers due to its impact on public health

and sanitary condition. But the better side in Dhankuta municipality is that most of the organic waste

is segregated and either converted in compost or used as animal fodder. Due to which only recyclable

waste goes to landfill and that is also recycled. According to the study made by Asian Development

Bank in 2013 fraction of organic waste 59.6%,followed by plastic 17.9%, paper and paper product

11.9%,metal

1.29%, textiles
3.05 ORGANIC WASTE
0.25
1.29 3.05% rubber
6.04 PLASTIC

PAPER AND PAPER and leather

11.9
PRODUCT
METALS 0.25% and
17.86 59.61 TEXTILE
others 6.04%.
RUBBER AND LEATHER

OTHERS

Figure 1 Asian Development Bank 2013

30
4.5.2 Waste production in different sector

Nature of waste is different according to the sector. Here we are mostly

emphasizing on the municipal waste generated in any municipality that are non-hazardous like

medical or chemical waste. Dhankuta municipality is a small-sized municipality so most of the waste

is produced from household, commercial sector and the intuitional sector. There is huge difference in

waste production in respect to different sector like household waste contains mostly organic waste

which is mostly commonly used as the fodder for animal or for the preparation of compost manure on

the other hand commercial and institutional sector contains mostly recyclable and reusable matter like

paper, plastic and etc. according to study made by Asian Development Bank in 2013 the following

table shows the amount of different kind of waste produced by the respective sector.

Table 1 Asian Development Bank 2013

Waste production by sector

Type of waste Household Commercial sector Intuitional sector

Organic waste 59.61% 37.93% 16.9%

Plastics 17.86% 17.42% 20.8%

Paper and paper 11.9% 21.07% 40.25%

products

Glass 0 0 0

Metals 1.28% 4.16% 0.46%

Textiles 3.05% 8.15% 0

Rubber and leather 0.25% 0 0.46%

Others 6.04 11.28% 21.12%

31
 From the above table we can see that the quantity of different kind of waste produced

from these sector is entirely different. For instance share or organic waste is almost 3 times the

organic waste and on the same way paper and paper product waste almost 4 time higher in intuitional

sector than household.

4.5.3 Waste collection frequency

Waste collection frequency done with the available resources and manpower. Similarly

the collection period depends on various factor like size of municipality quantity and nature of waste.

For an instance big size metropolitan cities need frequent waste collection in comparisons to small

sized municipality. This study area is small sized municipality even though waste collection is done

on daily at market area and it becomes less frequent outside the populated area. The following table

shows the frequency of waste collection in Dhankuta Municipality.

Table 2 Waste collection frequency

Collection frequency from different sources

Area Roadside Open piles Door to Door

Densely populated Daily Daily Almost daily

(Market places)

Outside the market Daily Daily 2 to 3 times a week

area

Semi-rural parts 2 times a week 3 times week 1 times week

Source Field Survey 2019

32
4.5.4Participants' having Knowledge about Solid Waste Management

Every municipality have big pool of people and different people have different

perspective about the same thing or topic. In the same way resident who participated in this study also

have different level education which shows their understanding towards waste management. Since

World Bank provided support for the waste management in Dhankuta Municipality understanding of

people about waste management has changed and think different in a positive way so the table below

shows the peoples knowledge or if they know about waste management or not

Table 3 Participants' Having Knowledge about Solid Waste Management

Knowledge No of Participants Percentage

Yes 41 82

No 9 18

Total 50 100

Source: Field Survey, 2019

4.5.5 Place of Dumping Household Waste by the Participants

After the involvement of World Bank in Dhankuta Municipality waste management has surely

changed but in this study population is taken randomly to know overall understanding of waste

management so this table shows behavior of people about the disregard of the waste in their

way. In this table highest percentage of people dump their waste on the road side. This

happened because even in densely populated area some people don’t segregate their waste for

the reuse or purpose.

