Review of HVAC Systems History and Future Applicat
Review of HVAC Systems History and Future Applicat
Concept Paper
Concept Paper
Review of HVAC
HVAC Systems
Systems History
History and
and Future
Future Applications
Applications
DeQuante 1, *, Raymond Charles Tesiero 2,, *, Yaa Takyiwaa Acquaah 1,1, * and Balakrishna Gokaraju11
DeQuante Rashon
Rashon Mckoy
Mckoy ¹,*, Raymond Charles Tesiero ² *, Yaa Takyiwaa Acquaah * and Balakrishna Gokaraju
11 Department
Departmentof ofComputational
ComputationalScience
ScienceandandEngineering,
Engineering,North
North Carolina
CarolinaAgricultural
Agricultural and
and Technical State
Technical State
University, University,
Greensboro, NCGreensboro,
27411, USA;NC 27411, USA; [email protected]
[email protected]
22 Department
Department ofof Civil
Civil Architect
Architect & Environmental Engineering,
Engineering,North
NorthCarolina
CarolinaAgricultural
Agriculturaland
andTechnical State
Technical State
University, University,
Greensboro, NCGreensboro,
27411, USANC 27411, USA
** Correspondence:
Correspondence:[email protected]
[email protected](D.R.M.);
(D.R.M.);[email protected]
[email protected](R.C.T.);
(R.C.T.);
[email protected]
[email protected](Y.T.A.);
(Y.T.A.); Tel.:
Tel.: +1-336-285-3210
+1-336-285-3210(D.R.M.
(D.R.M.&&Y.T.A.)
Y.T.A.)
Abstract: Today,
Abstract: Today,HVAC
HVAC(heating,
(heating,ventilation,
ventilation,andandair
air conditioning)
conditioning)systems
systemshave
have become
become an an integral
integral
part of
part of modern
modern buildings
buildings andand are
are designed
designed to to provide
provide comfortable
comfortable indoor
indoor environments
environments whilewhile con-
con-
serving energy and reducing carbon emissions. With advancement in technology,
serving energy and reducing carbon emissions. With advancement in technology, HVAC systems HVAC systems
have aavariety
have varietyofofsensors
sensorsthatthatare
are used
used to to detect
detect thethe occupants
occupants within
within a controlled
a controlled environment.
environment. Ad-
Advancements
vancements in computer
in computer control
control systemssystems
and the and
usethe
of use
smartof technology
smart technology have
have made madesystems
HVAC HVAC
systems
even even
more more sophisticated,
sophisticated, allowingallowing for approximate
for approximate temperaturetemperature control
control and andmanagement.
energy energy man-
This paper will review the historical development of technology and the current state of state
agement. This paper will review the historical development of technology and the current HVAC of
HVAC systems. With the proper data, development of artificial intelligence models
systems. With the proper data, development of artificial intelligence models can, in theory, improve can, in theory,
improve
the overallthe overall optimization
optimization and reduce and reduce
energy energy consumption
consumption This paperThiswillpaper willa provide
provide review ofa review
HVAC
of HVAC
history andhistory
the keyand the key
concepts concepts
around around theofusefulness
the usefulness using AI fromof using AI from
previous previous
research research
conducted in
conducted in this
this field of study. field of study.
1. Introduction
1.
HVAC systems
systems date
dateback
backtoto ancient
ancient civilizations,
civilizations, where
where systems
systems for heating
for heating and
and cool-
cooling
ing werewere developed
developed forfor comfort
comfort andand health.During
health. Duringthetheancient
ancientRoman
Roman period, central
central
Citation: Mckoy,
Citation: Mckoy,D.R.;
D.R.;Tesiero,
Tesiero,R.C.;
R.C.;
heating
heating systems
systems were
were used
used in
in homes
homes and and public
public baths
baths and
and wind
wind towers
towers were
were used
used to
to cool
cool
Acquaah,Y.T.;
Acquaah, Y.T.;Gokaraju,
Gokaraju,B.B.Review of
homes.
homes. In the 19th century, during
during thethe industrial
industrial revolution,
revolution, the need
need forfor heating
heating and
and
ReviewSystems
HVAC of the History
Historyand
andFuture
Future
Applications. Energies
Applications of HVAC2023, 16, 6109.
