Chapter 8 Intelligent Transportation Systems For many decades, advances in computing power and the desire to improve traffic operations allowed traffic systems to become more “intelligent” in a number of ways: * Central computers were used to control traffic signals in a number of pioneering cities, including San Jose CA, Overland Park KS, Toronto Canada, and New York City, NY. Computers were likewise used to meter traffic on freeway ramps and systems of freeway ramps. Researchers focused on improved control policies for traffic control, on surface streets and on freeways, in moderate to heavy to oversaturated conditions. Variable message signs were used to provide route advisory information to drivers, based upon traffic conditions detected with a variety of sensors. By the late 1980s, the profession began discussing the overall approach as “intelligent vehicle highway systems” (IVHS). In 1991, IVHS America was formed as a public/private partnership to plan, promote, and coordinate development and deployment of IVHS in the United States. Other countries had comparable organizations and initiatives, with widespread activity in the United States, Canada, Japan, and Europe. The terminology and the concept quickly evolved to an emphasis on Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS), with a multimodal focus. Consistent with this, IVHS America became ITS America [1], which has grown to a major organization supporting the development of standards, providing a forum for professional dialog, and including a network of state-level ITS organizations. Comparable organizations exist in many countries, and ITS International [2] is a noteworthy publication. Key meetings include the ITS World Congress, ITS America Annual Meeting,Intertraffic, sessions at the Transportation Research Board (TRB) Annual Meeting, the International Road Federation (IRF) Meeting, and the Institute of Transportation Engineers (ITE) Annual Meeting. The focus is not merely on moving vehicles more efficiently. It extends to providing routing information based upon real-time and historic information, traffic advisories, and finding and even scheduling parking. It also extends to multimodal transfer points, schedule coordination, information on current status and pending arrivals, and information by kiosk and smartphone apps for transit and for trip planning. The investment in ITS has been truly substantial to date, and much space could be devoted to sample projects. But the authors believe that the reader is better served by indicating concepts and web resources, so that the most current information is used: up-to-date standards, rules and policies, and initiatives. As substantial as the effort has been to date, the coming years (this was written in mid-2017) are likely to see an accelerated pace of ITS applications, and even of the concept of what constitutes a complete, integrated intelligent system. The forces at work include the following: © For over a decade, the momentum has been building, key standards have been established, the infrastructure has been upgraded, and an experienced professional workforce has been developed. © Manufacturers are embracing the perceived market forces for connected and/or autonomous vehicles; at the same time, they are embracing electric and hybrid vehicle expectations. Being innovative, early to market, and committed to such future vehicles has exploded as a competitive force. * Agencies and government units are responding to the need for on- road testing, authorizations, and regulations. * Smartphones and a host of smartphone apps have fundamentally changed how much information people can get, and much more they expect to get. © Aided by a supportive communications infrastructure, there is a flood of information creating a data-rich environment. Routinginformation, travel times, crowdsourced information, transit performance, taxi and for-hire vehicle data all contribute to future ITS designs.8.1 An Overview ITS has as its primary objective increasing system efficiency and safety, through the use of a set of tools, techniques, technology, standards, and best practices. While attention is often drawn to the motoring public, ITS has always had a strong emphasis on commercial vehicle operations (CVO), freight, transit, and advanced traveler information systems. The emphasis on pedestrians and bicycles has grown, and safety is a keystone of ITS. The USDOT ITS Joint Program Office has an excellent resource in its ITS ePrimer website [3]. It contains a set of 14 modules that provide comprehensive information on the range of topics shown in Table 8.1. Table 8.1: The 14 Modules of the USDOT ePrimer Website Module 1: Introduction to ITS Module 2; Systems Engincering Module 3: Transportation Management Systems Module 4: Traffic Operations Module 5: Personal Transportation Module 6: Freight, Intermodal, and CVO