FORENSIC SCIENCE LABORATORY

FORENSIC SCIENCE

Forensic science is the study and applica on of scien fic examina on and evalua on of evidence, for legal
purposes.
Forensic sciences include:
(1) Forensic medicine

 Forensic pathology
 Forensic psychiatry
(2) Forensic toxicology
(3) Forensic immunology
(4) Forensic odontology
(5) Forensic anthropology
(6) Forensic police sciences
a) Criminalis cs, wherein evidence, such as blood stains, glass, soil, clothing and firearms is compared,
iden fied, individualised and interpreted
b) Ques oned documents examina on involves the scien fic examina on of handwri ng, typewri ng,
prin ng ink, paper, or other aspects of a document for the purpose of determining various legal
ques ons asked about the document
c) Trace evidence
d) Ballis cs

(7) Other forensic science speciali es, which include voice print examina on, polygraph technology,
fingerprin ng, etc.
ORGANISATION
Such ins tutes should provide three major categories of service:

 Clinical
 Pathological
 Laboratory
In addi on, it should have stores, exhibit room, workshop and library. Usually only laboratory services are
provided by the forensic science laboratory.

CLINICAL SERVICES:
They include examina on of vic ms of assault, sexual crime, drunkenness, etc.

PATHOLOGY SERVICES:
They include chemical analysis, toxicology, serology, biology, photography, fingerprints, ballis cs, etc.

MUSEUM:
Every laboratory should establish a museum containing fingerprints, bullets and cartridge cases, tyre tread
pa erns, animal hair, soils, typewri en specimens, inks, rope and cordage, cloth, photographs of various
crystal poisons, etc.

Staffing:
 Director, medical or scien fic.  Laboratory services: Biologist, physicist,
 Clinical services. Physician and serologist, microanalyst, photographer,
obstetrician fingerprint expert, ballis c expert, etc.
 Pathology services : Pathologist.  Others: Librarian, liasion officer.
FUNCTIONS:

 To examine, compare and evaluate physical evidence, so as to link a suspect to the vic m, or to the
scene of a crime. In most cases, the laboratory supplements the work of police inves gator in
order to convert suspicion into a reasonable certainty of either guilt or innocence.

 Protec on of the innocent e.g., a person arrested for selling narco cs, is set free if the chemical
analysis of the material show it to be harmless. It determines facts, which are not subject to the
bias and prejudice and other human failings of the eyewitness.

 Training of the police inves gators as to what cons tutes physical evidence, how it is to be found,
collected, preserved and delivered to the laboratory.
MATERIALS:
The items which are most commonly handled by the laboratory and which frequently serve as evidence
are -:
 Knives  Broken glass
 Blunt instruments  Paint chips
 Blood and seminal stains  Oil, grease petroleum products
 Chemical substances  Soils
 Poisons  Clothing
 Fingerprints and footprints  Pieces of papers
 Hair  Cigars
 Fibres firearms  Cigare e stumps
 Bullets  Matches
 Cartridge cases and wad  Documents and fragments of various
 Tools and tool marks materials.

Some mes, laboratory technicians are called to the scene of a crime to collect specimens with which
inves ga ng officers are not qualified to deal.
CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION
All criminal inves ga on is concerned either with people or with material objects. Only people commit
crimes but they invariably do so through the medium of objects It is these objects that together cons tute
physical evidence. The main objec ve of crime inves ga on is to recognise, collect, preserve, analyse,
interpret and reconstruct all the physical evidence collected (by hands or cello tapes) from the scene of
crime.

PHYSICAL EVIDENCE

The term physical evidence (trace evidence) includes any and all objects, living or non-living, solid, liquid
or gas, and the rela onship between all objects as they relate to the problem in ques on, e.g., a crime. A
knife, burglar tool, wood splinters, tool marks, firearms, bullets, blood and seminal stains, saliva, pus, milk,
poisons, sputum, vomit, fingerprints, hair, fibres, glass, paint, oil, grease, chemicals, signature, teeth
marks, handkerchief, footwear, dust, debris, soil, vegetable ma er, like grass, seeds, pollen, microscopic
fragments of all types, bacteria and even an odour are all physical evidence.

The microscopic evidence persists at the scene of a crime long a er all the visible and obvious
evidence has been removed, and may solve the problem. When there is even a reasonable chance of
finding significant evidence, it should never be neglected, even when the crime was commi ed long back.
Physical evidence can be obtained from the scene of crime, the vic m and the suspect and his
environment. Physical evidence is useful in two ways:

 It is o en the decisive factor in determining guilt or innocence. It can do this by supplying the
demonstrable facts, thus resolving discrepancies in ordinary tes mony.

