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LEARNING MATERIAL 9

COGNITIVE THEORIES ON HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Introduction
Theories of development provide a framework for thinking about human growth,
development, and learning. If you have ever wondered about what motivates human thought
and behavior, understanding these theories can provide useful insight into individuals and
society.

Developmental theories provide a set of guiding principles and concepts that describe
and explain human development. Some developmental theories focus on the formation of a
specific quality, such as Kohlberg's theory of moral development. Other developmental
theories focus on growth that happens throughout the lifespan, such as Erikson's theory of
psychosocial development.  Grand Theories Grand theories are those comprehensive ideas
often proposed by major thinkers such as Sigmund Freud, Erik Erikson and Jean Piaget.

Grand theories of development include psychoanalytic theory, learning theory and

cognitive theory. These theories seek to explain much of human behavior, but are often
considered outdated and incomplete in the face of modern research. Psychologists and
researchers often use grand theories as a basis for exploration, but consider smaller theories
and recent research as well.  Minitheories Minitheories describe a small, very specific aspect
of development. A minitheory might explain fairly narrow behaviors, such as how self-esteem
is formed or early childhood socialization. These theories are often rooted in the ideas
established by grand theories, but they do not seek to describe and explain the whole of
human behavior and growth.

Emergent theories are those that have been created fairly recently and are often
formed by systematically combining various minitheories. These theories often draw on
research and ideas from many different disciplines, but are not yet as broad or far-reaching as
grand theories. The sociocultural theory proposed by theorist Lev Vygotsky is a good example
of an emergent theory of development.

The purpose of Psychology Theories is to provide a framework for understanding

human behaviour, thought, and development. By having a broad base of understanding about
the how's and why's of human behaviour, we can better understand ourselves and others. 
Theories create a basis for future research. Researchers use theories to form hypotheses that
can then be tested.  Theories are dynamic and always changing. As new discoveries are
made, theories are modified and adapted to account for new information.

In this learning material, you will understand more the different theories on cognitive
development. So, get your notebooks and take note of the important concepts!

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Learning Outcome
At the end of the lesson, you, the students should have:
 Synthesized the various theories on human development.

Warm Up Activity
Go back to your notes that you were able to obtain from Learning Material 5 to 7 about
Jean Piaget and Erick Ericson. What did they say about the cognitive and socioemotional
development of Infants and Toddlers? This time, you will know more about the
contributions of developmental theorists in the discussion of human development.

 ACTIVITY 1. Exploring the Cognitive Theories on Human

Development
I. Read the content input below that discusses the different cognitive theories on human
development. Take note of important points because you will be needing these in
answering the questions that will follow.

Content Inputs
COGNITIVE THEORIES ON HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

This section discusses five (5) theories on cognitive development, which include Piaget’s
Theory of Cognitive Development, Freud’s Psychosexual Theory, Erikson’s Theory on Psycho-
Social Development, Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory, and Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory.

1. JEAN PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

 Piaget's (1936) theory of cognitive development explains how a child constructs a mental
model of the world.
 He disagreed with the idea that intelligence was a fixed trait, and regarded cognitive
development as a process which occurs due to biological maturation and interaction with
the environment.
 According to psychologist Jean Piaget, children progress through a series of four key
stages of cognitive development marked by shifts in how they understand the world.
Piaget believed that children are like "little scientists" and that they actively try to
explore and make sense of the world around them.
 Through his observations of his own children, Piaget developed a stage theory of
intellectual development that included four distinct stages: the sensorimotor stage, from
birth to age 2; the preoperational stage, from age 2 to about age 7; the concrete
operational stage, from age 7 to 11; and the formal operational stage, which begins in
adolescence and spans into adulthood. Piaget's stage theory describes the cognitive
development of children.

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 Cognitive development involves changes in cognitive process and abilities. In Piaget's

view, early cognitive development involves processes based upon actions and later
progresses into changes in mental operations.
 To Piaget, cognitive development was a progressive reorganization of mental processes
as a result of biological maturation and environmental experience.
 Children construct an understanding of the world around them, then experience
discrepancies between what they already know and what they discover in their
environment.

