10 D1: WINE PRODUCTION

2 The Vine Growth Cycle

Northern Southern
Hemisphere Hemisphere
Dormancy
January July

Budburst Shoot
February and leaf August
growth

March September

April October

Flowering
May and fruit November
set

Grape
June develop- December
ment

July January

August February

Harvest
September March

October April

Leaf
November fall and May
dormancy

December June

The Vine Growth Cycle

 The Vine Growth Cycle 11

The grape grower’s aim is to produce the largest possible crop of grapes that are of suitable
ripeness and quality for the style of wine being produced. However, a vine left to grow without
human intervention has different aims. In the wild, vines are woodland climbers. They grow
quickly, clinging to trees for support and when they reach sunlight at the top of the woodland
canopy, they flower and produce fruit. The key purpose of the grapes is to attract birds and
other animals, which eat them and disseminate the seeds. These grapes may be palatable
for the birds, but they would not be suitable for producing wine. The grape grower therefore
needs to manipulate the vine into producing grapes with adequate ripeness of sugar, acids,
tannins and aromas/flavours for the wine style being produced.
Given their natural habitat in woodland locations, with high competition from other plants,
vines are able to survive on limited natural resources. However, the vine does require access
to adequate water, sunlight and warmth for photosynthesis. (Carbon dioxide is also required for
photosynthesis. It becomes the limiting factor for photosynthesis if the vine has sufficient water,
temperature, sunlight and nitrogen, but is outside the control of the grape grower.) Warmth is
also needed for other essential reactions such as respiration, the process in which energy is
released from food substances, in this case, sugar. The vine also requires certain nutrients,
which are important for cell structure and function and therefore vine growth and reproduction.
The amount of heat, sunlight, water and nutrients, and the timings of these key resources
within the growth cycle, are important if the vine is to produce grapes suitable for making
wine. The grape grower will manage the vineyard to try to compensate for any shortfall or
excess in the provision of these resources by the growing environment.
This chapter will focus on each stage of the vine growth cycle and the conditions that are
beneficial or detrimental for the production of grapes for wine.

2.1. Dormancy
November–March in the Northern Hemisphere, May–September in the Southern Hemisphere

What the vine needs during this stage: Adverse conditions:

Temperatures below 10°C (50°) • Extremely cold temperatures
• Unusually mild temperatures

Pruned vines in late winter in Tuscany.

12 D1: WINE PRODUCTION

Average air temperatures below 10°C (50°F) are too cold for the vine to grow and therefore
in winter the vine is dormant. Winter dormancy typically starts with leaf fall in the autumn and
ends with budburst in the spring. Without leaves, the vine cannot photosynthesise. Therefore,
until it has grown new leaves, the vine sustains itself by using stores of carbohydrates, mostly
starch, accumulated during the previous growing season in the roots, trunk and branches.
Extremely low temperatures, such as those found in the winter in Canada, New York
State and China, can be harmful to the vine even when it is dormant. Vines can be severely
damaged or killed by temperatures below −20°C (–4°F). Temperatures below −25°C (−13°F) will
kill most V. vinifera. There are vineyard management techniques that can be used to protect
the vine in areas of winter freeze (see Hazards).
Winter pruning is carried out during this dormant period (for more details see Vine Pruning
in Canopy Management Techniques).

2.2. Budburst
March–April in the Northern Hemisphere, September–October in the Southern Hemisphere

What the vine needs during this stage: Adverse conditions:

• Average air and soil temperatures above 10°C (50°F) • Frost
• Cold soils

Budburst.

Budburst, also called budbreak, marks the end of winter dormancy. In this process, buds swell
and open, and green shoots start to emerge. The timing of budburst depends on a number of
factors.

AIR TEMPERATURE
Compound buds form and begin to develop in the previous growing season. For buds to
burst, sufficiently high temperatures are needed (average air temperature approximately 10°C
/ 50°F). Compound buds therefore generally remain dormant over winter and burst when
temperatures rise in the spring.
Regions that have marked differences in temperature between the various seasons
(for example, continental climates – see Climate Classifications) can be advantageous for
successful budburst. In these places, the rapidly increasing temperatures in the spring mean
that budburst can be relatively uniform and this has positive implications for the homogeneity
of later stages in the growing season, potentially eventually leading to a crop of grapes with
even ripeness.
 The Vine Growth Cycle 13

In regions where there is often less contrast between winter and spring temperatures (for
example, maritime climates – see Climate Classifications), budburst can be less synchronised.
Furthermore, problems can occur when a few unusually mild winter days cause early budburst;
any cold days and frosts that follow can potentially harm the newly burst buds, leading to
lower yields. Grape growers can protect new buds from frost using a number of strategies
(see Hazards for more details).

