EFFECTS OF LOW

TEMPERATURE
on Plants
Bodie Pennisi, Paul Thomas, and Eric Stallknecht, Department of Horticulture
Temperature is an important environmental factor in plant
growth and development. It governs the rate of photosynthesis
(food production) and respiration (food utilization). Depending
on its origin (e.g. tropical or temperate), each plant species has
a temperature range where it grows best. Temperature greatly
influences plant hardiness, fall color, and senescence (leaf
fall). A plant’s hardiness determines its ability to withstand
the average minimum temperature of a region without damage
or death. Although winter hardiness is genetically determined,
it is influenced by the duration of cool temperatures. Cool
temperatures acclimate plants and prepare them for winter
dormancy. Many woody plants need two to four weeks of
cool temperatures to achieve maximum hardiness. The United
States Department of Agriculture Plant Hardiness Zone Map
(Figure 1) shows the cold hardiness zones of Georgia. Zones
are based on average minimum temperatures in a region. As
temperature is the least controllable environmental factor
in landscapes, growers should select species rated for their
appropriate hardiness zone(s).
For example, you should not attempt to grow plants rated Figure 1. Plant Hardiness Zone Map of Georgia.
Zones are based on average minimum winter
with hardiness zone 8 (warmer) in zone 7 (cooler) because temperatures. Zones are not permanent and
they often become damaged by winter cold. Conversely, change over time. Keep an updated map to
zone 6 plants are fine for zone 7 provided they are also heat ensure best results for your specific region.
hardy and adapted to the soils of the area. If you choose to
grow plants with borderline hardiness, you should be prepared to provide cold weather protection. Having a
solid grasp of cold temperature’s effects on plants will help you implement critical horticulture practices like
controlling greenhouse temperature, insulating containerized woody stock, and correctly timing any pruning.
In this publication, we will explore the effects of low temperature on plants in production greenhouses,
nurseries, and landscapes. These three environments have different causes and effects, each requiring unique
responses to avoid injury. To better understand the effects of low temperatures, let’s look at how and when
freezing and chilling injuries occur.

Freezing and Frost Injury

Freezing and frost injuries occur at or below the
freezing point (32 degrees Fahrenheit/0 degrees
Celsius). Freeze damage happens during an
advection freeze when an air mass with temperatures
below freezing moves into an area and displaces
warmer air, causing the temperature of plants to
become low enough for ice crystals to form inside
their cells. Frost damage happens during a radiation
freeze. This occurs on clear nights without wind
when plants radiate more heat to the atmosphere
than they received. This creates a temperature
inversion where cold air close to the ground gets
trapped by moist, warmer air above it. When air
Figure 2. As ice crystals grow, they attract water from the
temperature at ground level nears or drops below cell, dehydrating and killing the living protoplasm.
freezing, the plant’s temperature becomes colder
UGA Cooperative Extension B1467 • Effects of Low Temperature on Plants 2
than the surrounding air temperature, causing
ice crystals to grow on the surface of the foliage,
stems, and flowers. During both frost and
freeze injury, ice crystals form in plant tissues,
dehydrating cells and disrupting/rupturing plant
membranes (Figure 2). This causes physical
damage as expanding rigid ice crystals puncture
cellular membranes, and dehydration damage as
all water within plant tissues freezes, rendering it
inaccessible for photosynthesis.¹ Once physical
damage has occurred, it manifests itself as brown
to yellow necrosis, often leading to portions of
the plant or the entire plant dying. Cold hardy
species are less susceptible to freezing and frost
injury (Figure 3).

Chilling Injury
Chilling injuries occur above the freezing
Figure 3. Frost appears on leaves (top, yaupon
point (32 F/0 C), and plants of tropical and
holly) and flowers (bottom, pansy). Within an hour
subtropical origin are most susceptible. Injured or two of the sun shining, the ice evaporates. Both
foliage appears purple or reddish (Figure 4), species are cold-hardy and will not be damaged.
and sometimes wilted (Figure 5). Chilling
injury can be obvious or invisible. Chilling can
delay crop blooming, cause direct damage, or reduce plant vigor. Chilling injury happens often with tropical
and subtropical plants grown in most of the U.S., but can happen with native, temperate forest plants as well,
depending on critical temperatures, the duration of low temperature, temperature changes, age, hydration
status of plants, and time of year (Figures 5 and 6). Plants can drop damaged leaves, become wilted, produce
misshapen new growth, display discolored foliage, or even have whole or portions of the plants dying. The
damage may also be unseen by the naked eye but manifest later as delayed blooming or stunted growth.