Three Basic Components To Piaget's Cognitive Theory:

1. Schemas - building blocks of knowledge
2. Adaptation processes that enable the transition from one stage to another
(equilibrium, assimilation, and accommodation).
3. Stages of Cognitive Development: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational,
formal operational.

Schemas

 Schemas are the basic building blocks of such cognitive models, and enable us to form a
mental representation of the world. Piaget defined a schema as: "a cohesive, repeatable
action sequence possessing component actions that are tightly interconnected and
governed by a core meaning."
 In more simple terms Piaget called the schema the basic building block of intelligent
behavior – a way of organizing knowledge. Indeed, it is useful to think of schemas as
“units” of knowledge, each relating to one aspect of the world, including objects, actions,
and abstract (i.e., theoretical) concepts.
 When Piaget talked about the development of a person's mental processes, he was
referring to increases in the number and complexity of the schemata that a person had
learned. When a child's existing schemas are capable of explaining what it can perceive
around it, it is said to be in a state of equilibrium, i.e., a state of cognitive (i.e., mental)
balance.
 Piaget emphasized the importance of schemas in cognitive development and described
how they were developed or acquired. A schema can be defined as a set of linked mental
representations of the world, which we use both to understand and to respond to
situations. The assumption is that we store these mental representations and apply them
when needed.
 For example, babies have a sucking reflex, which is triggered by something touching the
baby's lips. A baby will suck a nipple, a comforter (dummy), or a person's finger. Piaget,
therefore, assumed that the baby has a 'sucking schema.'
 Similarly, the grasping reflex which is elicited when something touches the palm of a
baby's hand, or the rooting reflex, in which a baby will turn its head towards something
which touches its cheek, are innate schemas. Shaking a rattle would be the combination
of two schemas, grasping and shaking.

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Assimilation and Accommodation

Jean Piaget (1952; see also Wadsworth, 2004) viewed intellectual growth as a process
of adaptation (adjustment) to the world. This happens through:

Assimilation - Which is using an existing schema to deal with a new object or situation.

 EXAMPLE: A 2-year-old child sees a man who is bald on top of his head and has long
frizzy hair on the sides. To his father’s horror, the toddler shouts “Clown, clown”
(Siegler et al., 2003).

Accommodation - This happens when the existing schema (knowledge) does not work, and
needs to be changed to deal with a new object or situation.
 EXAMPLE: In the “clown” incident, the boy’s father explained to his son that the man
was not a clown and that even though his hair was like a clown’s, he wasn’t wearing a
funny costume and wasn’t doing silly things to make people laugh. With this new
knowledge, the boy was able to change his schema of “clown” and make this idea fit
better to a standard concept of “clown”.

Equilibration - This is the force which moves development along. Piaget believed that
cognitive development did not progress at a steady rate, but rather in leaps and bounds.
 Equilibrium occurs when a child's schemas can deal with most new information
through assimilation. However, an unpleasant state of disequilibrium occurs when
new information cannot be fitted into existing schemas (assimilation).
 Equilibration is the force which drives the learning process as we do not like to be
frustrated and will seek to restore balance by mastering the new challenge
(accommodation). Once the new information is acquired the process of assimilation
with the new schema will continue until the next time we need to make an
adjustment to it.

Piaget's 4 Stages of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four
different stages of intellectual development which reflect the increasing sophistication of
children's thought
Each child goes through the stages in the same order, and child development is
determined by biological maturation and interaction with the environment.
Although no stage can be missed out, there are individual differences in the rate at which
children progress through stages, and some individuals may never attain the later stages.
Piaget did not claim that a particular stage was reached at a certain age - although
descriptions of the stages often include an indication of the age at which the average child
would reach each stage.