Systems.
cooling
coolingsystems
systemsininfactories
factoriesand
andlarge
largebuildings
buildingsincreased,
increased,which
whichledled
to to
thethe
development
development of
https://doi.org/10.3390/en16176109
Energies 2023, 16, x.
the early
of the HVAC
early HVACsystems shown
systems shownin Figure 1. In1.
in Figure the Inearly days,days,
the early coal-fired boilers
coal-fired and large
boilers and
https://doi.org/10.3390/xxxxx
fans
largewere
fansused
weretoused
ventilate these early
to ventilate thesesystems. One of the
early systems. Oneearliest
of the innovations in heating
earliest innovations in
Academic Editors: Wei-Hsin Chen systems was the introduction of the steam radiator, which was invented in the 1820s by a
heating systems was the introduction of the steam radiator, which was invented in the
and Jae-Weon
Academic JeongWei-Hsin Chen
Editors: British engineer named S. A. [1].
1820s by a British engineer named S. A. [1].
and Jae-Weon Jeong
Received: 5 July 2023
Received:165 August
Revised: July 2023
2023
Revised: 16
Accepted: 17August
August2023
2023
Accepted: 17
Published: 22 August
August 2023
2023
Published: date
Energies2023,
Energies 2023,16,
16,6109.
x. https://doi.org/10.3390/xxxxx
https://doi.org/10.3390/en16176109 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 1
Heating steam radiators used a central boiler to heat water and distribute steam
Energies 2023, 16, 6109 throughout a building via a network of pipes and radiators. This system allowed 2 of 15 for
more even distribution of heat compared with the fireplaces and stoves that were previ
ously used. Ventilation systems in the 19th century were typically designed to provid
fresh air to steam
Heating the building
radiators and to aremove
used central stale
boilerair [3]. Openable
to heat water and windows distribute and
steamchimney
throughout
were the most a building
common via a network
methodsofof pipes and radiators.
ventilation at theThis
time,system allowed
although for abuildings
some more als
even distribution of heat compared with the fireplaces and stoves
used mechanical ventilation systems that used fans to circulate air. The forced-air furnac that were previously
used. Ventilation
was another systems in
important the 19th of
invention century
the 19thwerecentury.
typicallyThisdesigned
system to provide fresh by Al
was invented
air to the building and to remove stale air [3]. Openable windows and chimneys were
phonse Beau de Rochas in France and circulates hot air throughout a building with th
the most common methods of ventilation at the time, although some buildings also used
help of a blower.
mechanical ventilation Compared
systems that with gravity
used fans toheating
circulatesystems, which relied
air. The forced-air on was
furnace natural con
vectionimportant
another to circulate air, this
invention of was a significant
the 19th century. This improvement. In the mid-19th
system was invented by Alphonse century, th
use of air conditioning systems began to emerge. The
Beau de Rochas in France and circulates hot air throughout a building with the help offirst air conditioning system
a wa
patented
blower. in 1851 (shown
Compared above
with gravity in Figure
heating 1) bywhich
systems, John Gorrie,
relied on a natural
physician and inventor
convection to from
circulate
Florida.air, Histhis was aused
system significant improvement.
ice to cool air and was In primarily
the mid-19th usedcentury, the useto
in hospitals ofhelp
air reduc
conditioning
the spread of systems begandiseases
infectious to emerge.[3].The first airthe
Overall, conditioning
19th century systemwaswasa timepatented
of greatin innova
1851 (shown above in Figure 1) by John Gorrie, a physician and inventor
tion in the field of HVAC systems. The invention of the steam radiator, forced-air furnace from Florida. His
system used ice to cool air and was primarily used in hospitals to help reduce the spread
and air conditioning system laid the foundations for the modern HVAC systems used to
of infectious diseases [3]. Overall, the 19th century was a time of great innovation in the
day.of HVAC systems. The invention of the steam radiator, forced-air furnace, and air
field
In the 20th
conditioning system century,
laid the the use of electricity
foundations for the modernand the HVACdevelopment
systems used oftoday.
modern technolo
giesInled theto20th
significant
century, theadvancements
use of electricityin HVAC
and the systems.
development Theofinvention of the first modern
modern technologies
air to
led conditioner
significant by Willis Carrier
advancements in 1902
in HVAC revolutionized
systems. The invention the HVAC industry
of the first modern (Figure 2)
air conditioner by Willis Carrier in 1902 revolutionized the HVAC
making it possible to cool large buildings. His invention removed the moisture from th industry (Figure 2),
making
air, he it possible
called to cool large for
it “Apparatus buildings.