Figure 4. Chill damage on princess flower, Tibouchina urvilleana, is manifested by red lower foliage. The damage is fairly mild,

UGA Cooperative Extension B1467 • Effects of Low Temperature on Plants 3

Figure 5. More severe chill damage on ginkgo is manifested Figure 6. Chill damage on Indian hawthorn. Mature foliage
by wilted foliage. This damage is common in late spring turns brown to dark brown or nearly black. This type of
when plants have come out of winter dormancy and have damage can occur throughout winter.
started developing young foliage.

In many cases the most exposed part of the plant canopy becomes injured after low temperatures (Figure 7),
often causing entire shoots to die (Figure 8).
Every plant is a living entity with unique preferences for temperature. Specific temperature ranges are required
for optimal functioning of enzymatic and biomolecular processes. These processes make proteins and sugars,
the building blocks of plant cells and tissues, and carry out cell functions leading to plant growth. For example,
temperatures could be near 100 F for a cucumber, or near 50 F for Primula. It is often not the temperature
that specifically causes the damage. The extent of damage is determined by factors including the amount of
temperature change, the stage of growth, and the speed and duration of change.

Figure 7. Chill damage

on gardenia (left) and
Carissa holly (right).
The most exposed parts
of the canopy were
affected. The gardenia
shoot tips turned
brown. New shoots
developed later in the
spring, emerging below
the damage. This is
frequently referred to as
“frost pruning.”

In the case of the holly,

only the tips of the
exposed foliage were
damaged.

UGA Cooperative Extension B1467 • Effects of Low Temperature on Plants 4

Effects of Rapid Chilling
Plants are an extremely complex set of
chemical reactions. Everything including
basic cell materials, such as water and
nutrients, proper levels of enzyme activity,
and appropriate environments must be in
place for plants to grow well. These processes
take time to allow plants to adapt to different
temperature regimes. As a whole, this is
called “acclimatization,” which can take
hours, at best, and days or more for many
plants. For some tropical interiorscape plants,
up to 6 months may be needed. Therefore,
the amount of damage first depends on how
rapidly that species can adapt.² For example,
in order to adapt, foliage may have to change Figure 8. Chill damage on azalea. Instead of the tips, an entire
the orientation of the leaf itself or change shoot was affected and had to be removed.
the orientation of chloroplasts and the
photosynthetic apparatus (the food-making parts of the cell). Consider also the rate of activity of such complex
processes as photosynthesis and respiration. As mentioned previously, temperature has an important effect
on the rate of the biochemical reactions. This effect is known as the “Q10” and it refers to how a biological
reaction responds to a change in temperature within the temperature limits of a plant. Tropical African Violets,
for example, prefer to grow in temperatures between 56 and 80 F. Just outside that range, they will slow down
but survive. Most plants have a Q10 of 2, which means that for every 10 degree Centigrade increase in tissue
temperature, the reaction rates can double (within the temperature limits of that plant). So photosynthesis rates
can double between a cool morning and a hot afternoon. In reverse, respiration rates can be cut in half between
a warm afternoon and a cool night. Basically, things react faster when warm, and slower when cold.
There are also limits as to how fast the change from hot or cold can happen before the plant can’t adapt to
temperature shifts. Some species cannot respond quickly enough, and when change occurs, parts of the system
stall, break, stop, or cease to exist. An African violet grown in a greenhouse (60 F in the morning) is not going
to go into shock when watered with 55-degree-F hose water, because the difference in temperature is very small,
so you see few, if any, chill spots (Figure 9). On the other hand, that same plant watered in the afternoon (90 F
air temperature) will experience physiological stress such as disruption in cell and chloroplast membranes (3).
Given a few minutes to an hour, the cell either dies
or survives without key enzymes, chloroplasts (hence
yellowish cells or spots) or adequate membrane
integrity (Figure 9). If the chilling damage affects
many leaves on the plant, growth slows and death can
eventually occur. No amount of nitrogen can help the
plant recover. Even watering a warmed-up African
violet at 3:00 pm on a summer day with 65 to 70 F
water can cause spotting. One final note: cold water
below 55 F exceeds the cold temperature limits of an
African violet plant.³ If the greenhouse outdoor cistern
water drops to 45 F in a cold snap, the crop of African
violets can be severely damaged if you use that water
directly, regardless of how cool the greenhouse night
temperature was or how early the crop was watered. Figure 9. Cold water damage on African violets.