33
 Table 4 Place of Dumping Household Waste by the Participants

Places No of Participants Percentage

Container 12 24

Open space 8 16

Backyard 10 20

Roadway 15 30

Others 5 10

Total 50 100

Source: Field Survey, 2019

4.5.6Opinions of the Participants about the Increasing of Solid Wastes in Municipality

In this section of questionnaire were asked about how the quantity of waste is

increasing in their municipality. Most of the participant gave of rapid population growth. Since it

is located in hilly area people from mountain region migrate to that palce in search of better

facility. The other group told that food habit is another reason because after the development of

different restaurant in the area people try to go the these kind of place for new taste and the with

increase in number of customer more and more waste is generated.

34
 Table 5 Opinions of the Participants about the Increasing of Solid Wastes in Municipality

How do you think the solid waste in increasing day No of Percentag

e
by day? Participants

Due to population increase 20 40

Change in food habit 15 30

Not taking care of it 10 20

Other 5 10

Total 50 100

Source: Field Survey, 2019

4.5.7Place of Municipal Container Located

There is no fixed place to locate container in the municipality. The following

table highlights the location of putting container by the municipality this doesn’t mean location of

container changes. This explains that there are containers but those containers are not only for

specific location they might be in along the shop which are mostly in main market area or might

be in front of restaurant,

Table 6 Place of Municipal Container Located

Where is the Municipal container located? No of Percentage

Participants

Open space 30 60

Beside road 15 30

Other 5 10

35
 Total 50 100

Source: Field Survey, 2019

4.5.8Types of Waste Collection System in your Society

After the implementation of proper waste management system with the help of World Bank there are

particular ways of collecting which is most effective in the market area. For other area than

concentrated area it depends on the frequency of collection.

Types of Waste Collection System in your Society

What type of waste collection system do you No of Percentage

have in your locality from the concerned Participants

Authority?

Door to door 20 40

Dumping 15 30

Waste collection by street sweeping 10 20

Other 5 10

Total 50 100

4.5.9Problems faced by Participants due to Waste

Due to the waste participants are facing various problems in the study area. The

following table highlights the problems that have facing by the participants. This one of the

main reason why study group is not concentrated only in densely populated area because waste

collection is done almost everyday in high population density area and these areas looks clean

and tidy but in if gone out of the these area in some place waste is still dumped on the street
36
and it remains their until the next time when street sweeper come to collect the waste.

Problems face by Participants due to waste

What type of problem do you face when No of Percentage

these waste were not collected? Participants

Land pollution 15 30

Health hazard 10 20

Bad smell 20 40

Other 5 10

Total 50 100

Source: Field Survey, 2019

4.5.10Participants Manage Waste before Prevailing Waste Management System

Before prevailing waste management system in the study area participants used

different method that has highlighted in the following table mentioned below. Dhankuta

municipality was also same other municipality before the project was introduced by World

Bank in 2013. The resident would through the waste either near the water source away from

their home or on the roads.

Participants Manage Waste before Prevailing Waste Management System

How had you used to manage the waste before No of Percentage

this prevailing waste collection system? Participants

Throwing it in open space 30 60

Road way 15 30

37
 Other 5 10

Total 50 100

Source: Field Survey, 2019

4.5.11Participants' opinion for Sustainable Waste Management

Participants have given different opinions for the sustainable waste management in the

study area. In this municipality most popular way of managing municipal waste is to compost

the organic material and then giving away the non bio degradable waste to recyclers who come

from informal sector. The following table projects the situations that are as follows. Like we

mentioned earlier also people in Dhankuta are more involved in composting and followed by

the recycle or reuse and fill any residue goes to the land fill.