 It can be a material aid to link a suspect, a weapon or a scene to a crime. Evidence should be
marked or labelled so that it can be posi vely iden fied. Date, me, place, from whom and by
whom it was taken or found, should be recorded.
LOCARD'S EXCHANGE PRINCIPLE

When any two objects come into contact, there is always a transfer of material from each object on the
other. Traces from the scene may be carried away on the person or tools of the criminal, and at the same
me, traces from all or any of these may be le at the scene
Wherever a criminal goes, whatever he touches, and whatever he leaves will serve as silent evidence
against him. eg.. fingerprints, footprints, hair, fibres from clothes, broken glass, tool marks, paints,
scratches, blood or seminal stains, etc. It is actual evidence, and its presence is absolute proof of the
crime. The evidence of eyewitnesses may be wrong as a result of their par sanship, faulty memory, or
defec ve observa on. Physical evidence cannot be wrong and completely absent. Only its interpreta on
can be wrong. Only human failure to find it, study and understand it, can diminish its value.

The laboratory must be devoted to this study and understanding. Large numbers of criminals escape
because the physical evidence is not fully understood and u lised. More laboratory failures are due to
inadequate collec on of exis ng evidence, than are caused by the failure of the laboratory to examine
it properly. All laboratory findings are related to a probability, and a single piece of evidence is rarely
sufficient in itself to establish proof of guilt or innocence.

Control Sample
It means specimens of material, e.g. vegeta on or soil from the scene, sample of blood, hair, fingerprint,
etc. from the vic m for comparison with any ques oned material from the crime scene. Blood stains
found on garment, soil, etc. will require unstained samples to rule out the false posi ve test due to
substrate interference.
ILLUSTRATIONS
The following are some of the illustra ons of the usefulness of forensic science laboratory in criminal
inves ga ons. The following paragraphs should be correlated with the appropriate chapters.

(1) Personal Identity

The main problem of the criminal inves gator is the establishment of personal iden ty of the criminal.
Fingerprints, foot prints, hair, blood, semen, etc., are unique to the individual.

The criminal may be iden fied indirectly through the tool he used, the gun he fired, the clothes he wore,
wri ng he made, the soil, glass, paint, etc., he removed from the scene of crime. No two objects are ever
completely iden cal. In physical evidence, the term iden ty must be understood to signify prac cal and
determinable iden ty only.

(2) Blood
In murder, assault, rape, etc., blood from the vic m may be present at the scene of the crime, and on the
person and clothing of accused and weapons. The distribu on and appearance of bloodstained areas on
the vic m and his clothing may be used to interpret and reconstruct details of the crime. The criminal may
be injured in the course of struggle or accidentally either by fall while moving in the dark, or by protruding
nail, or broken window glass, in the act of breaking into a house. Blood groups are very useful in cases of
disputed paternity.

(3) Semen
Stains may be found on the clothes of the accused and vic m, pubic hair and person, on the bedding,
ma ress, floor or ground on which the offence was commi ed or on the piece of cloth used by the culprit
or the vic m for wiping a er the offence. Ultraviolet light is useful in fluorescence tests, such as examining
stains on garments.

(4) Firearms
A bullet recovered from a dead body can be examined to determine the type of gun which fired it, and the
type of ammuni on fired. By careful study of the markings on the bullet, the gun which fired it can be
determined.

(5) Fingerprints
A criminal can be iden fied especially by means of latent prints le at the scene of a crime, on a weapon,
or in another incrimina ng loca on. Fingerprints are also useful in iden fica on of dead bodies, persons
suspected of opera ng under aliases, amnesia vic ms, etc.
(6) Hair
Traces of certain elements are deposited in our hair because of diet, drug intake and atmospheric
condi ons. The propor ons of these differ considerably in different persons and these can be measured
through neutron ac va on analysis. Hair from a criminal may be pulled out by objects at the scene.
Similarly, hair from the vic m may adhere to the criminal's person, clothing or weapon. In a sexual
offence, hair from the vic m may be found on the genitals of the accused and vice versa. Hair found
s cking to a motor vehicle involved in an accident are useful in the iden ty of vehicle. Animal hair are very
important in case of bes ality, and ca le the s.