Treating HisAir”,
invention removed this
and through the moisture
invention from
he the
was able t
air, he called it “Apparatus for Treating Air”, and through this invention
notice that it also cooled the air at the same time. From the beginning, Carrier realized he was able to tha
notice that it also cooled the air at the same time. From the beginning, Carrier realized
his invention had a wider range of applications than just dehumidifying industrial build
that his invention had a wider range of applications than just dehumidifying industrial
ings. At first, Carrier did not refer to his invention as an air conditioner. The term “ai
buildings. At first, Carrier did not refer to his invention as an air conditioner. The term
conditioner”
“air conditioner” camecame from
fromStuart
StuartCramer,
Cramer, he he invented
invented aamachine
machinethat thatadded
added humidity to th
humidity
airthe
to toairmake yarnyarn
to make easier to work
easier to workin in
the themanufacturing
manufacturing plants plants [3].[3]. In
In1904,
1904,atatthetheSt.St. Loui
World
Louis Fair,Fair,
World thethe public
publicwas wasfirst
firstintroduced
introduced to tothe
thewonders
wonders of conditioning.
of air air conditioning. The The ai
air conditioningunit
conditioning unitwaswas able
able to circulate
circulateair airtotoover
over 35,000 cubic
35,000 feetfeet
cubic of air
ofper
air minute
per minutein in th
the Missouri
Missouri StateBuilding
State Buildingthatthat hosted
hosted thetheSt.St.Louis
Louis World
World FairFair
[4]. [4].
Figure2.2.Electric
Figure Electric HVAC
HVAC System,
System, Ref. Ref.
[4]. [4].
Energies 2023, 16, 6109 3 of 15
The air conditioning machine cooled all rooms on two floors except for the libraries and
bathrooms. At that time, nobody could have imagined anything such as this was possible.
This system was installed by the United Iron Works Co. of Springfield (Springfield, MO,
USA), Missouri. Unfortunately, the boiler for the system exploded in November of that year
and set the building on fire. In 1906, Carrier patented his invention, the “air conditioner”,
and then patented the control system for the air conditioner in 1914. After conducting
more research and critiques of his first version of the air conditioning system, Carrier was
able to downsize it to make it more manageable. In 1920, the first version was able to be
downsized and by 1925 it was able to be installed at the Rivoli Theater in New York City. As
technology improved, air conditioning units became smaller. A window air conditioning
unit was invented in 1931 by H.H. [5]. Today’s air conditioners are based on this technology.
In the years following World War II, air conditioning development boomed and small
companies became household names. In 1956, Carrier won a contract to provide central
air conditioning in 700 upscale Pennsylvania homes. By the 1970s, central air conditioning
and ventilation had become mainstream. In response to the demand for cool indoor air,
Paramount installed air conditioners in another 300 movie theaters. Additionally, in the
late 1920s and early 1930s, Frigidaire, General Electric, and General Motors joined the A/C
game. The development of refrigerants and better insulation materials also improved the
efficiency of air conditioning systems. HVAC systems play a crucial role in maintaining a
comfortable indoor environment in residential, commercial, and industrial buildings. These
systems control the temperature, humidity, and air quality of indoor spaces. However, the
proper functioning of HVAC systems depends on several factors, such as proper installation,
maintenance, and repair. The early detection of malfunctions or inefficiencies in HVAC
systems can help prevent significant energy waste and ensure occupant comfort. The
design of HVAC systems in the 19th century was limited by the technology available at
the time [5]. Nevertheless, these systems represented a significant improvement over the
earlier heating and ventilation systems, which relied on fireplaces and stoves for heating
and natural ventilation methods for ventilation.
2. Related Topics
There have been many studies using machine learning techniques to enhance the
efficiency and performance of HVAC systems. One common area of research focuses
on predictive maintenance for HVAC equipment. By leveraging historical sensor data
and machine learning algorithms, researchers have developed models that can predict
equipment failures and malfunctions before they occur. These predictive maintenance
models allow HVAC technicians to perform timely maintenance, reducing downtime and
preventing costly breakdowns and leading to improved system reliability and energy
savings. From some of the recently published research conducted on this topic, different
techniques have been used to help build these deep learning models. In a study conducted
by Yang, Shiyu, et al., machine learning techniques were used by taking the collected online
building data to help improve the system performance. The systems implemented in their
research uses multi-objective functions to help improve indoor thermal comfort levels [6].
In a similar study, Du, Yan, et al. used reinforced learning techniques to build optimal
controls for multi-zoned control residential HVAC systems for user comfort levels. The
simulation results showed that energy consumption was reduced by 15% and comfort level
violation reduced by 79%, and when compared with a rule-based HVAC control strategy,
the comfort violation can be reduced by 98% [6].
Some more related studies focus on using similar techniques. Later, I will discuss
building deep learning models implemented with Pi cameras and thermal infrared cameras
for the detection of human occupancy. In both publications, the papers reference using dif-
ferent techniques to improve AI-based techniques to improve heating and air-conditioning
comfort. Beltran, Alex, Varick L. Erickson, and Alberto E. Cerpa’s study used software
called ThermoSensor to detect the occupancy of users [7]. The system regulates ventilation
using conditioning regimens trained from occupant usage patterns and near real-time
Energies 2023, 16, 6109 4 of 15
The history of infrared cameras dates to the mid-20th century. The first infrared cam-
eras were developed in the late 1920s and early 1950s, following the development of mod-
modern technologies
ern technologies that that
mademade it possible
it possible to detect
to detect andand measure
measure infrared
infrared radiation.
radiation. The The
ear-
earliest infrared
liest infrared cameras
cameras useda aspecial
used specialtype
typeofoffilm
filmthat
thatwas
wassensitive
sensitive to
to infrared
infrared radiation.