Participants' Opinion for Sustainable Waste Management

Which process would be more appropriate for No of Percentage

sustainable waste management? Participants

Recycling or Reuse Method 10 20

Landfill Method 15 30

Composting Method 20 40

Other 5 10

Total 50 100

Source: Field Survey, 2019

4.5.12Participants' Opinion for the Long Term Solution of Solid Waste in the Study Area

38
 Participants' have given differ opinions about long tern solution of solid waste

management in the study area that mentioned in the following table. But the resident of study

area has realized their mistakes before World Bank came into action. After the involvement of

different projects to cope with waste problem in Dhankuta Municipality. People realized not

only big funds can help in waste management but also some alteration in behavior towards

waste can help to reduce the amount of waste. And resident of this municipality even realized

it can create economic benefits by creating jobs and even revenue from visitation buy selling

the recyclable and reusable material. The table shows that awareness followed by municipal

efforts and community based effort can be very reliable fro the long term waste management.

Participants' Opinion for the Long Term Solution of Solid Waste in the Study Area

How can we have the long term solution of the No of Percentage

problems emerging from solid waste? Participants

Public awareness 30 60

Municipal responsibility 10 20

Community based efforts 5 10

Others 5 10

Total 50 100

Source: Field Survey, 2019

39
4.6Analysis of the data
All the data collected is based on the Dhankuta Municipality to know the waste

management which was a challenge for the municipality but currently it has provided many

opportunities for the resident and municipality. Municipal Waste composition ratio is almost

same all over the country but the difference is management of the waste. Analysis is done on

the basis of the following points in regard to the collected data.

Waste generation

According to Asian Development Bank the waste generation in Nepal is

0.32kg/capita/day which is comparatively lower than lower income countries

(0.6kg/capita/day) and south Asian countries (0.45kg/capita/day) this is because of the low rate

of urbanization and development. According to the data of Dhankuta Municipality 12 ton of

waste is generated everyday and among which 12% is plastic and half of the organic waste is

recycled in the respective household for composting. The generation of waste is comparatively

lower than other old and big municipality. In this municipality concept of 3R is used widely.

So the waste that goes to landfill site is also low.

Collection

In the process of waste management collection is very important because without collection

waste will always be there at the site of dumping. In the study site there is very uniform and

regular waste collection system which includes daily collection of waste from main urban area

and 2 to 3 times a week depending the necessity of collection in outer circle.

Collection is one of the big problem in waste management system of Nepal due to various

reason like in some municipality there are no particular places to gather the waste, lack of

proper resources and manpower for the collection. Still in some municipality collection is

40
considered as lowly job so there are not much people to do the job. And collection is still done

by bare hands or with primitive tools.

The other problem of waste collection is segregation of the waste in most of the parts of

country waste is mixed which creates the problem foe the collection and later for the resource

recovery. But in the study area waste is properly segregated from organic and non organic

material. According to Asian Development Bank (2013) waste collection efficiency in

Dhankuta Municipality is just more than 81% percentage which is far better than most of the

well equipped and bigger municipality.

Disposal

Disposal is final process of waste management. Nepal don’t have high-end technology like

incineration for the volume reduction of the so waste most of waste ends either on land fill

sites or open dumping sites in most municipality. But in study area they were able make

sanitary landfill site. Dhankuta Municipality is among the 6 municipality which has a sanitary

land fill site. Even in Dhankuta Municipality primary disposal by the resident is done mostly in

open areas or the nearby containers. But still most of the municipality which doesn’t have

sanitary landfill sites they use the open dumping or river side dumping which creates problem

to health of the resident, so currently there is immediate need for the sanitary landfill sites in

most of the municipality. “Due to lack of proper disposal some of the municipalities have 0%

collection of waste” according to Asian Development Bank.

Resource recovery Recycle and Reuse

Resource recovery is taking the materials which have some monetary value. In context of Nepal

resource recovery is still done by informal sector or the scavengers. So there is no data on the

41
monetary value of the waste generated in Nepal. Which creates another problem of most of the waste

will remain in dumping sites for the longer period or even forever. But in study area the scenario is

different process of resource recovery is managed and given on contract basis to local resident which

creates the revenue of Rs50, 000 annually for the municipality office. Still the resource of resource

recovery can be done by local government which can create more job opportunity than done by any

private entrepreneurs because there no data on how much is earned by the process.