(7) Fibres
The fibres may be of animal, vegetable, mineral, and synthe c origin. A crime against person o en
involves contact between the criminal's clothes or weapon on one side and the vic m's clothes on the
other. Even in burglary, or the , the criminal o en handles or touches several objects in the premises, due
to which clothing fibres are transferred from the criminal to the scene of crime and vice versa, because
the clothes constantly carry loose fibres. If it is found that a fibre from one source exactly matches one
from another source, there is definite probability that the two sources have come into contact with each
other.

(8) Poisons
In a suspected case of poisoning, the iden fica on of the poison is necessary. It must be remembered that
the presence of injuries or a disease sufficient to account for death does not rule out the possibility of
poisoning.

(9) Weapons And Tools

A wide variety of tools are used in the commission of crimes, e.g., knives, screwdrivers, bars, saws, pliers,
cu ers, hammers, drill, etc. Some of these leave marks which are very characteris c, and by which the
tool may be quite accurately iden fied. The tool may also carry traces from the scene in the form of paint,
oil, par cles of wood or scratches from nails or other hard objects, and these may lead to the detec on of
crime. The examina on of the wound will indicate the type of the weapon used, and the microscopic
evidence can connect the weapon with the perpetrator or perhaps even with wound.

(10) Clothes
Fibres, paint, grease or dust may be found on the suspect's clothes in a burglary, and stains of semen or
blood on the clothes of both the vic m and the assailant in sexual offences.
(11) Glass
In hit-and-run traffic accident, cyclist's rear lamp may be broken, the glass fragments of which may be
found on bumper or other parts of the vehicle. Also, traces of glass from the headlamp of the vehicle may
be found at the scene. The burglar in trying to enter the house may break window glass, the fragments of
which may be carried in his clothes, etc. The refrac ve index, specific gravity and exposure to ultraviolet
light of the glass fragment help to iden fy their probable source. The composi on of glass can be checked
chemically or by spectroscopic examina on.

(12) Wood
If a piece of wood from the handle of the tool used by the criminal is found at a scene, it can be iden fied
by matching it with the handle of the tool seized from the suspect. Par cles or splinters of the wood found
on the suspect's clothes or tool should be compared with the wood of the door or window broken for the
forced entry. Faults, marks, bruises and other individual pointers assist in matching a piece of wood with
another piece from which it has been separated. Paint and external factors also indicate a rela on
between broken pieces. Microscopical examina on of the cell structures is useful in iden fica on of
sawdust.

(13) Metals
Most evidence which is metallic in nature is in the form of tools and weapons. Like wood, metal pieces
from the tool used by the criminal may be found at the scene of the crime, and metal fragments from the
door and window fi ngs, and from the boxes and safes, may be recovered from the criminal's clothing or
tool. Metallic fragments can be examined chemically or with the spectroscope and can be iden fied wih a
specimen sample of the metal.

(14) Tool Marks

The two main types of tool marks are compression and scrap marks with a combina on of both and also
cu ng marks. Every tool has its own peculiari es and the wear causes an individuality which are
transmi ed to the object on which the tool has been used. The density, pigment distribu on,
spectrographic analysis to determine the chemical composi on of the mineral cons tuents of paint
samples, and microscopic examina on give posi ve proof.

(15) Paint
In a road accident, flakes of paint from the vehicle may be found on the ground or on the person, animal
or object hit by it, and traces of paint from the object may be seen on the vehicle. A burglar may carry on
his body, tool or clothing, paint from the wall or doors of the house which he has burgled or from the safe
which he has broke open.
(16) Dust And Dirt
A criminal invariably carries soil in varying quan es on his feet or footwear, from the earth on which he
has walked, and on his body or clothing, from the ground on which he has lied down during the
commission of the crime, or fallen in the course of a struggle. Soil usually consists of mineral cons tuents,
decomposed organic ma er, broken leaves, pollen, grains, etc., capable of direct iden fica on.

(17) Vegetable Material

Anyone commi ng a crime out of doors is likely to get plant material on his clothing, the iden fica on of
which will connect him with the scene. Algae and fungi are usually found on damp walls, in buildings, the
soils, on vegeta on and on domes c ar cles. The burglar climbing the damp wall or fallpipe may get
smears of green algae. Seeds, por ons of leaf, bark and other vegetable fragments are useful and can be
iden fied to belong to par cular areas of country. Grass fragments, par cularly thecommon types, pollen,
weeds and seeds are iden fiable with their par cular source of origin.