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Cognitive
Development
Description/Explanations
Stage
Stage 1. During this stage, infants and toddlers acquire knowledge through
Sensorimotor sensory experiences and manipulating objects
(Birth to ages 18 –
The main achievement during this stage is object permanence -
24)
knowing that an object still exists, even if it is hidden.
It requires the ability to form a mental representation (i.e., a schema)
of the object.
Stage 2. At this stage, kids learn through pretend play but still struggle with
Preoperational: logic and taking the point of view of other people.
Toddlerhood (18-
During this stage, young children can think about things symbolically.
24 months)
This is the ability to make one thing - a word or an object - stand for
through early
something other than itself.
childhood (age 7).
Thinking is still egocentric, and the infant has difficulty taking the
viewpoint of others.
Stage 3. Concrete The Concrete Operational Stage: Kids at this point of development
operational: Ages begin to think more logically, but their thinking can also be very rigid.
7 to 11 years. They tend to struggle with abstract and hypothetical concepts
Piaget considered the concrete stage a major turning point in the
child's cognitive development because it marks the beginning of
logical or operational thought.
This means the child can work things out internally in their head
(rather than physically try things out in the real world).
Children can conserve number (age 6), mass (age 7), and weight (age
9). Conservation is the understanding that something stays the same
in quantity even though its appearance changes.
Stage 4. Formal The Formal Operational Stage: The final stage of Piaget's theory
operational: involves an increase in logic, the ability to use deductive reasoning,
Adolescence to and an understanding of abstract ideas.
adulthood.
The formal operational stage begins at approximately age eleven and
lasts into adulthood. During this time, people develop the ability to
think about abstract concepts, and logically test hypotheses

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2. SIGMUND FREUD’S THEORY ON PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT

 Proposed by the famous psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud

 the theory of psychosexual development describes how personality develops during

childhood. While the theory is well-known in psychology, it is also one of the most
controversial theories.

 Freud believed that personality develops through a series of childhood stages in which
the pleasure-seeking energies of the id become focused on certain erogenous areas.
This psychosexual energy, or libido, was described as the driving force behind
behavior. Psychoanalytic theory suggested that personality is mostly established by
the age of five. Early experiences play a large role in personality development and
continue to influence behavior later in life.

Freud's Stages of Psychosexual Development

Freud’s stages of psychosexual development is illustrated below.

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Freud believed that personality developed through a series of childhood stages in which
the pleasure-seeking energies of the id become focused on certain erogenous areas. An
erogenous zone is characterized as an area of the body that is particularly sensitive to
stimulation.

During the five psychosexual stages, which are the oral, anal, phallic, latent, and genital
stages, the erogenous zone associated with each stage serves as a source of pleasure.

The psychosexual energy, or libido, was described as the driving force behind behavior.

Psychoanalytic theory suggested that personality is mostly established by the age of five.
Early experiences play a large role in personality development and continue to influence
behavior later in life.

Each stage of development is marked by conflicts that can help build growth or stifle
development, depending upon how they are resolved. If these psychosexual stages are
completed successfully, a healthy personality is the result.

If certain issues are not resolved at the appropriate stage, fixations can occur. A fixation is
a persistent focus on an earlier psychosexual stage. Until this conflict is resolved, the
individual will remain "stuck" in this stage. A person who is fixated at the oral stage, for
example, may be over-dependent on others and may seek oral stimulation through smoking,
drinking, or eating.

Psychosexual Erogenous
Development Zone Description/Explanation
Stage
The ORAL Mouth During the oral stage, the infant's primary source of interaction
Stage (Birth to occurs through the mouth, so the rooting and sucking reflex is
1 year) especially important. The mouth is vital for eating, and the
infant derives pleasure from oral stimulation through gratifying
activities such as tasting and sucking.

Because the infant is entirely dependent upon caretakers (who

are responsible for feeding the child), the child also develops a
sense of trust and comfort through this oral stimulation.

The primary conflict at this stage is the weaning process--the

child must become less dependent upon caretakers. If fixation
occurs at this stage, Freud believed the individual would have
issues with dependency or aggression. Oral fixation can result
in problems with drinking, eating, smoking, or nail-biting.