Shown
Shownin inthe
theimage
imageabove
aboveFigure
Figure4,4,this
thisspecial
specialtype
typeof
offilm
filmwas
wasplaced
placedin infront
frontof
ofthe
thelens
lens
of
of the
the IR
IRcamera,
camera,which
whichfocused
focusedthetheinfrared
infraredradiation
radiationonto
ontothe
thefilm.
film. The
The film
film was
was then
then
developed
developed in in aa darkroom,
darkroom, producing
producing an an image
image that
that showed
showed the
the distribution
distribution of of infrared
infrared
radiation in the scene.
radiation in the scene.
Figure4.4. IR
Figure IRCamera
CameraVision,
Vision,Ref.
Ref.[17].
[17].
The first
The firstthermographic
thermographic camera,
camera, aa groundbreaking
groundbreaking inventioninvention in in the
the field
field ofofinfrared
infrared
technology,emerged
technology, emergedin inthe
theearly
early1920s.
1920s.Developed
Developed by bythetheHungarian
HungarianphysicistphysicistKálmán
Kálmán
Tihanyi,the
Tihanyi, thedevice
device revolutionized
revolutionized howhow we perceive
we perceive and measure
and measure heat. Theheat. The thermo-
thermographic
graphicharnessed
camera camera harnessed the principles
the principles of infrared of infrared
radiation, radiation,
capturing capturing and converting
and converting the in-
the invisible
visible thermal thermal
energyenergy
emitted emitted
by objectsby objects into visible
into visible images.images. This pioneering
This pioneering technologytech-
nology enabled
enabled scientistsscientists and engineers
and engineers to peerthe
to peer beyond beyond the limitations
limitations of humanofvision, human vision,
opening
opening
new new for
avenues avenues for research
research in various inindustries
various industries
[17]. The[17]. The thermographic
thermographic camera’scamera’s
signifi-
significance
cance quicklyquickly
extended extended
beyondbeyond the scientific
the scientific community.
community. It found It practical
found practical appli-
applications
in military
cations reconnaissance
in military during during
reconnaissance World World
War II,Warenabling soldiers
II, enabling to detect
soldiers hidden
to detect ene-
hidden
mies, vehicles,
enemies, and and
vehicles, eveneven
identify potential
identify hotspots
potential on battlefields.
hotspots on battlefields. In subsequent
In subsequent decades,
dec-
the technology evolved further, becoming more compact and
ades, the technology evolved further, becoming more compact and affordable, which led affordable, which led to its
integration into various sectors, including building inspections, firefighting,
to its integration into various sectors, including building inspections, firefighting, indus- industrial
maintenance,
trial maintenance, and medical diagnosis.
and medical diagnosis.Since its inception,
Since its inception, the the
firstfirst
thermographic
thermographic camera
cam-
has
era paved
has paved the the
wayway for for
a new
a neweraeraof of
innovation,
innovation,continuously
continuouslypushing pushingthe theboundaries
boundaries
of
of what
what we we can
cansee seeand
andunderstand
understandabout aboutthetheworld
worldaround
aroundus us[17].
[17]. Its
Itsimpact
impact remains
remains
evident
evident in modern-day thermal imaging devices, which continue to play a vital role
in modern-day thermal imaging devices, which continue to play a vital role in
in
countless industries, contributing to safety, efficiency, and problem
countless industries, contributing to safety, efficiency, and problem solving and now solving and now using
us-
machine
ing machine learning techniques
learning in our
techniques in ever-evolving
our ever-evolving technological
technological landscape.
landscape.
In
In the 1960s, the first solid-state infrared cameras were developed, using
the 1960s, the first solid-state infrared cameras were developed, using recent
recent tech-
tech-
nologies
nologies suchsuch as ascharge-coupled
charge-coupled devices
devices (CCDs)
(CCDs) and anduncooled
uncooledthermalthermaldetectors.
detectors. In In the
the
1980s and 1990s, the development of digital imaging technologies
1980s and 1990s, the development of digital imaging technologies led to the widespread led to the widespread
use
useofofdigital
digital infrared
infraredcameras.
cameras. These
These cameras
cameras captured
captured infrared
infrared radiation
radiation as as digital
digital data,
data,
which
which could be easily processed and displayed on a computer screen. Since thethe
could be easily processed and displayed on a computer screen. Since turn turn of
of the
the 21st century, advances in digital imaging technologies have continued to drive the
development of infrared cameras. Today, there are a wide variety of infrared cameras
available, ranging from handheld devices used for industrial and military applications to
specialized cameras used in scientific research.