(18) Strings And Ropes

The criminal may have brought his tools to the scene ed up in a bundle with string or cord, and may have
le it behind. If it is iden cal in structure deshape, and appearance with another found in the suspect's
possession, it is of great value.

(19) Tyre Marks

It may be possible to trace a car by means of its tyre marks. A tyre mark should be compared with test
mark and not directly with the tyre.

(20) Documents
They are physical evidence like blood, hair, glass, etc. Ques oned documents may necessitate
(a.) Physical and chemical examina on including a study and den fica on of:
 wri ng materials, e.g., paper, pen, ink, pencil, typewriter
 erasures, oblitera ons, and altera ons, order and age of wri ng, typing or other markings

(b.) Iden fica on of the authorship of the wri ng :

The individual should be asked to write something for the purposes of comparison with a ques oned
document. Infrared light will assist in the examina on of closed le ers, ques oned documents, etc.

(21) Speech
Computer Speech Lab (CSL) facilitates comparison of two voices, one that of the suspect and the other
known by means of a combina on of words and sentences selected from speech. It can help in cases like
kidnap for ransom, threats, obscene calls, terrorist threats, extor on, etc. Voice mails and gunshots also
can be analysed.

(22) Photography
Photography provides life-like reproduc ons which serve to refresh memory, and are a useful evidence. In
the forensic sciences photographs are used (1) as a means to record a phenomenon observed, and (2) to
reveal that cannot normally be seen. The first category includes the recording of simple matching
techniques, photomicrography, and photomacrography. The second category includes the effect of
infrared and ultraviolet radia ons which helps in seeing things which are not seen in ordinary light, such
as faint le er marks, and the produc on of radiographs using X-rays.

(23) Computer Speech Labs (Csl)

Facilitates comparison of two voices, one that of the suspect and the other known by means of a
combina on of words and sentences selected from speech. It can help cases of kidnap for ransom,
threats, obscene calls, terrorist threats, extor on, etc. Voicemails and gunshots can also be analysed.

(24) Lie Detection:

(A) Polygraph:

 It is an instrument used to detect lies. Keeler polygraph, and Stoelling deceptograph are in
common use. Polygraph makes a con nuous record of blood pressure, pulse, respira on, muscular
movements and electrodermal reac on changes in response to s muli in the form of ques ons.

 It is based on the theory, that when the person tells a lie in answer to a ques on, and there is
fear that lie will be detected, the emo on of fear results in s mula on of sympathe c nervous
system which results in certain physiological changes (psychosoma c reac ons), some of which
may be easily recorded.

 There is rela ve rise in blood pressure and recovery. pulse rate increases, slowing down of the
breathing. erra c breathing, and many mes suppression of involuntary muscular movements, and
lowering of the galvanic skin resistance of the individual due to increased ac vity of sweat glands.

 In pre-test interview, the test ques ons are framed with the mutual consent of the subjects and to
the sa sfac on of examiner, that they are adequate to serve the purpose of the par cular
examina on. A basic explana on of the a achments in the polygraph is given to the subject.
 An a empt is made to answer the subject's ques ons regarding the procedure. The ques ons are
framed in such a way that they are clearly understood by the subject and they call for only 'Yes' or
'No' as answer. The ques ons usually number ten. Relevant and irrelevant ques ons are mixed
up. The control ques ons are put to reduce the natural nervousness, the natural s gma of the
issue at stake, and the natural slight resentment of the accusatory nature of the ma er involved in
the inves ga on.

 A ques on is asked every 20 to 25 seconds, and polygraph chart recorded in 3 to 4 minutes.

Usually, the same test is repeated twice or thrice as a check on any possible error. An experienced
and competent polygraph examiner can correctly detect truth or lie in about 80 to 90% cases.

 The few errors that do occur favour the innocent, since the known mistakes in diagnosis almost
always involve a failure to detect lies of decep ve subjects. Offenders, suspects, complainants,
witnesses and informants are examined by this method to test truth of their statements. It is also
useful in civil cases, e.g., paternity cases. insurance claims, pre-employment screening by banks
and other ins tu ons.
 (B) Narcoanalysis: ("truth serum" drugs):