The ANAL Bowel and During the anal stage, Freud believed that the primary focus of
Stage (1 to Bladder the libido was on controlling bladder and bowel movements.
years) Control) The major conflict at this stage is toilet training—the child has
to learn to control their bodily needs. Developing this control

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leads to a sense of accomplishment and independence.

According to Freud, success at this stage is dependent upon

the way in which parents approach toilet training. Parents who
utilize praise and rewards for using the toilet at the
appropriate time encourage positive outcomes and help
children feel capable and productive.

Freud believed that positive experiences during the toilet

training stage serve as the basis for people to become
competent, productive, and creative adults.

However, not all parents provide the support and

encouragement that children need during this stage. Some
parents punish, ridicule, or shame a child for accidents.

According to Freud, inappropriate parental responses can

result in negative outcomes. If parents take an approach that is
too lenient, Freud suggested that an anal-expulsive
personality could develop in which the individual has a messy,
wasteful, or destructive personality.

If parents are too strict or begin toilet training too early, Freud
believed that an anal-retentive personality develops in which
the individual is stringent, orderly, rigid, and obsessive.

The PHALLIC Genitals Freud suggested that during the phallic stage, the primary
Stage (3 to 6 focus of the libido is on the genitals. At this age, children also
years) begin to discover the differences between males and females.

Freud also believed that boys begin to view their fathers as a

rival for the mother’s affections. The Oedipus
complex describes these feelings of wanting to possess the
mother and the desire to replace the father. However, the
child also fears that he will be punished by the father for these
feelings, a fear Freud termed castration anxiety.

The term Electra complex has been used to describe a similar

set of feelings experienced by young girls. Freud, however,
believed that girls instead experience penis envy.

Eventually, the child begins to identify with the same-sex

parent as a means of vicariously possessing the other parent.
For girls, however, Freud believed that penis envy was never
fully resolved and that all women remain somewhat fixated on
this stage.
Psychologists such as Karen Horney disputed this theory,

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calling it both inaccurate and demeaning to women. Instead,

Horney proposed that men experience feelings of inferiority
because they cannot give birth to children, a concept she
referred to as womb envy.

The LATENT Sexual During this stage, the superego continues to develop while the
Period (6 to Feelings id's energies are suppressed. Children develop social skills,
puberty) are values and relationships with peers and adults outside of the
Inactive family.

The development of the ego and superego contribute to this

period of calm. The stage begins around the time that children
enter into school and become more concerned with peer
relationships, hobbies, and other interests.

The latent period is a time of exploration in which the sexual

energy repressed or dormant. This energy is still present, but it
is sublimated into other areas such as intellectual pursuits and
social interactions. This stage is important in the development
of social and communication skills and self-confidence.

As with the other psychosexual stages, Freud believed that it

was possible for children to become fixated or "stuck" in this
phase. Fixation at this stage can result in immaturity and an
inability to form fulfilling relationships as an adult.

The GENITAL Maturing The onset of puberty causes the libido to become active once
Stage Sexual again. During the final stage of psychosexual development, the
(Puberty to Interests individual develops a strong sexual interest in the opposite sex.
death) This stage begins during puberty but last throughout the rest
of a person's life.

Where in earlier stages the focus was solely on individual

needs, interest in the welfare of others grows during this
stage. The goal of this stage is to establish a balance between
the various life areas.

If the other stages have been completed successfully, the

individual should now be well-balanced, warm, and caring.

Unlike the many of the earlier stages of development, Freud

believed that the ego and superego were fully formed and
functioning at this point. Younger children are ruled by the id,
which demands immediate satisfaction of the most basic needs
and wants.

Teens in the genital stage of development are able to balance

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their most basic urges against the need to conform to the

demands of reality and social norms.

EVALUATING FREUD’S PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGE THEORY

- The theory is focused almost entirely on male development with little mention of female
psychosexual development.  His theories are difficult to test scientifically. Concepts such
as the libido are impossible to measure, and therefore cannot be tested. The research
that has been conducted tends to discredit Freud's theory.  Future predictions are too
vague. How can we know that a current behavior was caused specifically by a childhood
experience? The length of time between the cause and the effect is too long to assume
that there is a relationship between the two variables.  Freud's theory is based upon
case studies and not empirical research. Also, Freud based his theory on the recollections
of his adult patients, not on actual observation and study of children.