Module 7: Public Transportation Module 8: Electronic Toll Collection and Pricing Module 9: Supporting ITS Technologies Module 10: Rural and Regional ITS Applications Module 11: Sustainable Transportation Module 12: Institutional Issues Module 13: Connected Vehicles Module 1 merging Issues(Source: https://www.pcb.its.dot.gov/ePrimer.aspx.) Table 8.1: Full Alternative Text Table 8.2 shows the outline of Module 1, “Introduction to ITS,” as an illustration of the content of each of the modules (several modules have more detailed outlines). Among the topics listed, note the national ITS architecture and refer to Figure 8.1 displaying that architecture. Table 8.2: The Table of Contents for ePrimer Module 1 Introduction ITS Overview Transportation Challenges Benefits of ITS History of ITS National and Regional ITS Architectures ¢ Architectural Layers * Regional Architecture * National ITS Standards Growth of ITS Deployment Future Vision for ITS ePrimer Overview References (Source: https://www.pcb.its.dot.gov/ePrimer.aspx, Module 1.) Table 8.2: Full Alternative Text Figure 8.1: National ITSArchitecture Centers TNT a Trafic) Emergency ff) Payment Coal acon ae Management ff Management ff Administration jninstraionl! Management Traveler s "Wh Enisions Tranist i 7 Aud wget Management) ycnement | Managment (Source: , Module 3.) The reader is strongly advised to (1) focus on key concepts that are part of the common dialog in ITS applications, including* system architecture * standards * V diagram and (2) gain a deeper knowledge by visiting [3] and inspecting each of the modules, so as to be aware of the content.8.2 ITS Standards An excellent source of information on current ITS standards is the USDOT website http://www. standards its.dot.gov/ [4]. This provides access to the very detailed standards that have been developed and are current. The web site notes that The ITS Standards Program has teamed with standards development organizations and public agencies to accelerate the development of open, non-proprietary communications interface standards [4]. To a very large extent, the key words are “open” and “nonproprietary.” This site is the repository and path to such information as: * existing ITS standards; ITS standards training: a self-paced series of 49+ modules (refer to Table 8.3 for an illustrative set) plus 21+ transit-related modules; international harmonization; deployment tools; lessons learned; fact sheets; deployment statistics and asset viewer; technical assistance and training opportunities. Table 8.3: Illustrative Training Modules from Reference [4]Module # Module Title Module 1D 5 Tntroduction to ITS Standards Testing THO 6 Details on Acquiring Standards-based ITS Systems A201 1 Identifying and Writing User Needs When ITS Standards Do Not Have | A202 SEP Content 28 Building an ITS Infastricture Based on the Advanced Transportation A20Ta, Part 1 of 2 Controller (ATC) $201 Standard—Pat 1 of 2 29 Building an ITS Infrastructure Based on the Advanced Transportation A20Tb, Par 20f2 Controller (ATC) 5201 Standard —Part 2 of 2 ny our Test Plan to a Transportation Sensor System (TSS) Based | T312 FTCIP 1209 Standard 02 50 Applying Your Tet Plan to Ramp Meter Control (RMC) Units Based on | 7309 the NTCIP 1207 Standard vO2 St Using the ISO TS 19091 Standard to Implement V2I Intersection cv27i1 Applications Introduction Table 8.3: Full Alternative Text The standards themselves are cited by their National Transportation Communications for ITS Protocol (NTCIP) numbers, and fit within an overall National ITS Architecture. Figure 8.2 shows the role of the standards relative to the systems architecture. Figure 8.2: ITS Standards as Related to ArchitectureNational—Standards requirements, functional National requirements for ITS Standards—Normative ve systems, generic ITS : : Architecture services descriptions, guide for the exchange “/ and system interlace information or control requirements. between systems. eae cca ee J ice, Seon of specifications based on National ITS Architecture to national and regional Project rellect regional needs, standards and regional Architecture} identifies applicable ITS needs. standards, institutional agreements, etc. Project—High-level nin (Source: http://www. standards its.dot.gov/) Figure 8.2: Full Alternative Text8.3 ITS Systems Engineering Process Reference [3] notes that many process models have been developed for the systems engineering approach, but notes that the V process model shown in Figure 8.3 has gained wide acceptance in the standards community, and is the one chosen by USDOT [5, 6]. Figure 8.3: V Process Model, as USDOT SEP teat / coe || tare \ Acitaue / / Exletin || Naggenen tanh System Veriton Pan Csi ats (Sem Acepame) Sti noe Cetin Mirne Inf Mime ose Ieee Desi Gas Tha us TednalRevies Tait Dasson Gate Sota iin Hace Fkiie Ley tme ne (Source: https://www.pcb.its.dot.gov/ePrimer.aspx, Module 