The other important thing than can be done to reduce the waste is recycling and reuse and it can

prevent the waste from going to the landfill sites. According to Dhankuta Municipality half of the

waste is recycled at households which help in reducing the pressure on the landfill sites.

According to Asian Development Bank (2013) 25% of household waste can be recycled and 66% of

organic waste from household can be used as compost at source.

42
 CHAPTER V

SUMMARY CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 SUMARRY
In the context of study area waste management is getting better or waste is managed properly

than any other part of the country. The case study has been focused on Dhankuta Municipality to

show it has been able to achieve the goal of proper waste management in their city and to know

the possibility of application in other municipalities. Specific objectives are to examine the

current solid waste management system in the study area, to analyze the sources and composition

of solid waste and explore the problems and prospects of solid waste management. Both

analytical and descriptive research design were used to complete of this study. Quantitative data

were analyzed by using analytical research design and qualitative data were analyzed by using

qualitative research design and find out the situation of solid waste management situation of the

study area.

Dhankuta municipality is the sample site and 50 residents were taken as sample for the interview.

The current study is based on both primary and secondary data which were collected from online

journals, papers, publication and others. Primary data were collected from the field by using

various data collection techniques such as questionnaires and observation. A set of semi-

structured questionnaires were prepared to generate the realistic and accurate data from the field

through interview questionnaires. The respondents were requested to fill up the questionnaires.

In case of the respondents who could not fill up the questionnaire, the questions were asked to
43
the respondents and answers were filled up to collect the required data. Questions were related to

waste management situation of the study area and their perception about the waste management.

During the time of data collection, I have frequently visited the study area and necessary data

were 49 collection by observation. I observed the landfill side and the street where solid waste

was spread here and there. Necessary information also collected from by observation check list.

After the data was collected from the field survey, data was checked thoroughly and edited

wherever needed. Simple statistical tools like tables, graph, bar diagrams, were used to analyze

the collected statistical data and other qualitative data were analyzed by using paragraph

description.

The study shows that 82% of the respondents have the knowledge of waste management. In the

same way the 24% use container and 30% put on road ways collection is done regularly 16% still

dump in open spaces. Similarly 40% of respondent think the reason for the waste increase due

population increase and other 30% think due to change in eating habits of people. 60% of the

containers are located on open spaces and the other 30% are placed on road sides. 40% of the

respondent told door to door collection done mostly and other 30% explained dumping in the

road sides and this is done on basis collection frequency in the area if it is main or central part

then it is done on daily basis and in outer part it is done on 2 to 3 times a week. 40% of the

respondent complaint about the bad smell and other 30% told about land pollution. Before

current waste management system 60%of the respondent used to throw their waste in open

spaces and only 30% used road ways from where it is used to be collected. When asked about the

sustainable way of waste management 40% told about composting and other 20% recycling and

reuse. While talking about the long term solution for waste management 60% implied public

awareness and 20% says its municipality responsibility.

44
5.2 CONCLUSIONS
In this study we focused in the solid waste management system in Nepal the challenges and the

opportunities for that the case of Dhankuta Municipality is taken. Dhnakuta Municipality is the

model municipality for the waste management in the country. The reason for selecting the

particular municipality is to show how this municipality is able to achieve the goal of better

waste management system than any other municipality in the country. From the interview done

with the resident of the municipality it is found that the waste management don’t depends only

on the financial aspect or technical aspect but with the proper management system and regular

awareness activity can also lead to the better waste management. Dhankuta also have same kind

of waste composition like other parts of country which organic waste have the highest ratio

among all sector (household, commercial and intuitional sector). The factors that gives

Dhankuta Municipality that helps to keep good waste management is due to the better collection

system in different parts of the municipality as per the quantity of waste generated which gives