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 15
21st century, advances in digital imaging technologies have continued to drive the devel-
Energies 2023, 16, 6109
opment of infrared cameras. Today, there are a wide variety of infrared cameras available, 7 of 15
ranging from handheld devices used for industrial and military applications to special-
ized cameras used in scientific research.
In 2012, the Raspberry Pi foundation launched the Raspberry tool to help educate
In 2012, the Raspberry Pi foundation launched the Raspberry tool to help educate
students and programming professionals. The Raspberry Pi was created with the goal of
students and programming professionals. The Raspberry Pi was created with the goal of
education in mind. This ultra-tiny computer was designed to be small and cheap so that
education in mind. This ultra-tiny computer was designed to be small and cheap so that
schools could easily afford to teach students about microprocessors in the classroom [18].
schools could easily afford to teach students about microprocessors in the classroom [18].
In the image above Figure 5, you can see each of the ports for a Raspberry Pi. A powerful
In the image above Figure 5, you can see each of the ports for a Raspberry Pi. A powerful
feature of the Raspberry Pi is the row of GPIO (general-purpose input/output) pins along
feature of the Raspberry Pi is the row of GPIO (general-purpose input/output) pins along
the top edge of the board. The Raspberry Pi is great for two reasons, the first is that it
the top edge of the board. The Raspberry Pi is great for two reasons, the first is that it
provides extremely cheap access to a computer, the second is that it is a great tool for
provides extremely cheap access to a computer, the second is that it is a great tool for
learning more about computers. In today’s modern environment, detecting occupancy in
learning more about computers. In today’s modern environment, detecting occupancy in
automation systems for several reasons can be a critical task. Artificial intelligence has a
automation systems for several reasons can be a critical task. Artificial intelligence has a
wide range of uses; machine learning is one of them. It empowers any task to learn from
wide range of uses; machine learning is one of them. It empowers any task to learn from
and
andimprove
improveon onprevious
previousexperiences
experiencesand andoutcomes
outcomeswithout
withoutthetherequirement
requirementfor forexplicit
explicit
programming.
programming. It focuses on the creation of a variety of other programs that canacquire
It focuses on the creation of a variety of other programs that can acquire
data
dataand
anduse
useitittototrain
trainand
andlearn
learnon ontheir
theirown
ownthrough
throughiterative
iterativeprocedures
proceduresbefore
beforetesting
testing
themselves
themselves[18].
[18].AtAtthis
thistime,
time,occupancy
occupancydetection
detectionbased
basedonona amachine
machinelearning
learningalgorithm
algorithm
isisquite
quitebeneficial
beneficialfor foraavariety
varietyofofapplications.
applications.The Thehistory
historyofofinfrared
infraredcameras
camerashas hasbeen
been
marked
marked by the steady progression of technological advancements that have madethese
by the steady progression of technological advancements that have made these
cameras
camerasmore
moreversatile,
versatile,easier
easiertotouse,
use,and
andmore
morewidely
widelyavailable.
available.Today,
Today,infrared
infraredcameras
cameras
are
are a useful tool used in a wide range of fields, including industrial inspection,scientific
a useful tool used in a wide range of fields, including industrial inspection, scientific
research,
research,and
andmilitary
militaryand andsecurity
securityapplications.
applications.
RaspberryPiPi4 4Model
Figure5.5.Raspberry
Figure ModelB,B,Ref.
Ref.[18].
[18].
A single person did not discover Arduino, rather it was created by a team of researchers
A single person did not discover Arduino, rather it was created by a team of research-
and students at the Interaction Design Institute Ivrea (IDII) in Ivrea, Italy in 2003. The team
ers and students at the Interaction Design Institute Ivrea (IDII) in Ivrea, Italy in 2003. The
was led by Massimo Banzi, a professor at the institute, and included David Cuartielles,
team was led by Massimo Banzi, a professor at the institute, and included David
Tom Igoe, Gianluca Martino, and David Mellis. Their goal was to create a low-cost and
Cuartielles, Tom Igoe, Gianluca Martino, and David Mellis. Their goal was to create a low-
easy-to-use microcontroller board that could be used by artists, designers, hobbyists, and
cost and easy-to-use microcontroller board that could be used by artists, designers, hob-
anyone interested in creating interactive projects [19]. The first prototype of the Arduino
byists, and anyone interested in creating interactive projects [19]. The first prototype of
board was based on the wiring platform that was developed by Hernando Barragán. Since
the Arduino board was based on the wiring platform that was developed by Hernando
then, the Arduino project has grown into a global community of makers, artists, designers,
Barragán. Since then, the Arduino project has grown into a global community of makers,
educators, and hobbyists who use the platform to create a wide range of projects, from
artists, designers, educators, and hobbyists who use the platform to create a wide range
interactive art installations to smart home devices.