UGA Cooperative Extension B1467 • Effects of Low Temperature on Plants 5

Now that we have established what frost/freeze damage, chilling injury, and rapid chilling injury are and how
they affect plant cells and tissues, we can adapt cultural practices to prevent this in different environments.
Greenhouses, nurseries, and landscapes each require specific techniques to prevent low temperature damage.
Remember: prevention is the key, and philosophically, all environments require constant prevention to
ensure healthy plant growth. We will suggest a few key cultural practices and some examples for each of the
three environments. These are not complete lists, however, and knowing a plant’s physical boundaries ensures
proper health. If you’re unsure about a decision that affects entire crops, make sure to consult your local county
Extension agent.

Greenhouses:
It’s important to prepare for cold temperatures. Frost and freeze damage occur in the same manner as in the
environment. Greenhouses offer substantial protection to cold-sensitive plants, but they must function properly
to ensure that. In polyethylene-covered hoop houses, placing two layers over the frame creates an insulated
pocket of air between them that resists greater temperature fluctuation than a single layer would. This helps
prevent rapid temperature change inside the greenhouse. If propane heaters are available, inspect them before
their inevitable use and periodically thereafter to ensure that they remain functioning. Depending on the size
of the greenhouse, a temperature gradient can form in which the side closest to the heater will remain warmer
than the side furthest from the heater, and this temperature difference may cause uneven plant growth and cause
crop delays. Plastic tubing running the length of the greenhouse can be used to help alleviate the temperature
gradient for more even air distribution. In some cases, heated mating can be used to protect susceptible plant
material.
Greenhouse crops such as lantana and vinca are notorious for not showing physical signs of chill damage from
cold water on a warm afternoon. Bedding plants such as calendula and angelonia are examples of plants whose
new expanding growth will distort easily when exposed to a rapid temperature shift. Damage caused to the
photosynthetic pathways have long-lasting effects, often over weeks, and can manifest itself by slow growth.
Root tissue, especially in bedding plants and vegetable starts, can be dramatically affected by rapid shifts in
soil temperature. Mineral uptake by the root is impaired because of the cold effects on the root hair membranes.
Deficiencies can occur even when adequate nutrition is present in the soil. If plant foliage is touching the cold
greenhouse glazing, that could lead to damage as well.
Boston fern grown in baskets (Figure 10) is a popular
spring crop. Boston fern is not adapted to large
temperature swings. If the night temperature chills
rapidly, they will develop foliage with misshapen leaflets
and twisted fronds (Figure 10). This is why spring-grown
ferns can be damaged by energy-saving
attempts to lower the heat at night:
not enough time is given to the
plants to adapt to the lower
temperatures.
Research has shown that plant
cultivars may have differences
in chill sensitivity. A paper
recently published out of the
University of Florida IFAS
Extension evaluated Spathiphyllum
hybrids for sensitivity to chill
damage.³ Results from the study showed
Figure 10. Chill damage on Boston fern.

UGA Cooperative Extension B1467 • Effects of Low Temperature on Plants 6

leaf chill damage by 38 F temperatures varied from 2.5 percent damage up to 100 percent damage.
For Spathiphyllum, a temperate chill to just 38 F caused significant damage to appear within 24 hours.
Many cultivars tested exhibited black leaves or large necrotic areas.

To minimize chill damage in greenhouses:

1. Reduce cold air impact by using convection tubes when venting cold winter air
in a greenhouse.
2. Do not drop night temperatures below the tolerance limit for that crop.
3. Know what your well water or city water temperature averages in spring and
fall out of the end of the hose. Measure it at 7:00 and at 3:00 pm after running
the water for 5 minutes! Water only in the morning, preferably before the heater
or the sun warms up the greenhouse. In addition to reducing chill effects, you
will reduce the potential for disease.
4. Reduce the rate of temperature drops by running HAF fans at all times in the
winter to mix the air from vents or open doors.
5. Keep all leaves at least 6 inches from greenhouse sidewalls and external glass.

Nurseries:
Acclimating deciduous woody stock before winter often occurs in above ground organs, leaving freezing
damage to affect the roots of container plants. For this reason, you should be ready to protect the root system
from freeze damage.4 Both heated and unheated greenhouses can provide protection from winter freeze damage.
Unheated greenhouses can be used in regions where periods of freezing temperatures from winter are short.
Heated greenhouses may be used, but they should have temperature near freezing to keep them acclimated
and not break bud too early, as this often causes severe damage. Even in winter, greenhouses can reach high
temperatures. Opening vents and using high-air-flow fans can be used to cool a greenhouse with outside air to
prevent this early bud break. Containers may be buried or insulated with mulch (or even hay) to prevent damage
to sensitive roots over winter.