SOIL TEMPERATURE
Higher soil temperatures around the roots encourage earlier budburst. Dry, free-draining soils,
such as sandy soils, tend to warm up more quickly than water-storing soils, such as clay-rich
soils, and therefore can be advantageous in cool climates where an early start to the growing
season improves the chance of ripening.

GRAPE VARIETY
The average temperature required for budburst depends on the grape variety. For example,
buds on Merlot vines open at temperatures slightly lower than 10°C (50°F), whereas Ugni
Blanc buds open at temperatures slightly higher than 10°C (50°F). Grape varieties that
require relatively low temperatures at budburst are referred to as ‘early budding’. They
include Chardonnay, Pinot Noir, Merlot and Grenache. Grape varieties that require higher
temperatures are referred to as ‘late budding’ and include Sauvignon Blanc, Cabernet
Sauvignon and Syrah. Because the buds of late-budding varieties need higher temperatures
to burst, they are less at risk of spring frosts. (Please note that time of budding is not always
linked to time of ripening and hence a grape variety that is early budding is not necessarily
also early ripening. For example, Grenache buds early and ripens late.)

HUMAN FACTORS
Some grape growing practices can also advance or delay budburst. For example, carrying out
winter pruning late in the dormant period can postpone budburst, and this technique can be
used in areas where spring frost is a known problem.

2.3. Shoot and Leaf Growth

March–July in the Northern Hemisphere, September–January in the Southern Hemisphere

What the vine needs during this stage: Adverse conditions:

• Stored Carbohydrates • Low carbohydrate levels (caused by conditions in the
• Warmth, sunlight, nutrients and water previous growing season)
• Water stress

During spring and early summer, the shoots continue to grow, and leaves and inflorescences
(a cluster of flowers on a stem) mature. The fastest rate of growth generally occurs between
budburst and flowering. The speed of shoot growth can vary between vines and even within
different parts of the same vine.
The term ‘vigour’ is often used to describe vegetative vine growth, which includes
the growth of the shoots, leaves and lateral shoots, and has implications on the yield and
ripening of the grapes. Hence, vines with high vigour can grow long shoots with large leaves
14 D1: WINE PRODUCTION

A very young shoot, showing an inflorescence in early A young shoot.

development.

and lots of lateral shoots. The vigour of the vine depends on a number of factors including
the natural resources available to the vine (particularly temperature, water and nutrients),
the planting material (grape variety, clone and rootstock) and the presence of any disease
(e.g. viruses can lower vigour). Many grape growing choices, particularly within the field of
canopy management, are made with consideration of the vine’s vigour and how this can best
be managed to provide the yield and quality of grapes desired. This is explained further in
Canopy Management.
Carbohydrates stored in the roots, trunk and branches of the vine support initial shoot
growth. If these carbohydrate levels are low (for example, caused by excessive leaf removal,
water stress, mildew infections or excessively high yields in the previous growing season),
shoot growth can be negatively affected. As leaves develop and mature, they provide energy
for further growth via photosynthesis, and therefore need adequate warmth and sunlight for
this to take place. Most of the vine’s energy is directed towards shoot growth until flowering
starts.
As the vine grows, so does the vine’s need for nutrients (principally nitrogen, potassium
and phosphorus). It is important that vines do not suffer from water stress in this time as this
can limit photosynthesis and shoot growth. Nutrient uptake through the roots is also impaired
in very dry soils.
Stunted shoot growth can lead to small, weak shoots, a reduction in leaf number or
smaller leaves, inflorescences that do not flower properly and/or grape bunches that do not
ripen fully. This can lead to poor quality and lower yields.
As shoots grow longer they may be tucked within a trellis (if used) to ensure the canopy
remains upright and to avoid shading.
 The Vine Growth Cycle 15

2.4. Flowering and Fruit Set

May–June in the Northern Hemisphere, November–December in the Southern Hemisphere

What the vine needs during this stage: Adverse conditions:

• Warm temperatures (minimum 17°C/63ºF) • Rainy
• Sunlight, warmth, water and nutrients for bud • Cloudy
fruitfulness in the next growing season • Windy
• Cold temperatures

anther pollen
stamen
stigma
filament

pollen tube

ovule

ovary

egg

Parts of a vine flower.