of projects, fromUno
Arduino interactive art installations
is a popular to smart
microcontroller home
board thatdevices.
is widely used in various elec-
tronics projects. The board is based on the ATmega328P microcontroller chip and has a
variety of input/output pins, analog inputs, and other useful features. With the help of
Arduino IDE 2.1.1 software, users can write code to control various electronic components
connected to the board, such as motors, sensors, and displays [19]. This makes the Arduino
Uno ideal for prototyping and experimenting with in various electronics projects. One of
Arduino Uno is a popular microcontroller board that is widely used in various elec-
tronics projects. The board is based on the ATmega328P microcontroller chip and has a
variety of input/output pins, analog inputs, and other useful features. With the help of
Arduino IDE 2.1.1 software, users can write code to control various electronic components
connected to the board, such as motors, sensors, and displays [19]. This makes the Ar-
Energies 2023, 16, 6109 8 of 15
duino Uno ideal for prototyping and experimenting with in various electronics projects.
One of the key features of the Arduino Uno is its versatility. The Arduino Uno board can
be used to create a wide range of projects, from simple circuits to complex robotics and
the key features
automation systems. ofFigure
the Arduino
6 showsUno is its
that versatility.
Arduino The fourteen
uno has Arduino digital
Uno board can be used
input/output
to create a wide range of projects, from simple circuits to complex robotics
pins, six analog inputs, and a 16 MHz quartz crystal; the board can easily communicate and automation
systems. Figure 6 shows that Arduino uno has fourteen digital input/output
with and control other electronic components [20]. Additionally, the board’s USB connec- pins, six
tion and power jack make it easy to power and program. Another advantage of the Ar-and
analog inputs, and a 16 MHz quartz crystal; the board can easily communicate with
control
duino Uno other electronic
is its ease of use.components
The board is [20]. Additionally,
designed the board’s
to be user-friendly, USB
and evenconnection
beginnersand
power jack make it easy to power and program. Another advantage
with no experience in electronics or programming can start using it. The Arduino IDE of the Arduino Uno
is its ease
software comes of use.
with The boardofisbuilt-in
a variety designed to be user-friendly,
functions and librariesandthateven beginners
simplify with no
the process
experience in electronics or programming can start using it. The Arduino
of programming the board. This makes the Arduino Uno a great learning tool for students IDE software
andcomes withwho
hobbyists a variety
want ofto built-in
explore functions
the worldand libraries that
of electronics andsimplify the process
programming. of pro-
Overall,
the Arduino Uno is a versatile and user-friendly microcontroller board that offers a wideand
gramming the board. This makes the Arduino Uno a great learning tool for students
hobbyists who want to explore the world of electronics and programming. Overall, the
range of possibilities for electronics enthusiasts and professionals alike.
Arduino Uno is a versatile and user-friendly microcontroller board that offers a wide range
of possibilities for electronics enthusiasts and professionals alike.
• Predictive Maintenance: Deep learning algorithms can be trained on data from HVAC
systems to predict when components are likely to fail. This can allow for proactive
maintenance, reducing the risk of unexpected breakdowns and improving the overall
reliability of HVAC systems.
• Comfort Control: Deep learning algorithms can analyze building occupancy data and
make predictions about temperature and air flow requirements. This can result in
more accurate and responsive temperature control, improving occupant comfort.
• Fault Detection and Diagnosis: Deep learning algorithms can be trained on data from
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW HVAC systems to identify and diagnose faults. This can reduce the time and cost 10 of of
15
maintenance and improve the overall performance of HVAC systems.
• Indoor Air Quality: Deep learning algorithms can analyze indoor air quality data
and make predictions about the levels of pollutants in the air. This can help building
human activity in video sequences using an IR camera and a deep learning model. The
managers to make informed decisions about when to activate air purifiers, ventilation
study showed that the proposed method was able to accurately detect and track human
systems, and other air quality control measures.
activity in a variety of scenarios, including low-light conditions [22].
Figure8.8.IR
Figure IRImage
Image[23].
[23].
