Standard Scores

Richard S. Balkin, Ph.D., LPC-S, NCC

1
Normal Distributions
 While Best and Kahn (2003) indicated
that the normal curve does not
actually exist, measures of
populations tend to demonstrate this
distribution
 It is based on probability—the chance
of certain events occurring

R. S. Balkin, 2008 2
Normal Curve
 The curve is
symmetrical
 50% of scores are
above the mean,
50% below
 The mean, median,
and mode have the
same value
 Scores cluster
around the center

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Normal distribution

 "68-95-99" rule
 One standard deviation away from the mean in either direction (red)
includes about 68% of the data values. Another standard deviation out on
both sides includes about 27% more of the data (green). The third standard
deviation out adds another 4% of the data (blue).

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The Normal Curve

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Interpretations of the normal
curve
 Percentage of total space included between the mean
and a given standard deviation (z distance from the
mean)
 Percentage of cases or n that fall between a given
mean and standard deviation
 Probability that an event will occur between the mean
and a given standard deviation
 Calculate the percentile rank of scores in a normal
distribution
 Normalize a frequency distribution
 Test the significance of observed measures in an
experiment

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Interpretations of the normal curve
 The normal curve has 2 important pieces of
information
 We can view information related to where scores
fall using the number line at the bottom of the
curve.
 I refer to this as the score world
 It can be expressed in raw scores or standard
scores—scores expressed in standard deviation
units
 We can view information related to probability,
percentages, and placement under the normal
curve.
 I refer to this as the area world

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Interpretations of the normal curve

Area world

Score world

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Does the normal curve really
exist?
 “…the normal distribution does not
actually exist. It is not a fact of
nature. Rather, it is a mathematical
model—an idealization—that can be
used to represent data collected in
behavioral research (Shavelson,
1996, p. 120).

R. S. Balkin, 2008 9
Does the normal curve really
exist?
 Glass & Hopkins (1996):
 “God loves the normal curve” (p. 80).
 No set of empirical observations is ever perfectly
described by the normal distribution…
 but an independent measure taken repeatedly
will eventually resemble a normal distribution
 Many variables are definitely not normally
distributed (i.e. SES)
“The normal curve has a smooth, altogether
handsome countenance—a thing of beauty”
(p.83).

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Nonnormal distributions
 Positively skewed—majority of the
scores are near the lower numbers
 Negatively skewed—the majority of
the scores are near the higher
numbers
 Bimodal distributions have two modes

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Positively skewed

 If a test was very difficult and almost everyone in the

class did very poorly on it, the resulting distribution
would most likely be positively skewed.
 In the case of a positively skewed distribution, the mode
is smaller than the median, which is smaller than the
mean. The mode is the point on the x-axis
corresponding to the highest point, that is the score with
greatest value, or frequency. The median is the point on
the x-axis that cuts the distribution in half, such that 12
R. S. Balkin, 2008
50% of the area falls on each side. The mean is pulled
by the extreme scores on the right.
Negatively skewed

 A negatively skewed distribution is asymmetrical and

points in the negative direction, such as would result
with a very easy test. On an easy test, almost all
students would perform well and only a few would do
poorly. The order of the measures of central tendency
would be the opposite of the positively skewed
distribution, with the mean being smaller than the
median, which is smaller than the mode.

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Normal Curve Summary
 Unimodal
 Symmetry
 Points of inflection
 Tails that approach but never quite
touch the horizontal axis as they
deviate from the mean

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Standard scores
 Standard scores assume a normal
distribution
 They provide a method of expressing any
score in a distribution in terms of its
distance from the mean in standard
deviation units
 Z score
 T score

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Z-score
 A raw score by itself is rather
meaningless.
 What gives the score meaning is its
deviation from the mean
 A Z score expresses this value in
standard deviation units

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Z-score

X"X x
z= or
! !
X = Raw score

X = Mean

Standard deviation
! =
x= (X ! X )
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Z score formula

X"X x
z= or X = 76
! !
X = 82
! =4

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Z score computation

X"X x X = 76
z= or
! ! X = 82
! =4

76 ! 82 ! 6
z= = = !1.50
4 4
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T score
 Another version of a standard score
 Converts from Z score
 Avoids the use of negative numbers
and decimals

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T score formula
 T=50+10z
 Always rounded to the nearest whole
number
 A z score of 1.27=

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T score formula
 T=50+10z
 Always rounded to the nearest whole
number
 A z score of 1.27=
 T=50+10(1.27)=

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T score formula
 T=50+10z
 Always rounded to the nearest whole
number
 A z score of 1.27=
 T=50+10(1.27)=50+12.70=62.70=63

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More on standard scores
 Any standard score can be converted
to standard deviation units
 A test with a mean of 500 and
standard deviation of 100 would be…