3. ERIK ERIKSON’S PSYCHO-SOCIAL THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT

 Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development is very relevant, highly regarded and

meaningful theory. Life is a continuous process involving learning and trials which help
us grow. Erikson’s enlightening theory guides us and helps to tell us why.

 Erikson’s ‘psychosocial’ term is derived from two source words – namely psychological
(or root, ‘psycho’ relating to the mid, brain, personality, etc.) and ‘social’ (external
relationships and environment), both at the heart of Erikson’s theory. Occasionally,
you will see the term extended to biopsychosocial, in which “bio” refers to life, as in
biological.

 Erikson’s theory is highly influenced by Sigmund Freud but he extended the theory to
incorporate cultural and social aspects into Freud’s biological and sexually oriented
theories.

 Like other influential theories Erikson’s model is simple and well designed. It is a basis
for broad or complex discussion and analysis of personality and behavior, and also for
understanding and for facilitating personal development - of self and others. It can
help the teacher in becoming more knowledgeable and at the same time,
understanding of various environmental factors that affect his own and his students’
personality and behavior.

 Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development is one of the best-known theories

of personality in psychology. Much like Sigmund Freud, Erikson believed that
personality develops in a series of stages. Unlike Freud's theory of psychosexual
stages, Erikson's theory describes the impact of social experience across the whole
lifespan.  One of the main elements of Erikson's psychosocial stage theory is the
development of ego identity. Ego identity is the conscious sense of self that we
develop through social interaction. According to Erikson, our ego identity is constantly
changing due to new experiences and information we acquire in our daily interactions
with others.

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 In addition to ego identity, Erikson also believed that a sense of competence

motivates behaviors and actions. Each stage in Erikson's theory is concerned with
becoming competent in an area of life. If the stage is handled well, the person will feel
a sense of mastery, which is sometimes referred to as ego strength or ego quality. If
the stage is managed poorly, the person will emerge with a sense of inadequacy.  In
each stage, Erikson believed people experience a conflict that serves as a turning point
in development. In Erikson's view, these conflicts are centered on either developing a
psychological quality or failing to develop that quality. During these times, the
potential for personal growth is high, but so is the potential for failure.

Erik Erikson’s Eight (8) Stages of Physchosocial Development

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Psychosocial Explanation/ Description

Stage
Stage 1. TRUST The most fundamental stage in life.
VS. MISTRUST
(birth to 1 Because an infant is utterly dependent, the development of trust is
year) based on the dependability and quality of the child's caregivers. 

If a child successfully develops trust, he or she will feel safe and secure
in the world. Caregivers who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable,
or rejecting contribute to feelings of mistrust in the children they care
for.

Failure to develop trust will result in fear and a belief that the world is
inconsistent and unpredictable.  Of course, no child is going to develop

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a sense of 100 percent trust or 100 percent doubt.

Erikson believed that successful development was all about striking a

balance between the two opposing sides. When this happens, children
acquire hope, which Erikson described as an openness to experience
tempered by some wariness that danger may be present.

Stage 2. It is focused on children developing a greater sense of personal control

AUTONOMY
VS. SHAME Like Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of this
AND DOUBT process. However, Erikson's reasoning was quite different then that of
(Early Freud's.
childhood)
Erikson believes that learning to control one's bodily functions leads to
a feeling of control and a sense of independence. Other important
events include gaining more control over food choices, toy
preferences, and clothing selection. 

Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and

confident, while those who do not are left with a sense of inadequacy
and self-doubt.

Erikson believed that achieving a balance between autonomy and

shame and doubt would lead to will, which is the belief that children
can act with intention, within reason and limits.

Stage 3. During the preschool years, children begin to assert their power and
INITIATIVE VS. control over the world through directing play and other social
GUILT interactions.

Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead
others. Those who fail to acquire these skills are left with a sense of
guilt, self-doubt, and lack of initiative.