Dhankuta Municipality the waste collection efficiency of 81% percentage which is better than

most of bigger municipality which have better financial and technical support for the waste

management. Not only had this knowledge of resident in waste management also helped for the

waste management. In this it is found that 81% of people participated in the study knew about

waste management and ratio of people using the container for throwing the waste and keeping on

the road side where it is visible to pick waste is highest. But on the other hand study conducted

by Asian Development Bank in most of the municipality people discharge their waste as per their

wish. And this creates the problem of collection and after being not collected for some time it

start to smell bad and some time even health related problem occur. Since the portion of organic
45
waste is highest promoting composting method is reliable for the municipalities and this could

create jobs and bring economic benefits to municipality. Because of the structure of

municipalities in Nepal which contains semi-urban or rural area the most. According to Asian

Development Bank (2013), if concept of 3R is promoted promptly with better efficiency Nepal

can avoid the road of more development and more waste.

Solid waste management has become a challenge mainly due to the increasing rate of

generation of wastes, limited budget as a result of the high costs associated with its management,

and lack of understanding over a diversity of factors that affect the processes of waste

management. Urbanization, population increase, and higher consumer demand are some of the

many factors for increasing the generation of solid waste in municipalities in Nepal. This study

concluded that the huge portion of the waste in the municipalities in Nepal included organic

waste that could be composted or digested with anaerobic or aerobic method which can be

beneficial in terms of social, economic and environmental aspect. Regarding solid waste in

Nepal, a lot of methods for reducing the waste such as reuse and recycling can be further

promoted implemented in the municipality by considering the size population and nature of

waste. The major concern is the generation of large amounts of MSW and the challenges faced

by local authorities in its management. Strengthening the capacity of municipalities and VDCs

with sufficient infrastructures, technical, financial, and human resources coupled with strict

enforcement of policies will help for the effective management of solid waste. Similarly, the

development of regulations dealing with specific waste streams should get a clear priority. The

comprehensive policies and strategies are required in specific sectors (e-waste and radioactive

waste) of solid waste management. Furthermore, technical education and public awareness at the

grassroots level are also needed. Financial resources will also have to be made available to
46
facilitate public campaigns and waste treatment technologies. Similarly, the scientific approach

of land filling is required for disposing of the wastes. Especially, optimum care should be given

to industrial, healthcare, and hazardous wastes. Integrated solid waste management can be the

future option for waste management in Nepal.

On the basis of different secondary data published by Dhankuta municipality people are also

aware of the benefit of the waste separation so half of the organic waste is recycled in house

where it is used in the kitchen gardening. But due to lack of awareness in people in most of the

municipality waste is not separated and after the collection all the waste which could give

monetary value also ends in landfills.

From the case study we can conclude with the proper motivation and planning waste

management can be achieved. Even though solid waste is not world class but Dhankuta

Municipality is good example waste management with available resources funding and

manpower. With all the secondary data from literature review of journals, paper, publication and

also with the use of primary data collected from the field tells that Dhankuta Municipality if

continues the work of waste management with same passion and motivation with the full support

from community level this municipality will thrive. But with current rate of urbanization which

is not properly there might be come problem because with increase in population it brings a lot

of problem and waste is one the major problem which is almost by every municipality in country

47
5.3 Future Directions for Solid Waste Management in Nepal
The following are the future working dimensions for making solid waste management

sustainable and integrated.

• Cooperation and coordination among private/ public sector organizations, CBOs, NGOs, and

INGOs should be further promoted.

• Almost all of the municipalities do not have adequate financial, technical, human, and

managerial resources. Therefore, the empowerment of the municipalities in these regards is

essential.

• MSW in Nepal has a larger fraction of organic waste and hence 3R should be promoted to

eliminate or reduce the amount of waste.

• Integrated approach to waste management is needed for segregation, collection, and final

disposal.

• Information and communication campaigns should be prioritized to ensure community

participation for enhancing cleaner production and green productivity.

• Enforcement of legal/economic instruments is required along with policy formulation for

specific wastes like e-waste and radioactive wastes.

• Solid waste management options should be strengthened by enhancing research and

development.