2.) Figure 8.3: Full Alternative Text The problems at the end of this particular chapter direct the reader to seekadditional knowledge of a number of items, by going to the referenced websites, using the hyperlinks, and going into further detail. Specifically, Reference [6] has hyperlinks for each step in the V process model, providing substantially more information. For the present purposes, it is sufficient to take note of the steps, the names of which tend to be self- explanatory. Reference [3] observes that as one moves from one step to the next, there may be iteration back to a prior step, particularly on the left side of the V. Figure 8.4 shows the same V process model (or “V diagram”) as related to the traditional transportation development process. Figure 8.4: Relation of the V Process Model to the Traditional Transportation Development ProcessProject Preliminary Initiation | Engineering SPe*S@nd] _—Construetion ‘Closeout, Operations ‘& Maintenance: Lite cyte time line Decision Gate => (Source: https://www.pcb.its.dot.gov/ePrimer.aspx, Module 2.) Figure 8.4: Full Alternative Text8.4 ITS-Related Commercial Routing and Delivery Routing systems are of great importance to trucking and service vehicles. This is a large specialty market, with software available that can compute long-haul routing, urban routing, and provides answers that take into account the set of scheduled pickup and delivery points. Dynamic re- routing, as new pickups are added en route, is feasible. Today, it is commonplace for package delivery services (FedEx, UPS, others) to offer real-time package tracking to customers on their web sites. Using bar-code scanning technology and wireless communication, packages are tracked in detail from origin to destination. At the delivery point, the driver uses a computer-based pad to record delivery time and often receiver’s signature. This information is available in virtually real time to the sender. Clearly, the package delivery services found a differentiating service feature that has rapidly been adopted in a highly competitive industry. What was special a few years ago has now become the expected standard of service. The same data allow the service providers to obtain a wealth of data on the productivity (and down time) of their vehicles and drivers, and on the cost of delivery in various areas.8.5 Sensing Traffic by Virtual and Other Detectors As already mentioned, smartphones and other devices can provide such a wealth of data that the traffic engineer and manager must worry about being overwhelmed with data, and must plan for that day. Indeed, electronic toll collection (ETC) tags such as E-ZPass (used by a number of states along the Northeast Corridor) do already provide the opportunity to sample travel times and estimate volumes, and ETC readers can be used for such purposes even where tolls are not collected. But the day when these newer technologies can be the primary source of data has not yet arrived. Indeed, there are still a number of years in which other innovative and traditional sensors will be the primary source of traffic information. The mainstay of traffic detection for decades has been magnetic sensing of vehicles by a loop installed into the road surface. It is still important in many jurisdictions, but some have moved away from loops because of cuts made into the pavement during maintenance, or weather issues such as frost heave, or relative cost. Three alternatives, coming into greater use, are as follows: 1. Virtual detectors generated in software, using a standard or infrared video camera to capture an image of the traffic and generate estimates of flow, speed, queue, and/or spatial occupancy. Refer to Figure 8.5 for an illustration. Using such a tool, the transportation professional can “locate” numerous “detectors” essentially by drawing them on top of the intersection image, and depending upon the software to process the data. Figure 8.5: Software-Based Virtual Detector, Using Video CameramS AU PY a (Source: NYC Department of Transportation.) 2. Microwave detectors, used to identify flows and point occupancy. The detectors can be placed over specific lanes, or in a “side-fire” mode covering a number of lanes. In some applications, one detector can be used to cover several lanes and even both directions. Refer to for an illustration. Such detectors can be used in a cluster, with wireless data transmission from one point in the cluster. 