When an ideal balance of individual initiative and a willingness to work

with others is achieved, the ego quality known as purpose emerges.

Stage 4. Through social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride

INDUSTRY VS. in their accomplishments and abilities.
INFERIORITY (5
to 11 years) Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and
teachers develop a feeling of competence and belief in their skills.
Those who receive little or no encouragement from parents, teachers,
or peers will doubt their abilities to be successful.
Successfully finding a balance at this stage of psychosocial
development leads to the strength known as competence or a belief
our own abilities to handle the tasks set before us.

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Stage 5. During adolescence, children explore their independence and develop

IDENTITY VS. a sense of self.
CONFUSION
(Adolescence) Those who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through
personal exploration will emerge from this stage with a strong sense of
self and a feeling of independence and control.

Those who remain unsure of their beliefs and desires will feel insecure
and confused about themselves and the future.

Completing this stage successfully leads to fidelity, which Erikson

described as an ability to live by society's standards and expectations.

Stage 6. This stage covers the period of early adulthood when people are
Intimacy vs. exploring personal relationships.
Isolation (Early
Adulthood) Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed
relationships with other people. Those who are successful at this step
will form relationships that are committed and secure.

Remember that each step builds on skills learned in previous steps.

Erikson believed that a strong sense of personal identity was important
for developing intimate relationships. Studies have demonstrated that
those with a poor sense of self tend to have less committed
relationships and are more likely to suffer emotional isolation,
loneliness, and depression.

Successful resolution of this stage results in the virtue known as love. It

is marked by the ability to form lasting, meaningful relationships with
other people.

Stage 7. During adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our

GENERATIVITY career and family.
vs.
STAGNATION Those who are successful during this phase will feel that they are
(Adulthood) contributing to the world by being active in their home and
community. Those who fail to attain this skill will feel unproductive and
uninvolved in the world.

Care is the virtue achieved when this stage is handled successfully.

Being proud of your accomplishments, watching your children grow
into adults, and developing a sense of unity with your life partner are
important accomplishments of this stage.
Stage 8. This phase occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting back on
INTEGRITY vs. life.
DESPAIR (Old

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age) Those who are unsuccessful during this stage will feel that their life has
been wasted and will experience many regrets. The individual will be
left with feelings of bitterness and despair.

Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of

integrity. Successfully completing this phase means looking back with
few regrets and a general feeling of satisfaction. These individuals will
attain wisdom, even when confronting death.

The Strengths of Erikson's Theory

 It provides a broad framework from which to view development throughout the entire
lifespan.

 It also allows us to emphasize the social nature of human beings and the important
influence that social relationships have on development.

Researchers have found evidence supporting Erikson's ideas about identity and have
further identified different sub-stages of identity formation. Some research also suggests
that people who form strong personal identities during adolescence are better capable of
forming intimate relationships during early adulthood.

Limitations of Psychosocial Theory

 One major weakness of psychosocial theory is that the exact mechanisms for resolving
conflicts and moving from one stage to the next are not well described or developed.

 The theory fails to detail exactly what type of experiences are necessary at each stage
in order to successfully resolve the conflicts and move to the next stage.

4. LEV VYGOTSKY’S SOCIO-CULTURAL THEORY

Sociocultural theory

 is an emerging theory in psychology that looks at the important contributions that

society makes to individual development.

 stresses the interaction between developing people and the culture in which they live.
Sociocultural theory also suggests that human learning is largely a social process.
 grew from the work of seminal psychologist Lev Vygotsky, who believed that parents,
caregivers, peers, and the culture at large were responsible for developing higher-
order functions. According to Vygotsky, learning has its basis in interacting with other
people. Once this has occurred, the information is then integrated on the individual
level.

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 focuses not only how adults and peers influence individual learning, but also on how
cultural beliefs and attitudes affect how learning takes place.

According to Vygotsky, children are born with basic biological constraints on their
minds. Each culture, however, provides "tools of intellectual adaptation." These tools allow
children to use their abilities in a way that is adaptive to the culture in which they live. For
example, while one culture might emphasize memory strategies such as note-taking, another
might use tools like reminders or rote memorization.