48
• Landfill should be open for biodegradable and other wastes that are suitable either for recycling

or for biological processing like composting and digestion which can provide other options like

methane gas extraction.

• The concerned authority has to appoint more employees to extend its service area.

• Community participation should be increased and local NGOs should be mobilized in solid

waste management.

• There is an immediate need for sanitary landfill sites or at least landfill sites but these kind

construction should not be constructed near the community or not even in forest or near the

sources or water which will affect the ecology of surrounding.

5.4 RECOMMENDATION
Based on the finding of the study and literature review other municipalities must follow the

footsteps of Dhankuta Municipality where they are able to generate good amount of revenue and

with municipal solid waste management. But even Dhankuta municipality have some areas to

make improvement according to the result of study.

⚫ The municipal authority should increase the range of collection of waste in different parts of

municipality.

⚫ There must be more awareness program for the resident not only for the densely populated

area but also surrounding because sooner or later those semi urban areas are also going to

densely populated and the waste will grow only bigger if proper and steps are not at the

current period.

49
⚫ The concerned authorities should take suitable or proper method for the waste management

which puts less pressure or burden on land.

⚫ Community participation should be motivated to get involved with local NGO and mobilize

in waste management.

⚫ Full process of waste management should be monitored and keep scientific track of all the

aspects related with waste management.

50
 REFERENCES
Anand, P.B. (1999) “Waste Management in Madras”, Environment and Urbanization, Vol. II, No. 2.,
161- 176.

Asnani, P.V. (2000) Modernization of Solid Waste Management Practical in the city of Ahmedabad-India
Vol. C GTZ KTM, Nepal

Becker, Scott. (1997). Community Organization and Solid Waste Management in the Kathmandu Valley.
Himalayan Research Bulletin, Vol. XVII, No.1

Booth, B.E. (2001). Urban Health and Development. Delhi Himalayan research Centre

Brandon, C and Ramankutty, R. (1993). Toward an Environmental Strategy for Asia. summary of World
Bank Discussion Paper. Pg. No. 6-12

Bhide, A.D., 1991, Solid Waste Management of Dhaka, Kunla and Natore Municipality of Bangladesh.
A Case Study Report.

Dangi, Mohan & Pretz, Christopher & Urynowicz, Michael & Gerow, Kenneth & Reddy, J.M.. (2010).
Municipal solid waste generation in Kathmandu, Nepal. Journal of environmental management. 92. 240-
9. 10.1016/j.jenvman.2010.09.005.

Dhokhikah, Yeny & Trihadiningrum, Yulinah. (2012). Solid waste management in Asian developing
countries: Challenges and opportunities. J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci.. 2. 329-335.

ENPHO (2003). Chikitsajanya Phohar Byawasthapan Nirdeshika, Kathmandu: KMC.

Environmental Science Students (1999) Solid Waste Management Practices in Kathmandu. A report,
Department of Environmental Science, KU.

Gautam, S.M. (2015) “Solid Waste Management in Kathmandu Metropolitan City”. M.A, thesis,
Department of Geography, TU, Kirtipur.

Gupta, K. Sanjaya.(2012). Rethinking Waste Management. New Delhi: Sunlight publisher

Garg, V.K; Bishnoi, M.S and Malik, C.P. (2002). Introduction Text of Environmental Policies and Law.
Bhagalpur: Author
51
IUCN. (1992). A Review of Solid Waste Management in Urban Nepal, NPC/IUCN, NCS,
Implementation Programme. pp. 6-24.

IUCN, (2001). Solid Waste Management in Gilgit, Draft Project Proposal. pp 3-15.

Jadhav, H.V. (1995). Environmental Pollution. Delhi: Green Society

Khan, P. (1992) “Environmental Setting and Priority Area for Action” Environment and Urbanisation”,
Vol. 4, No.1. pp. 9-11.

Lekhak, H.D and B. Lekhak, (2003). Natural Resource Conservation and Sustainable Development in
Nepal, Kshitiz Publication, Kirtipur.