In Figure 9, you can see a deep learning model process a batch of images and make
an output detecting multiple objects, two people, and a person and object. These models
can be applied to real-world problems such as self-driving cars, medical image analysis,
facial recognition, and human recognition. Deep learning is a subset of machine learning
that involves training artificial neural networks on substantial amounts of data to make
predictions or decisions. It has the potential to significantly improve heating, ventilation,
and air conditioning (HVAC) systems in several ways:
• Energy Efficiency: Deep learning algorithms can analyze building energy usage data
and predict when HVAC systems should be activated based on factors such as occu-
pancy, weather, and energy prices. This can result in more energy-efficient operation,
reducing energy costs and reducing the environmental impact of HVAC systems.
• Predictive Maintenance: Deep learning algorithms can be trained on data from
HVAC systems to predict when components are likely to fail. This can allow for pro-
active maintenance, reducing the risk of unexpected breakdowns and improving the
overall reliability of HVAC systems.
Figure
•Figure Sample
9. 9.
Comfort of Thermal
Sample Images
of Thermal
Control: Deep [23]. algorithms
Images
learning [23]. can analyze building occupancy data and
make predictions about temperature and air flow requirements. This can result in
more accurate
6. Prototype and responsive temperature control, improving occupant comfort.
Concept
• Fault Detection and Diagnosis: Deep learning algorithms can be trained on data from
To use
HVAC this DL
systems model,and
to identify wediagnose
must use a system
faults. This canof wiring
reduce the to connect
time and costaofRaspbe
multiple Arduino
maintenance and Uno forthe
improve communication.
overall performanceThis process
of HVAC is known as serial com
systems.
•tion.Indoor
SerialAir Quality: Deep learning
communication algorithms can analyze
is a communication methodindoor airuses
that quality
onedata
orand
two trans
Energies 2023, 16, 6109 11 of 15
Figure 9. Sample of Thermal Images [23].
6. Prototype Concept
6. Prototype Concept
To use this DL model, we must use a system of wiring to connect a Raspberry Pi to
To use
multiple this DLUno
Arduino model, we must use a system
for communication. of wiring
This process to connect
is known a Raspberry
as serial Pi to
communica-
multiple
tion. Arduino
Serial Uno for communication.
communication is a communication This method
process is known
that as serial
uses one or twocommunication.
transmission
Serialtocommunication
lines send and receiveis adata;
communication method that uses
this data is continuously one or
sent and two transmission
received one bit at a lines
time
to send and receive data; this data is continuously sent and received
by a device shown in Figure 10 [23]. Communication between a Raspberry Pi and an Ar- one bit at a time
by a device
duino Uno isshown in Figure
a popular 10 [23]. Communication
and straightforward method to between
exchangeadata Raspberry
between Pi the
andtwoan
Arduino Uno is a popular and straightforward method to exchange
devices. The Raspberry Pi, running a Linux-based operating system, communicates withdata between the
twoArduino
the devices. Uno,
The Raspberry
which uses Pi,an
running
Atmel amicrocontroller
Linux-based operating
over a UARTsystem, communicates
(Universal Asyn-
with the Arduino
chronous Uno, which uses
Receiver/Transmitter) serialaninterface.
Atmel microcontroller over a UART (Universal
Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter) serial interface.
Figure 10.
Figure Raspberry Pi
10. Raspberry Pi via
via USB
USB Arduino
Arduino Uno
Uno [24].
[24].
By using this technique, it will allow for communication to be conducted between the
By using this technique, it will allow for communication to be conducted between the
Raspberry Pi and Arduino Uno. To effectively use this method, you must first pip install
Raspberry Pi and Arduino Uno. To effectively use this method, you must first pip install
Raspberry Pi configuration. This command will allow you to connect the Raspberry Pi to
Raspberry Pi configuration. This command will allow you to connect the Raspberry Pi to
the Arduino to receive the transmitted data [24]. Once the connection is established, the
the
nextArduino
step is totocall
receive
for thetheconnection
transmittedports
datato[24]. Once
check forthe connection is
an established established,
connection. the
Once
next step is to call for the connection ports to check for an established connection.
these steps are conducted properly, the installation of Arduino IDE (integrated development Once
these steps arecan
environment) conducted
occur. properly, the installation of Arduino IDE (integrated develop-
mentBy environment)
using intricate canwiring
occur.systems, we will be able to map the wiring of the Raspberry
By using intricate wiring
Pi to the Arduino using Pi camera systems, we will
images. be systems
The able to map the wiring
of wires ofaligned
will be the Raspberry
across
Pi
the prototype connecting to the blower and each of the four butterfly valves shownthe
to the Arduino using Pi camera images. The systems of wires will be aligned across in
prototype connecting
Figure 11. The butterfly tovalve
the blower andbeeach
will also of the four
connected withbutterfly valves
a Pi cameras shownoccupants.
to detect in Figure
11.