3. Wireless Detectors Imbedded in Pavement, such as illustrated in . Models are available for presence or count, and aregenerally imbedded one per lane. The units are approximately 3 = 3 inches, 2 inches deep. Compared to loops, the manufacturer claims an easier install and less susceptibility to being broken than a loop with a much larger footprint. Figure 8.8 shows a travel time map generated from sets of such detectors, using software to identify the “signature” or profile of individual vehicles. Figure 8.6: Illustration of Microwave Detectors Solar panel Bera Sensor unit L C v } Radio data / Sensor unit transmission unit, 4 Battery maintenance: anit Figure 8.6: Full Alternative TextFigure 8.7: Wireless Detectors Imbedded into Road ‘i amend (0 sess mass vena een iste CE jG d < n——}-— — woeess sensors = . C= (Source: Courtesy of Sensys Networks, Inc.) Figure 8.7: Full Alternative Text Figure 8.8: Travel Time Estimates from Sets of Figure 8.7 DetectorsSS ARLE a A GSENSYS 2 i R fara { hd ‘ H g CT —r H e Y COMM thie sus oad Ned fran exo Pak it Aegean Tae Tie System (Source: Courtesy of Sensys Networks, Inc.) Figure 8.8: Full Alternative Text ‘There are variations on these types, including a detector that uses a 360- degree video image for “area occupancy” detection. The use of infrared imaging allows vehicles to be detected in a variety of weather conditions. Another variant is the use of sophisticated algorithms based upon coverage of the underlying pavement image allows data to be collected from stationary traffic as well as moving traffic.8.6 Connected Vehicle Pilot Studies Reference [4] lists a set of “Hot Topics” and a set of “Research Areas.” The Connected Vehicle is featured prominently on both lists. Of special note at the time of this writing is the September 2016 award of three design/build/test pilot deployment projects by USDOT for three sites: 1. State of Wyoming—sections of Interstate 80 (I-80) using 75 roadside units, 400 instrumented fleet vehicles, and traveler information through the Wyoming 511 app and its commercial vehicle operator portal (CVOP). The WYDOT website notes that truck volumes on I- 80 can reach 70% during seasonal peaks and extreme weather (blowing snow in winter, fog and high winds in summer). 2. New York City, NY—three distinct areas in the boroughs of Manhattan and Brooklyn: a 4-mile segment of the FDR Drive (a limited-access facility), 4 one-way corridors in Manhattan, and a 1.6 mile segment of Flatbush Avenue Brooklyn approaching the Manhattan Bridge. Some 5800 cabs, 1250 MTA buses, 400 commercial fleet delivery trucks, and 500 NYC vehicles will be equipped with connected vehicle technology. There will also be a focus on reducing vehicle-pedestrian conflicts using in-vehicle pedestrian warnings and personal devices equipping some 100 pedestrians. 3. Tampa-Hillsborough Expressway Authority Pilot—focus on rush- hour collision avoidance and wrong-way entry prevention on the Expressway; traffic flow optimization on several arterial segments, including pedestrian safety and bus priority on some; streetcar safety; and traffic management. USDOT looks at these pilots as the “most complex and extensive deployment of integrated wireless in-vehicle, mobile device, and roadside technologies.”8.7 Variable Pricing In many areas, variable pricing of road usage has arrived, albeit in the form of discounts for using ETC. Although congestion pricing (the earlier and more common term) has proven extremely controversial in many discussions, there are two realities that the reader will face in coming years: 1. Funding mechanisms for facility maintenance and operation need to be found. The most visible means has been a gasoline tax at point of purchase (so many cents per gallon), but this historic mechanism (a) is not sensitive to either time of day or total mileage traveled, if in the latter case one considers relative fuel efficiencies, (b) loses meaning if alternate fuels are used, including electricity, (c) generates less revenue if mileage efficiency improves, (d) is difficult to change for political reasons, even while (e) social justice issues might be exacerbated by any linkage of older vehicles, gas-powered vehicles, and household income skewing the tax burden. 2. ITS technology can not only make for safer and more efficient travel but can also make variable pricing much more feasible than in the past, because it is becoming pervasive. Indeed, some toll facilities no longer accept cash. And some non-toll facilities—and many surface streets—have smart sensors for ITS uses. It can be argued that variable pricing is an entirely different subject from ITS, and the two should not be comingled. But it is wise for the reader to appreciate that two strong forces are at work, concurrently, and will influence the reader’s professional life: the need to equitably fund transportation facilities is pressing and a solution must be found, while at the same time the advance of technology and the benefits of ITS are putting in place the infrastructure that can make some collection methods both cost-effective and attractive. Indeed, one could argue that—putting aside ITS-specific infrastructure—the smartphone itself provides the needed infrastructure. For further reading, refer to Module 8 of [3], which is titled “ElectronicTolling and Pricing” and addresses pricing strategies, funding and financing, and value pricing (as well as congestion pricing).8.8 Closing Comments This chapter intentionally skips details of specific ITS systems, because (a) the field is moving rapidly and any “snapshot” of its present state is sure to be dated rapidly, perhaps even by the publication date of the text, and (b) the real issue is for the reader to be prepared to expand his/her view of providing transportation service in a highly competitive market in which computing, communications, and web services are being used in novel ways. Furthermore, the evolving roles of public and private sectors—in some ways, structure vis-a-vis market responsiveness—should draw the reader’s attention. Today’s “right answer” can be swept away by what the enabling technologies make available. ‘There is another fundamental issue for the reader to consider: manufacturers need to devise products that are both more attractive and differentiated (at least in the short term, until the competition copies success). In that world, transportation data and information is not an end in its own right—the traditional view in our profession—but rather it is a product enhancement, or a service. Private sector forces may provide a data-rich environment for transportation professionals as a by-product of their own work, and at an innovative pace driven by that work and its market. And this pace can exceed the traditional pace of public sector planning and innovation, and the orderly process of standardization.References © 1, http://itsamerica.org/ 2. http://www.ropl.com/magazines/its-international/ 3. https://www.pcb.its.dot.gov/ePrimer.aspx 4, http://www.standards.its.dot.gov/ © 5, Systems Engineering for ITS—an Introduction for Transportation Professionals, USDOT, September 2007, http://ops.fhwa.dot.gov/ publications/seitsguide/seguide.pdf * 6, Systems Engineering Guidebook for ITS, Version 3.0, FHWA and Caltrans, November 2009, https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/cadiv/segb/Problems 1. 8-1, Read the History of Intelligent Transportation Systems. www.its.dot.gow/index.htm, FHWA-JPO-16-329. 2, 8-2. Read Module 8 of [3], and prepare for a class discussion of the value of, and the potential need for, variable pricing related to transportation facility usage. If necessary, do additional web searching to be aware of past work on road usage fees based upon vehicle-miles traveled (VMT) rather than fixed tax per gallon of gasoline. Be prepared to contribute to a discussion, with supporting materials, on whether variable pricing by demand level is equitable or not. 3. 8-3. Do a web search on “ITS V2V” and then broaden your search to include V2I and 12V. Find and submit definitions of each, lists of related technologies, and graphics that clarify the concepts for a general audience. Be sure to identify sources. 4, 8-4. Go to Reference [6], and go through the hyperlinks for each step in the V process model, in sufficient detail that you fully understand the diagram in Figure 8.3. Summarize them ina table, with the first column being the step and the second being your summary of each (50 words or less, per step). 5. 8-5. Do a web search on “ITS probe vehicles,” and also look for any related discussion in the source cited in Problem 8-1. This chapter did not address networks of probe vehicles explicitly, because the authors took the view that whereas probe vehicles were once very relevant, the pervasiveness of smartphones, ETC devices, and such makes the need for a special network of probe vehicles a bit outdated. Eithersupport this view or argue against it, using and citing sources for your case. . 8-6. Consider that in a large region, you would like to obtain information on truck origins and destinations and the type of cargo carried (including empty or “deadhead” loads). What ITS infrastructure can be used for this purpose? Is it likely to be in place? Is a special survey needed, or special measurements? What are the most common classifications of commercial cargo, preferably in eight or fewer categories? . 8-7. Refer to the section on “Connected Vehicle Pilot Studies.” Search the literature, starting with the identified source(s), and write up a summary of the current progress or results of the three pilot studies cited. What lessons learned were listed, if any? . 8-8. Refer to the “virtual detector” discussion in the chapter, which addresses software (hopefully user-friendly) that can be used to place both point and area detectors on a video image. Write a summary of the current state of the art in such detectors, drawing on graphics and text from the web, properly sourced. Consider whether any existing technology can work with infra-red imaging, and what the limits of the technology are (weather, light, etc.), again properly sourced. Limit yourself to 5-8 pages.