This is based on the principle, that at a point very close to unconsciousness, the subject will be mentally
incapable of resistance to ques oning, and incapable of inven ng the falsehoods that he has used to
conceal his guilt.
The methods used are:
 Half mg, of scopolamine hydrobromide, s.c., followed by one-fourth mg. every twenty minutes,
for an average of 3 to 6 injec ons, un l the subject reaches the proper stage for ques oning.
 Sodium amytal or sodium pentothal (truth serum) 2.5 to 5% solu on i.v. at a rate not to exceed
one ml., un l the proper stage is induced.
 0.1g, sodium seconal, one and half hours before induc on; 45 minutes later 15 mg. morphine
sulphate and half mg. scopolamine hydrobromide are given.
To save me all three drugs may be given intravenously. Person loses inhibi ons and becomes talka ve. It
depresses CNS, lowers B.P. and slows heart rate. In a state of relaxa on, the suspect is suscep ble to
sugges on and reveals repressed feelings or memories. The drugs will remove inhibi ons, but not self-
control. As such, the subject may be able to tell lies, fabricate or confabulate due to the hallucinatory
effect of the drug. This method is risky to the subject. Large number of false nega ves are common.
 (C) Hypnosis:

Many people cannot be hypno sed and many cannot be hypno sed to a deep level. It does not o en
enhance memory. Hypno sed witnesses (1) produce more fabricated recollec ons, (2) are more
influenced by interviewer's misleading comments and ques ons, and (3) more confident in the accuracy
of their recollec ons, than are non-hypno sed witnesses, even when their recollec ons are false.

(D) Word Associa on:

Changes in reac on me of the subject's reply to word s muli, either visual or auditory, or by stereotype
of answers, or by exhibi on of uncoordinated physical movements, have been employed in a empts to
detect decep on.
(25)Brain Mapping (Brain Fingerprinting):
It is a technique that measures recogni on of familiar s muli by measuring electrical brain wave
responses (P300) to words, phrases, or pictures that are presented on a computer screen. It is based on
the theory that the suspect's reac on to the details of an event or ac vity will reflect if the suspect had
prior knowledge of the event or ac vity. It detects evidence stored in the brain.

Technique:
 Modern brain scanning technique consists of electroencephalography (EEG), magneto
encephalography (MEG), positron emission tomography (PET), magne c resonance imaging (MRI
and func onal MRI) and computed tomography (CT).

 The equipment called "electro-cap" with 19 electronic sensors is fixed on the suspect's shaven scalp
for recording EEG. The suspected person is ques oned about the crime and also shown the visuals
of the crime scene (vic m, weapon, me, place and how he commi ed the crime, etc. along with
irrelevant words, photographs, etc.) on a video monitor under computer control to s mulate his
brain and encourage a reac on on a computer monitor.

 Apart from his verbal replies another computer keeps track of the neuro impulses (brain waves
chemical responses) emi ed whenever the visual is seen. Electrical brain responses of the suspect
are measured non-invasively through electro cap equipped with sensors.

 A specific wave response called MERMER (memory encoding related mul faceted
electroencephalographic response) is elicited when the brain processes the relevant informa on it
recognises This pa ern occurs within about a second a er the s mulus presenta on and can be
detected using EEG amplifiers and a programmed computer.

 When the details of the crime the perpetrator would know are presented, a MERMER is emi ed by
the brain of a perpetrator, but not by the brain of an innocent suspect. It depends on cogni ve brain
responses. A computer analyses the brain responses to detect the MERMER. Each s mulus appears
for a frac on of a second. Three types of s muli are presented, targets, irrelevant and probes. The
targets elicit a MERMER. Most of the non-target s muli are irrelevant and do not elicit a MERMER.

 Some of the non-target s muli are relevant to the situa on and are called probes, and does not
depend on the emo ons and is not affected by emo onal responses. Similarly, when the informa on
tested is informa on known only to members of a par cular organisa on group, e.g. terrorist group,
the informa on present indicates affilia on with the group in ques on.

 It is used in crime detec on, screening employees, especially in military and foreign intelligence
and counter-terrorism, insurance fraud, etc. It is said to be 100% accurate.
CONSTITUTION OF INDIA:

According to Ar cle 20 (3) of cons tu on of India no person accused of any offence shall be compelled to
be a witness against himself.
The Supreme Court (2010) held that no individual should be forcibly subjected to narco analysis,
polygraph and brain mapping tests on accused, suspects and witnesses without their consent as they
violate the right against self-incrimina on.
Even when the subject had given consent to undergo any of these tests, the test results by themselves
could not be admi ed as evidence because "the subject does not exercise conscious control over the
responses during the administra on n of the test.
However, any informa on of material that is subsequently discovered with the of voluntary administered
test results can be admi ed, in accordance with Sec on 27 of the Evidence Act.