New buds develop at the base of the leaf stalks (petioles) on the new growing shoots. Prompt
buds will burst within the growing season producing new shoots called lateral shoots (see
The Anatomy of the Vine). Compound buds will remain dormant until the following spring
and provide the shoots for next year. Shading of compound buds, temperatures that are too
low (under 25°C / 77°F), water stress and nutrient deficiency can all limit bud fruitfulness (the
number of inflorescences that will develop from a bud) in the next growing season. Given
that each inflorescence will become a bunch of grapes, the conditions during this part of the
growing season can have a substantial influence on the next year’s yield. That said, there
is some variation between grape varieties. Riesling, for example, is able to form potentially
fruitful buds at relatively low temperatures making it well-suited to cool climates.
The yield and quality of grapes in the current growing season are strongly influenced by
the processes of flowering and fruit set. Flowering describes the opening of the individual
flowers within an inflorescence. Within this process, the pollen-laden stamens (consisting of
an anther and filament) are exposed. The pollen grains are shed and land on the moistened
16 D1: WINE PRODUCTION

A close-up of an inflorescence in flower.

An inflorescence before flowering. Fruit set.

stigma surface, a process called pollination. Here, they germinate, with each pollen grain
producing a pollen tube. These pollen tubes penetrate the stigma and then the ovule (the
female reproductive cells) in the ovary. The pollen tube delivers the sperm cells that fertilise
the eggs in the ovule. This leads to the formation of a grape berry. The fertilised ovules form
seeds, with up to four per grape. The wall of the ovary enlarges to form the skin and pulp of
the grape. Fruit set is the term used to describe this transition from flower to grape. Research
has shown that cultivated varieties of vines are normally self-pollinating (the pollen from the
stamens of one flower is transferred to the stigma of the same flower, or a different flower in
the same plant). Insects and wind make little contribution to pollination in grapevines.

CONDITIONS FOR SUCCESSFUL FLOWERING

Flowering typically takes place within eight weeks of budburst. However, this timing is
extremely temperature dependent, with warm conditions leading to earlier flowering. Warm
conditions (minimum temperature of 17°C / 63°F) are also favourable for successful flowering.
With such temperatures, an individual inflorescence can start and finish flowering within a few
days. Low temperatures can lengthen the duration of flowering, with weeks passing between
the start and end. This has a consequential negative effect on the evenness of grape ripening.

CONDITIONS FOR SUCCESSFUL FRUIT SET

Not all flowers become grapes. Typically, 30 per cent of flowers will become grapes, but this
can range from zero to 60 per cent. Pollen germination requires warm temperatures (optimal
at 26–32°C / 79–90°F). Pollen tube growth is negatively affected by cold, rainy and/or windy
conditions and this can result in irregular fruit set and is a key cause of poor yields in cool
 The Vine Growth Cycle 17

climates. Hot, dry, windy conditions

leading to water stress in the vine
can also have a negative effect,
again leading to reduced yields.
Two common forms of
irregular fruit set are:

Coulure
A condition of the grape bunch
in which fruit set has failed for a
high proportion of flowers. This
occurs when ovule fertilisation
is unsuccessful and therefore no
grape develops. Some coulure
is normal; however, excessive
coulure can reduce yield
dramatically.
Coulure is caused by an
imbalance in carbohydrate levels.
This can result from low rates of
photosynthesis, which may be
caused by cold, cloudy conditions
or hot, arid conditions with high
water stress (the vine stops
photosynthesis to retain water). It
can also result from vigorous shoot
growth diverting carbohydrates A bunch showing the effects of irregular fruit set (Merlot,
from the inflorescence. Very Bordeaux).
fertile soils, heavy application
of fertilisers and vigorous rootstocks can all cause strong shoot growth and therefore lead
to coulure. Some grape varieties are also naturally more susceptible to coulure than others;
Grenache, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot and Malbec are all very susceptible.