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More on standard scores
 Any standard score
can be converted
to standard
deviation units
x
 A test with a mean 500 + 100 = 500 + 100 z
of 500 and !
standard deviation
of 100 would be…

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Calculating the distribution that fall
before, between, or beyond the mean
and standard deviation

From this point on

represents
above z, 16%

From this point za

and below
represents zb,
84th percentile
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Confidence Intervals
 Confidence intervals provide a range of
values given error in a score
 For example, if the mean = 20 then we can
be
 68% confidence that the score will be plus or
minus 1 sd from the mean
 95% confidence that the score will be plus or
minus 2 sd from the mean
 99% confidence that the score will be plus or
minus 3 sd from the mean

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Confidence intervals
 A mean of 20 with a sd of 5
 68% confidence that the score will be
between 15 to 25
 95% confidence that the score will be
between 10 to 30
 99% confidence that the score will be
between 5 to 35

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Confidence Intervals
 A mean of 48 and a sd of 2.75
 68% confidence that the score will be
between ____ to ____
 95% confidence that the score will be
between ____ to ____
 99% confidence that the score will be
between ____ to ____

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Confidence Intervals
 A mean of 48 and a sd of 2.75
 68% confidence that the score will be
between 45.25 to 50.75
 95% confidence that the score will be
between ____ to ____
 99% confidence that the score will be
between ____ to ____

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Confidence Intervals
 A mean of 48 and a sd of 2.75
 68% confidence that the score will be
between 45.25 to 50.75
 95% confidence that the score will be
between 42.5 to 53.5
 99% confidence that the score will be
between ____ to ____

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Confidence Intervals
 A mean of 48 and a sd of 2.75
 68% confidence that the score will be
between 45.25 to 50.75
 95% confidence that the score will be
between 42.5 to 53.5
 99% confidence that the score will be
between 39.75 to 56.25

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Correlation
 Relationship between two or more paired
variables or two or more data sets
 Correlation = r or p
 Correlations range from -1.00 (perfect
negative correlation) to +1.00 (perfect
positive correlation)
 A perfect correlation indicates that for
every unit of increase (or decrease) in one
variable there is an increase (or decrease)
in another variable

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Positive correlation

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Negative correlation

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Low correlation

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Types of correlations
 Pearson’s Product-Moment Coefficient
of correlation
 Known as a Pearson’s r
 Most commonly used
 Spearman Rank order coefficient of
correlation
 Known as Spearman rho (p)
 Only utilized with ordinal values

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Interpreting a correlation
coefficient
 Be aware of outliers—scores that
differ markedly from the rest of the
sample
 Look at direction (positive or
negative) and magnitude (actual
number)
 Does not imply cause and effect
 See the table on p. 388 for
interpreting a correlation coefficient
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Interpreting a correlation
coefficient
 Using the table on p. 388 interpret
the following correlation coefficients:

 +.52

 -.78

 +.12

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Interpreting a correlation
coefficient
 Using the table on p. 388 interpret
the following correlation coefficients:
 +.52
 Moderate
 -.78
 Substantial
 +.12
 Negligible

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Computing a Pearson r

"xy
2 2
r = ("x )("y )
2 2
"x = # ( X ! X )
2 2
"y = # (Y ! Y )
"xy = # ( X ! X )(Y ! Y )

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 Computing Pearson r

X Y x x2 y y2 xy
9 8
5 6
3 1
8 6
5 4

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Computing Pearson r

X Y x x2 y y2 xy
9 8 3 9 3 9 9
5 6 -1 1 1 1 -1
3 1 -3 9 -4 16 12
8 6 2 4 1 1 2
5 4 -1 1 -1 1 1

mean =6 5
sum=24 sum=28 23

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Computing Pearson r

23
r = (24)(28)

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Computing Pearson r
23
r = (24)(28)
r = .8872

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Correlational Designs
 We use correlations to explore
relationships between two variables
 We can also use a correlation to
predict an outcome—

 In statistics this is known as a regression

analysis

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Correlational Designs
 For example, a correlation of =.60 means
that for every increase in X there is a .60
standard deviation unit increase in Y
 Correlational designs are different from
experimental designs
 In a correlational design, we explore
relationships between two or more
variables that are interval or ratio
 In a correlational design we do not compare
groups; we do not have random
assignment (though we do have random
sampling)
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Correlational Designs
 For example, maybe we want to know the
relationship between self-esteem and
depression. We could use two instruments, one
that measures self-esteem and one that
measures depression. Then we can conduct a
regression analysis and see if the scores on
one instrument predict scores on the other

 I would hypothesize that high scores in

depression correlation with low scores in self-
esteem.

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