Piaget vs. Vygotsky: Key Differences

 Vygotsky placed a greater emphasis on how social factors influence development.

While Piaget's theory stressed how a child's interactions and explorations influenced
development, Vygotsky stressed the essential role that social interactions play in
cognitive development.
 Another important difference between the two theories is that while Piaget's theory
suggests that development is largely universal, Vygotsky asserts that cognitive
development can differ between different cultures. The course of development in
Western culture, for example, might be different than it is in Eastern culture.
 Piaget believed that cognitive development was fairly universal, Vygotsky believed
that each culture presents unique differences. Because cultures can vary so
dramatically, Vygotsky's sociocultural theory suggests that both the course and
content of intellectual development are not as universal as Piaget believed.

The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

 According to Vygotsky, ZPD this "is the distance between the actual development level
as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential
development as determined through problem-solving under adult guidance or in
collaboration with more capable peers."
 it includes all of the knowledge and skills that a person cannot yet understand or
perform on their own, but is capable of learning with guidance. As children are
allowed to stretch their skills and knowledge, often by observing someone who is
slightly more advanced than they are, they are able to progressively extend this zone
of proximal development.

5. ALBERT BANDURA’S SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY

Social cognitive theory is a learning theory developed by the renowned Stanford

psychology professor Albert Bandura. The theory provides a framework for understanding
how people actively shape and are shaped by their environment. In particular, the theory
details the processes of observational learning and modeling, and the influence of self-
efficacy on the production of behavior.

Prepared by : Vida V. Antonio

Subject: EDUC 145
Prepared by (TCALLP)
: Vida V. Antonio
Subject: PHYED 131 (Waves & Optics)
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Key Takeaways: Social Cognitive Theory

 Social cognitive theory was developed by Stanford psychologist Albert Bandura.
 The theory views people as active agents who both influence and are influenced by
their environment.
 A major component of the theory is observational learning: the process of learning
desirable and undesirable behaviors by observing others, then reproducing learned
behaviors in order to maximize rewards.
 Individuals' beliefs in their own self-efficacy influences whether or not they will
reproduce an observed behavior.

In 1977, Bandura introduced Social Learning Theory, which further refined his ideas on
observational learning and modeling. Then in 1986, Bandura renamed his theory Social
Cognitive Theory in order to put greater emphasis on the cognitive components of
observational learning and the way behavior, cognition, and the environment interact to
shape people.

Observational Learning

A major component of social cognitive theory is observational learning. Bandura’s ideas

about learning stood in contrast to those of behaviorists like B.F. Skinner. According to
Skinner, learning could only be achieved by taking individual action. However, Bandura
claimed that observational learning, through which people observe and imitate models they
encounter in their environment, enables people to acquire information much more quickly.

Observational learning occurs through a sequence of four processes:

1. Attentional processes account for the information that is selected for observation in
the environment. People might select to observe real-life models or models they
encounter via media.
2. Retention processes involve remembering the observed information so it can be
successfully recalled and reconstructed later.
3. Production processes reconstruct the memories of the observations so what was
learned can be applied in appropriate situations. In many cases, this doesn’t mean the
observer will replicate the observed action exactly, but that they will modify the
behavior to produce a variation that fits the context.
4. Motivational processes determine whether or not an observed behavior is performed
based on whether that behavior was observed to result in desired or adverse
outcomes for the model. If an observed behavior was rewarded, the observer will be
more motivated to reproduce it later. However, if a behavior was punished in some
way, the observer would be less motivated to reproduce it. Thus, social cognitive
theory cautions that people don’t perform every behavior they learn through
modeling.

Self-Efficacy

In addition to the information models can convey during observational learning,

models can also increase or decrease the observer’s belief in their self-efficacy to enact

Prepared by : Vida V. Antonio

Subject: EDUC 145
Prepared by (TCALLP)
: Vida V. Antonio
Subject: PHYED 131 (Waves & Optics)
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observed behaviors and bring about desired outcomes from those behaviors. When people
see others like them succeed, they also believe they can be capable of succeeding. Thus,
models are a source of motivation and inspiration.