Water as Frost Prevention

Citrus and fern growers in Florida will sometimes spray water on the plants to reduce impending damage. Heat
is given off during ice formation, so the ice doesn’t penetrate the leaves and fruit tissue. This system works
only as long as water is continuously applied. If the water stops, temperature will quickly drop below freezing
and cause damage. This type of protection works well for plants with thick cuticle leaves and tough, thick
fruits. However, when applied to perennials, many ornamental woody crops and bedding plants, results are
far less successful. The rapid drop of temperature across the entire leaf is too rapid. Freeze damage is deadly,
but chill damage is insidious and can have long-term effects. It is far better to use good quality frost cloths as
recommended by the industry to slow the rate of cooling and keep the temperature as high as possible, or pile
leaves up over your outdoor plants as insulation. Using water to prevent freezing brings leaf tissue temperature
near 32 F, which for many, if not most, ornamental crops will still likely result in chill damage.

UGA Cooperative Extension B1467 • Effects of Low Temperature on Plants 7

Landscapes:
Low temperatures can negatively affect plants in the landscape. The easiest way to avoid low temperature
damage is to pick and use plants according to their plant hardiness zones. These zones are based on average
minimum temperatures and will prevent any cool or cold weather damage. When buying new stock, inspect the
tag for the plant’s hardiness zone. If it’s not on the tag, this information is readily available on the internet and
from store owners.
If you wish to grow plants in the landscape that are outside of your hardiness zone, there are a few things that
can be done to help ensure they survive in the landscape. Place susceptible plants on the north and east sides
of the home where the warm morning sun won’t induce plants into early bloom or leafing. Place potted plants
in a covered area, buried, wrapped in insulation, or mulched for extra protection. Cold damage can also occur
from fluctuations in temperature. Roots can be susceptible to cold damage even if the aboveground portion is
acclimated. Mulching the ground around its root ball will help prevent root damage.
Pansies offer a good example of cold-affected root systems when plants appear to be starving mid-January
in the South in a tested, fertile bed. The near-freezing soil temperatures have impaired root uptake, but the
relatively warm afternoons promote leaf metabolism and even flowers. The end result is that the plant must
cannibalize nutrition from the leaves to maintain new growth or flowers despite the poorly performing roots.
Nitrates are taken up better than ammonium ions at lower and higher temperatures than preferred by the plant.
Award-winning landscapers use foliar-fed, nitrate-based, quick-feed fertility programs in winter to maintain
flowering pansies.

In summary:
1. Each plant has both hot and cold temperature limits that you cannot exceed. Know them.
2. Within preferred temperature limits, each plant has a different ability to respond to the amount of
temperature change that occurs, either in minutes under a hose or over hours in an open field or
greenhouse. The rapidity of that change matters greatly, and the duration of the shift matters as well.
Most tropical and subtropical ornamental crops are sensitive to chilling! With woodies, perennials and
native species, it depends completely on the species and stage of growth. Some are insensitive, and
some are sensitive only when in a growth flush or when blooming.

UGA Cooperative Extension B1467 • Effects of Low Temperature on Plants 8

 References

¹Kadohama, N., Goh, T., Ohnishi, M., Fukaki, H., Mimutra, T., & Suzuki, Y. (2013). Sudden Collapse of
vacuoles in Saintpaulia sp. Palisade Cells Induced by a Rapid Temperature Change. PloS One (8) 18.
²Lukatkin, A.S., Brazaittyte, A., Bobinas, C., & Duchovskis, P. (2012). Chilling Injury in Chill-Sensitive Plants:
A Review. Zemdirbyste Agriculture. Vol 99. No 2. P 111-124.
³Chen, J., Qu, L., Henny, R.J., Robinson, C.A., Caldwell, R.D., & Huang, Y. (2011). Chilling injury in Tropical
Foliage Plants: Spathiphyllum. University of Florida IFAS Extension publication ENH841. 1-3.
Barney, Danny L. (1991). Winter Protection for Containerized Nursery Stock. University of Idaho, Cooperative
4

Extension System, Agricultural Experiment Station, College of Agriculture.

extension.uga.edu
Bulletin 1467 December 2016
Published by the University of Georgia in cooperation with Fort Valley State University, the U.S. Department of Agriculture, and counties of the state. For more information, contact your local UGA Cooperative Extension office.
The University of Georgia is committed to principles of equal opportunity and affirmative action.