Miller, G.T., (1998). Living in the Environment an introduction to Environment Science. Kolkata:
Greenhouse publisher

McDougall, F. R., White, P. R., Franke, M. & Hindle, P., 2001. Landfilling. In: S. Edition, ed. Integrated
Solid Waste Management: A Life Cycle Inventory. s.l.: Blackwell Publishing Ltd

Nordon, A. J. et al., 2009. Waste Management & Minimization - Integrated Waste Management. s.l.:s.n.

Palnikar, S, (2000) “Municipal Solid Waste: Manual on Solid Waste Management”. All India Institute of
Local self-Government. pp.!-9.

Parajuli, R.(2001). “Knowledge, Attitude and Practices in Solid Waste Management”, thesis, M.A,
Department of Sociology, TU, Kirtipur.

Pandey, R., (2004). “A study on Occupational Health Problems of Sweepers and Scavengers of
Kathmandu”, Department of Human Geography, University of Oslo. pp. 94-95.

Pradhan, P.K. (2011). “Population Growth, Migration and Urbanisation and Environmental Change in
Kathmandu Valley”, Paper presented at Wagen.

Sharma, A., (2012). Report on the Impact of Domestic and Industrial Wastes on River Pollution in
Kathmandu”, Department of Microbiology, TU, Kirtipur.

52
Singh N., (2016). “Mitigating Nimby (Not in My Backyard) Syndrome as barriers to landfill siting. A
case Study on Economic and Regulatory Measures for Banchedanda Landfill Site”, Kathmandu, Nepal.
Asian Institute of Technology, School of Environment, Resource and Development, Bangkok, Thailand.

Spreen, E.(2009). Solid Waste Management with Peoples’ Participation- Experience from the Kathmandu
Valley, SWMRC/GTZ, Kathmandu.

Thapa, G.B. and S, R. Devkota. (2013). Managing the Waste in Metro Kathmandu. ACRD, Monograph I,
Kathmandu.

Thapa, S.B. and J. Ringeltaube. (2008).The Need for a System to Solid Waste Disposal and Collection.
Kathmandu: Nepal MAB Committee.

Thapa,Selina.(2002). Solid Waste Management of Dharan Municipality. Dissertation submitted to Dept

of Geography, T.U., Kathmandu, Nepal.

Udash, R.(2004). Composting as an Option in the Municipal Solid Waste Management of Kathmandu
Metropolitan City. thesis, M.Sc, Department of Science in Environmental Management, PU, Shantinagar,
Kathmandu.

UNEP (2001). State of Environment. UNEP, Nepal.

UNDP.(2007). Environmental Problem of Urbanization and Industrialization, the existing situation and
future direction. KTM, Nepal, June.

UN-HABITAT, 2010. Solid Waste Management in the World's Cities. s.l.: Earthscan.

Vesivalo, Jaakko (2001). Solid Waste Management in Biratnagar-Dharan, Industrial Corrider, Nepal.
Consultancy Report.

53
 ANNEXES
Annex 1 questionnaire

1. Where do you dump your household waste?

a. Container b. Open space c. Backyard
d. Roadway e Others
2. How do you think the solid waste in increasing day by day?

a. due to population increase b. Change in food

habit c .Not taking care of it. d. Others

3. What is the frequency of the waste collection?

a. Once a week b. daily

c. Alternate day d. Others

4. What type of waste collection system do you have in your locality from the
concerned agency?

a. Door to Door. b. Dumping

c. Waste collection by street sweeping d. Others

5. What type of problem do you face when these waste were not collected?

a. Land Pollution b. Health Hazards

54
 c. Bad smell d. Others

6. How had you used to manage the waste before this prevailing waste
collection system?
7.
a. Throwing it in open space b. Streets
c Others

8. How can we have the long term solution of the problems emerging from
solid waste?

a. Public awareness b. Wards responsibility

c. Community based efforts d. Others

55
56