Perceptions of self-efficacy influence people’s choices and beliefs in themselves,

including the goals they choose to pursue and the effort they put into them, how long they’re
willing to persevere in the face of obstacles and setbacks, and the outcomes they expect.
Thus, self-efficacy influences one’s motivations to perform various actions and one's belief in
their ability to do so.

Such beliefs can impact personal growth and change. For example, research has
shown that enhancing self-efficacy beliefs is more likely to result in the improvement of
health habits than the use of fear-based communication. Belief in one’s self-efficacy can be
the difference between whether or not an individual even considers making positive changes
in their life.

Modeling Media

The prosocial potential of media models has been demonstrated through serial
dramas that were produced for developing communities on issues such as literacy, family
planning, and the status of women. These dramas have been successful in bringing about
positive social change, while demonstrating the relevance and applicability of social cognitive
theory to media.

For example, a television show in India was produced to raise women’s status and
promote smaller families by embedding these ideas in the show. The show championed
gender equality by including characters that positively modeled women’s equality. In
addition, there were other characters that modeled subservient women’s roles and some that
transitioned between subservience and equality. The show was popular, and despite its
melodramatic narrative, viewers understood the messages it modeled. These viewers learned
that women should have equal rights, should have the freedom to choose how they live their
lives, and be able to limit the size of their families. In this example and others, the tenets of
social cognitive theory have been utilized to make a positive impact through fictional media
models.

ACTIVITY 2. CONCRETIZING YOUR LEARNING

Have you seen the similarities of the different theories discussed above? You
probably saw that the stages and/or processes in each of the theories corresponds to a
certain stage of human development. Also, your understanding on the developmental
tasks that you have studied earlier are also enhanced by the explanations of the different
theories.

Prepared by : Vida V. Antonio

Subject: EDUC 145
Prepared by (TCALLP)
: Vida V. Antonio
Subject: PHYED 131 (Waves & Optics)
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Can you now enhance your discussions in your digitized Personal profile making
use of the theories discussed above? I am sure you can, so what are you waiting for?

Assignment
GROUP ACTIVITY: (Major output to be passed after discussion of Chapter 3 but can be done
every after a Learning Material in this chapter)

Collaborative Task: Observations on the Growth & Development of Children and

Adolescents

What to do:
1. Form 7 groups (7 members per group, 1 group shall have 8). Your Section Mayor
will do the honor of grouping you.
2. You will observe individually but combine your observations for a group report.
3. Your subject must be somebody in your household or neighborhood, preferably
relatives. You could observe and interview. If you don’t have a child in your
household, you can view video clips of children that are available online.
4. Observe the activities of a child or an adolescent and your observations/
write a case study about him/her highlighting the theory/ies demonstrated in the
observation

Activity Title: The Learner’s Characteristics and Needs

See the powerpoint presentation I uploaded as additional resource for details.

References:
Macleod, S. (2018) Jean Piaget’s Theory and Stages of Cognitive Development. Retrieved
online from https://www.simplypsychology.org/piaget.html

Cherry, K. (2020). Erik Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development. Retrieved online from
https://www.verywellmind.com/erik-eriksons-stages-of-psychosocial-development-
2795740

Cherry, K. (2020). Freud’ Stages of Psychosexual Development. Retrieved online from

https://www.verywellmind.com/freuds-stages-of-psychosexual-development-2795962

Cherry, K. (2019). Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development. Retrieved online from

https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-sociocultural-theory-2795088

Slide Share. Theories of Human Development. Retrieved online from

https://www.slideshare.net/peningry/theories-of-human-development

Vinney, C. (2019). Social Cognitive Theory: How we learn from the behavior of others.
Retrieved from https://www.thoughtco.com/social-cognitive-theory-4174567

Prepared by : Vida V. Antonio

Subject: EDUC 145
Prepared by (TCALLP)
: Vida V. Antonio
Subject: PHYED 131 (Waves & Optics)