Millerandage
A condition of the grape bunch in which there is a high proportion of seedless grapes. The
seedless grapes can still ripen normally, but are smaller than grapes with seeds. Millerandage
may therefore reduce the volume of wine that can be produced. Some seedless grapes stay
small, green and unripe, which can be negative for wine quality. Millerandage can result from
cold, wet, windy weather at fruit set, with some varieties, such as Chardonnay and Merlot,
being more susceptible than others.
18 D1: WINE PRODUCTION

2.5. Grape Development

June–October in the Northern Hemisphere, December–April in the Southern Hemisphere

What the vine needs during this stage: Adverse conditions:

• Sunlight • Too much water and nutrients
• Warmth • Excessive shading of grapes
• Mild water stress • Very cold or very hot conditions throughout the day
and night

Grape development is typically split into four stages.

STAGE 1: EARLY GRAPE GROWTH

This stage starts soon after fruit set. Hard
green grapes start to grow in size, and tartaric
and malic acids accumulate. Some aroma
compounds and aroma precursors (compounds
with no aroma that will become aroma
compounds during the fermentation process;
see Wine Components) also develop, such as
methoxypyrazines. Methoxypyrazines contribute
to herbaceous aromas/flavours in some wines,
such as those made from Sauvignon Blanc,
Cabernet Sauvignon and Cabernet Franc.
Tannins accumulate and are very bitter at this
time. Sunshine on the grapes promotes tannin
accumulation. Sugar levels are low throughout
this stage. Water flow into the grape is high at
this stage and it is mainly transported to the
grape by the xylem (a type of transport tissue
that transfers water and some nutrients from the Immature grapes before véraison.
roots to other parts of the vine).
Too much water and nitrogen can prolong this stage, as these factors encourage shoot
growth in preference to grape ripening. This causes a delay in the onset of the ripening stage
and could mean that there is not sufficient time for ripening before the weather becomes
cooler and the grapes need to be harvested.
Mild water stress can speed up this stage and lead to the production of smaller grapes,
reducing juice yield but leading to greater skin to pulp ratio, which in red wines can be
associated with better quality (higher levels of colour, tannins and aroma compounds). Grape
growers may monitor and manage water levels at this time through irrigation to influence
grape formation.
Shoot growth continues through this stage, but usually more slowly than earlier in the
growing season.

STAGE 2: VÉRAISON
Grape growth slows down for a few days (often called the lag phase). The grape cell walls
become more stretchy and supple, green-coloured chlorophyll in skin cells is broken
 The Vine Growth Cycle 19

Black grapes during véraison.

down and grapes of black varieties start to become red in colour due to the synthesis (the
construction of complex chemical compounds from simpler ones) of compounds called
anthocyanins.

STAGE 3: RIPENING
This is arguably the most important vine process in determining final grape quality. Shoot
growth should have slowed down substantially by this time. During this stage, the cells in the
grape expand rapidly, sugar and water accumulate, and acid levels fall. Tannins, colour and a
number of aroma precursors and aroma compounds develop. Harvest usually marks the end
of this stage and tends to occur August–October in the Northern Hemisphere or February–
April in the Southern Hemisphere.
Sugar accumulation is very rapid at the start of the ripening stage and then slows towards
the end. Sugar is produced in the vines’ leaves by photosynthesis. Photosynthesis can take
place at a maximum rate at temperatures between 18–33°C (64–91°F) and at sunlight levels
that are above one third of full sunshine. Therefore, in years with cold weather or constant
cloud, rate of photosynthesis may hinder sugar levels in the grapes. By contrast, very hot, dry
conditions that can lead to extreme water stress can cause photosynthesis to slow or stop
(see The Effects of Water) and hence hinder sugar accumulation in this way.
During this stage of ripening, water flow via the xylem slows down and a sugar solution
(a mixture of mainly sugar and water) is transported to the grape by the phloem (a type
of transport tissue that transfers sugars from the leaves to other parts of the vine). The
movement of the sugary solution from the phloem into the grape, and hence the sugar
accumulation within the grape is correlated to the rate of grape transpiration. In broad terms,
grape transpiration and therefore sugar accumulation is faster in warm, dry conditions than
cool, humid conditions. In warm conditions, this accumulation of sugar can be too rapid and
reach high levels before aromas/flavours and tannins have developed fully (see The Effects of
Temperature).
20 D1: WINE PRODUCTION