ThisThe
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW butterfly
requires many valve will also
different pip be connected
installs such aswith a Pi cameras
OpenCV and otherto detect
programsoccupants.12 This
required offor
15
requires many different pip installs such as OpenCV and other
the Arduino to be able to seamlessly communicate with the Raspberry Pi [25]. programs required for the
Arduino to be able to seamlessly communicate with the Raspberry Pi [25].
From the above code, this portion of the program will take the loaded image from
the Pi camera to detect any occupants that may trigger a serial message to be sent to the
butterfly valve. When an occupant is detected, this will activate the butterfly values to
go from the rest angle (180◦ ) to 90◦ angles. When the serial message is sent, one (person
detected) or 0 (no motion), a message will be sent to activate the sensor. This process
will cycle every 5 min to allow the store data to be dumped to reserve memory space.
Serial communication between the Raspberry Pi and Arduino Uno enables real-time data
exchange, allowing the Arduino Uno to manage precise control of the HVAC equipment
based on inputs from the Pi camera [26]. The Arduino Uno’s ability to interface with
various actuators and sensors makes it well-suited for fine-tuning the HVAC system’s
parameters according to the data provided.
By using the methods suggested in this paper, the system could be developed to adapt
to changing occupancy patterns, ensuring efficient heating or cooling only in areas with
occupants. Secondly, the IR cameras can detect temperature variations, allowing the system
to respond to localized thermal conditions and adjust the valves accordingly [27]. Lastly,
Energies 2023, 16, 6109 13 of 15
the use of machine learning enables predictive control, anticipating environmental changes
and adjusting the valves in advance to improve energy efficiency and occupant comfort.
7. Conclusions
In conclusion, the use of infrared cameras in diagnosing HVAC problems can improve
the efficiency and effectiveness of HVAC maintenance and repair. HVAC systems play
a vital role in maintaining comfortable and healthy indoor environments, especially in
buildings where people spend a lot of time. Over the years, HVAC technology has made
significant advancements, revolutionizing the way we control and optimize indoor envi-
ronments. These advancements have resulted in increased energy efficiency, improved
comfort, enhanced air quality, and smarter system management. However, in some cases,
these systems can develop faults or inefficiencies that can lead to higher energy costs, poor
indoor air quality, and reduced system performance. The introduction of smart technology
has also had a profound impact on HVAC systems. With the rise of the Internet of Things
(IoT), HVAC systems can now be connected to a network, enabling remote control and
monitoring [28]. Smart thermostats, for example, have the capability to learn occupants’
preferences and adjust the temperature settings accordingly, leading to energy savings and
personalized comfort [29]. Additionally, data analytics and machine learning algorithms
are employed to optimize HVAC system performance, identify potential issues, and pro-
vide predictive maintenance, reducing downtime and improving overall efficiency. This
proposed research, with the integration of a Pi camera and serial communication between
a Raspberry Pi and an Arduino Uno, holds great promise for enhancing HVAC systems.
The Pi camera, with its imaging capabilities, can provide valuable visual information about
occupancy patterns, thermal profiles, and environmental conditions within a space. This
data, when combined with machine learning algorithms, can optimize HVAC control strate-
gies, leading to improved energy efficiency and occupant comfort IR (infrared) cameras,
on the other hand, can be a useful tool for diagnosing and assessing the performance of
HVAC systems. By detecting temperature variations and thermal patterns, IR cameras can
identify areas of the system that may be malfunctioning or where energy may be wasted.
For example, during certain periods of the year, university and grade schools may shut
down; when these buildings are unoccupied, the HVAC system still performs as if the
building has occupants unless it is regulated by a maintenance worker to adjust the settings.
Implementing a system that could detect whether a building is occupied in specific area
would play vital role in saving energy. This can help prevent significant energy waste,
improve indoor air quality, and ensure occupant comfort. Therefore, the use of smart
cameras such as IR cameras and Pi cameras in HVAC systems can play a crucial role in
maintaining a comfortable indoor environment and reducing overall energy costs.
8. Important Terms
• HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air conditioning),
• Energy consumption
• Energy output
• Occupancy detection
• Human occupancy detection
• Infrared radiation
• Deep learning
• Air Quality
• Arduino Uno
• Raspberry Pi
• GPIO.
Author Contributions: Review and editing performed by D.R.M. and Y.T.A.; Funding provided by
S4G: clean energy workforce development grant; review performed by B.G., R.C.T. and Y.T.A. All
authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Energies 2023, 16, 6109 14 of 15
Funding: The funding was provided S4G and the APC was funded by the department of Computa-
tional Data Science and Engineering department at North Carolina A&T State University.
Data Availability Statement: Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were
created or analyzed in this study.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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