The total amount of tartaric acid in the grape generally does not change; however, its
concentration falls during ripening due to dilution, as sugar and water accumulate in the
grape. The concentration of malic acid usually falls even further than that of tartaric acid. This
is because malic acid can be metabolised in respiration during the ripening stage (before this
point, sugar is metabolised in respiration). Respiration is slower at cool temperatures than
warm ones and this is why wines from cooler climates tend to have higher natural acidity.
Mean temperatures above 21°C (70°F) in the final month of ripening can lead to a rapid
loss of acidity (and a rise in pH), whereas mean temperatures below 15°C (59°F) can reduce
acid loss to a point that acidity levels in the must are too high. Cool night time temperatures
also mean that less malic acid is lost during respiration. This is why warm areas with a high
diurnal range, such as Central Otago and the wine regions in Washington State, USA, can
produce wines with higher acidity than those with warmer night time temperatures.
During ripening, methoxypyrazine levels fall, but cool temperatures and limited sunlight
(e.g. due to excessive shading of bunches or cloud cover) can hinder this decrease and the
resulting wines may show particularly herbaceous aromas/flavours. Other aroma compounds
and aroma precursors increase during the ripening stage, for example, terpenes, which
give floral and citrus aromas such as the grapey aromas found in Muscat. (The flavour
characteristics we perceive when we taste a wine are due to the same compounds as those
responsible for aromas but they reach our sensory tissue through different pathways. In this
text, the compounds that are responsible for both aroma and flavour will simply be called
aroma compounds or aroma precursors.)
The influence of grape variety and natural resources, such as heat and light (or indeed
other factors in the growing environment and grape growing), on the synthesis of different
aroma compounds and aroma precursors is extremely complex. The range of different
aroma compounds and precursors that can be found in grapes is huge, and the synthesis,
degradation or retention of each of these compounds may be influenced by heat and light in a
different way.
Although it is difficult to make a direct link between ripening conditions and aroma
compounds in the grapes (and even more difficult to make this link to the final aromas that are
perceived in the wine), experience from tasting shows that some aromas are more associated
with grape varieties grown in certain climates. For example, Chardonnay shows aromas of
green and citrus fruit in cool climates and stone fruit and tropical fruit in warm climates. As this
example illustrates, broadly speaking, warmer, sunnier climates tend to produce grapes and
wines with aromas that could be described as ‘riper’ than cooler, less sunny climates.
In black grapes, levels of tannins are high at véraison and decrease slightly throughout
ripening. The tannins polymerise (a process in which relatively small molecules combine
chemically to produce a very large chainlike or network molecule). This causes them to become
less bitter. Sunshine on the grapes promotes tannin accumulation pre-véraison and greater
polymerisation post-véraison. In white grapes, tannin levels are much lower and, in any case,
winemakers rarely look to extract these tannins through prolonged skin contact or other means.
Anthocyanins increase during the ripening stage, and increase most rapidly with plentiful
sunlight and temperatures between approximately 15°C (59°F) and 25°C (77°F).

The length of the ripening stage will depend on several factors:

• Grape variety – Some grape varieties naturally ripen earlier than others. Chardonnay
and Pinot Noir are examples of early ripening grape varieties. Cabernet Sauvignon
 The Vine Growth Cycle 21

and Grenache are late ripening varieties. Some grape varieties, such as Zinfandel, are
particularly prone to uneven ripening, with some grapes becoming extra ripe as others are
just becoming ripe.
• Climatic conditions – Sugar ripening is quickest in warm, dry conditions. However, very
hot or dry conditions can cause the vine to shut down, which inhibits grape formation and
ripening.
• Management of the vine and vineyard – High yields, excessive shading within the vine
canopy and shoots that are still actively growing can all slow down ripening.
• Time of harvest – Harvest depends on human factors (desired wine style, logistics) or
natural factors (weather such as rain, onset of disease).

STAGE 4: EXTRA-RIPENING
If the grapes are left on the vine, they start to shrivel. No more sugar or water are imported to
the grape by the phloem at this stage, but water loss in the grape through grape transpiration
means that sugars are concentrated. Extra-ripe aromas can also develop in this stage. This
may be desirable in some styles of wine, but not in others. Grape shrivelling is most likely in
hot, sunny, dry climates. In addition, some grape varieties are more susceptible than others
(e.g. Syrah is particularly susceptible). It is not always possible to leave grapes on the vine; the
weather conditions and disease pressure must be considered.

2.6. Other Changes in the Vine

In late summer the green shoots lignify (become woody and rigid). These are then described
as canes. In autumn, leaves fall, carbohydrate reserves are laid down in the roots, trunk and
branches, and the vine enters its dormant period.

Vines in winter before pruning. The shoots from the previous growing season have turned brown and
woody.
22 D1: WINE PRODUCTION

DEFINING RIPENESS

The main aim of the grape grower or wine producer is to get the grapes ripe for the
style of wine being made. What is determined as ‘ripe’ may depend on a number of
parameters.
The level of sugar in the grapes is one of the key parameters that determines
ripeness. In dry wines, the amount of sugar in the grapes will be directly linked to the
alcohol in the wine. In sweet wines, the amount of sugar in the grapes will influence both
the sweetness of the final wine and the alcohol.
The level of acidity in the grapes will have a significant impact on the taste of the
wine and hence is also a key determinant of ripeness. The desired level of acidity will
depend on the type of wine being created with high levels of acidity being particularly
desired in sparkling and sweet wines.
The profile of the aromas/flavours in the grapes is an important parameter in deciding
whether grapes are ready to be harvested. This parameter in particular may be very
individual to the grape grower or wine producer and the style of wine that is to be made.
In very broad terms, as grapes ripen the aromas tend to change from underripe and often
herbaceous, to fresh fruit and then to riper fruit, and even jammy or cooked.
Tannin ripeness is another essential parameter in red wine production. During
grape formation, skin tannins accumulate but are bitter to taste. During ripening, tannins
polymerise and become less bitter. The relationship between the tannin compounds in
the grapes and the sensation of tannins in the finished wine is very complex and not well
understood. During winemaking and maturation, the tannin compounds that are extracted
from the grapes react with other compounds and, as part of this, their expression may
change. Furthermore, even without these reactions, other compounds in the wine can
change our perceptions of tannins, for example, a small amount of residual sugar can
make tannins appear softer, whereas in bone dry wines with high acidity, tannins can
often be perceived as having more astringency. In any case, wine producers are generally
looking to avoid bitter unripe tannins, and this will therefore play a part in harvesting
decisions.
However, sugar, acidity, aroma compounds and tannins are influenced by the growing
environment in different ways. Sugar tends to accumulate in the grapes most quickly in
warm, dry climates. (Though hot temperatures and lack of water may lead to water stress,
and this may slow down ripening.) In cooler conditions this process will be slower and in
years where weather is cold and very cloudy grapes can struggle to reach suitable sugar
ripeness before cold and wet autumn weather sets in. Acidity tends to follow the opposite
pattern, falling most quickly in warm, dry climates and being better retained in cooler
conditions (e.g. in cool regions or regions that have a high diurnal range). By comparison,
the development of aromas/flavours and tannins is not so clear cut and is not necessarily
increased by rising temperatures. In particular the potential range of aroma compounds
in grapes is so large that it is very likely that different temperatures (and other factors in
the growing environment) favour the synthesis, degradation or retention of the various
aroma compounds in different ways. The relationship between the aromas compounds in
 The Vine Growth Cycle 23

the grapes and the aromas/flavours perceived in the wine is also very complex (see Wine
Components).
Therefore, in warm climates the desired sugar and acidity levels may be reached
before the desired ripeness of aromas and tannins. This is why wines from warm climates
tend to have higher levels of alcohol from the grapes’ own sugars. What is considered
as optimal ripeness (the time at which the combination of the sugar, acid, tannin and
aroma ripeness is at its most favourable) will depend on wine style, grape variety, and
the preferences of the winemaker, but, ultimately, the aim will be to produce a balanced
wine. If this is not possible naturally, adjustments in the winery can be made. It is easier
to adjust sugar, alcohol or acid levels than to work with grapes that have unripe tannins
and/or aromas; therefore, many grape growers will focus on attaining the desired level of
tannin and aroma ripeness.
(There are other parameters that the grape grower may consider and/or measure, for
example, pH levels and colour development, but they are generally considered as less
critical than those above. Terms such as physiological ripeness or phenolic ripeness are
sometimes used to define ripeness (usually to describe tannin ripeness, development
of colour and sometimes aroma/flavour ripeness), but these terms often have different
meanings to different people.)