VSTEP READING TEST

READING 1 - Questions 1-10

Before the mid-nineteenth century, people in the United States ate most foods
only in season. Drying, smoking, and salting could preserve meat for a short time,
but the availability of fresh meat, like that of fresh milk, was very limited: there
was no way to prevent spoilage. But in 1810 a French inventor named Nicolas
(5) Appert developed the cooking-and-sealing process of canning. And in the 1850s,
an American named Gail Borden developed a means of condensing and
preserving milk. Canned goods and condensed milk became more common during
the 1860’s, but supplies remained low because cans had to be made by hand. By
1880, however, inventors had fashioned stamping and soldering machines that
(10) mass-produced cans from tinplate. Suddenly all kinds of food could be preserved
and bought at all times of the year.
Other trends and inventions had also helped make it possible for Americans to
vary their daily diets. Growing urban populations created demand that encouraged
fruit and vegetable farmers to raise more produce. Railroad refrigerator cars
(15) enabled growers and meat packers to ship perishables great distances and to
preserve them for longer periods. Thus, by the 1890’s, northern city dwellers
could enjoy southern and western strawberries, grapes, and tomatoes, previously
available for a month at most, for up to six months of the year. In addition,
increased use of iceboxes enables families to store perishables. An easy means of
(20) producing ice commercially had been invented in the 1870’s, and by 1900 the
nation had more than two thousand commercial ice plants, 1870’s, most of which
made home deliveries. The icebox became a fixture in most homes and remained
so until the mechanized refrigerator replaced it in the 1920’s and 1930’s.
Almost everyone now had a more diversified diet. Some people continued to eat
(25) mainly foods that were heavy in starches or carbohydrates, and not everyone
could afford meat. Nevertheless, many families could take advantage of
previously unavailable fruits, vegetables and dairy products to achieve more
varied fare.

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1. What does the passage mainly discuss?
A. Causes of food spoilage
B. Commercial production of ice
C. Population movements in the nineteenth century
D. Inventions that led to changes in the American diet
2. The phrase “in season” in line 2 refers to
A. A kind of weather B. A particular time of year
C. An official schedule D. A method of flavoring food
3. The word “prevent” in line 4 is closest in meaning to
A. Avoid B. Estimate C. Correct D. Confine
4. During the 1860’s, canned food products were
A. Unavailable in rural areas B. Shipped in refrigerator cars
C. Available in limited quantities D. A staple part of the American diet
5. It can be inferred that railroad refrigerator cars came into use
A. Before 1860 B. Before 1890 C. After 1900 D. After 1920
6. The word ‘them’ in line 16 refers to
A. Refrigerator cars B. Growers C. Distances D. Perishables
7. The word ‘fixture’ in line 22 is closest in meaning to
A. Luxury item B. Commonplace object
C. Substance D. Mechanical device
8. The author implies that in the 1920’s and 1930’s home deliveries of ice
A. Decreased in number B. Were on an irregular schedule
C. Increased in cost D. Occurred only in the summer
9. Which of the following types of food preservation was NOT mentioned in the passage?
A. Drying B. Canning C. Cold storage D. Chemical additives
10. Which of the following statements is supported by the passage?
A. Tin cans and iceboxes helped to make many foods more widely available.
B. Commercial ice factories were developed by railroad owners.
C. Most farmers in the United States raised only fruits and vegetables.
D. People who lived in cities demanded home delivery of foods.

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READING 2 – Questions 11 – 20
ROBERT CAPA
Robert Capa is a name that has for many years been synonymous with war photography.
Born in Hungary in 1913 as Friedmann Endre Ernő, Capa was forced to leave his native country
after his involvement in anti-government protests. Capa had originally wanted to become a writer,
but after his arrival in Berlin had first found work as a photographer. He later left Germany and
moved to France due to the rise in Nazism. He tried to find work as a freelance journalist and it was
here that he changed his name to Robert Capa, mainly because he thought it would sound more
American.
In 1936, after the breakout of the Spanish Civil war, Capa went to Spain and it was here over the
next three years that he built his reputation as a war photographer. It was here too in 1936 that he
took one of his most famous pictures, The Death of a Loyalist Soldier. One of Capa’s most famous
quotes was 'If your pictures aren't good enough, you're not close enough.' And he took his attitude of
getting close to the action to an extreme. His photograph, The Death of a Loyalist Soldier is a prime
example of this as Capa captures the very moment the soldier falls. However, many have questioned
the authenticity of this photograph, claiming that it was staged.
When World war II broke out, Capa was in New York, but he was soon back in Europe covering the
war for Life magazine. Some of his most famous work was created on 6th June 1944 when he swam
ashore with the first assault on Omaha Beach in the D-Day invasion of Normandy. Capa, armed
only with two cameras, took more than one hundred photographs in the first hour of the landing, but
a mistake in the darkroom during the drying of the film destroyed all but eight frames. It was the
images from these frames however that inspired the visual style of Steven Spielberg's Oscar
winning movie ‘Saving Private Ryan’. When Life magazine published the photographs, they
claimed that they were slightly out of focus, and Capa later used this as the title of his
autobiographical account of the war.
Capa’s private life was no less dramatic. He was friend to many of Hollywood’s directors, actors
and actresses. In 1943 he fell in love with the wife of actor John Austin. His affair with her lasted
until the end of the war and became the subject of his war memoirs. He was at one time lover to
actress Ingrid Bergman. Their relationship finally ended in 1946 when he refused to settle in
Hollywood and went off to Turkey.
In 1947 Capa was among a group of photojournalists who founded Magnum Photos. This was a co-
operative organization set up to support photographers and help them to retain ownership of the
copyright to their work.

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Capa went on to document many other wars. He never attempted to glamorize war though, but to
record the horror. He once said, "The desire of any war photographer is to be put out of business."
Capa died as he had lived. After promising not to photograph any more wars, he accepted an
assignment to go to Indochina to cover the first Indochina war. On May 25th 1954 Capa was
accompanying a French regiment when he left his jeep to take some photographs of the advance and
stepped on a land mine. He was taken to a nearby hospital, still clutching his camera, but was
pronounced dead on arrival. He left behind him a testament to the horrors of war and a standard for
photojournalism that few others have been able to reach.
Capa’s legacy has lived on though and in 1966 his brother Cornell founded the International Fund
for Concerned Photography in his honor. There is also a Robert Capa Gold Medal, which is given to
the photographer who publishes the best photographic reporting from abroad with evidence of
exceptional courage. But perhaps his greatest legacy of all are the haunting images of the human
struggles that he captured.
11. Why did Capa change his name?
A. to hide his identity B. because he had been involved in protests
C. to sound more American D. because he had to leave Hungary
12. Capa originally wanted to be
A. a photojournalist B. a writer C. American D. a protestor
13. Capa went to Spain to
A. fight in the civil war B. build his reputation
C. have a holiday D. take photographs
14. Capa’s famous picture Death of a Loyalist Soldier
A. was taken by someone else B. was definitely genuine
C. wasn’t even taken in Spain D. cannot be proven genuine or staged
15. When World War II broke out Capa
A. went to New York B. swam ashore on Omaha Beach
C. went to Europe D. went to Normandy
16. A mistake meant that
A. only one hundred of Capa’s photographs were published.
B. Capa lost both of his two cameras.
C. Capa’s images inspired an Oscar winning movie.
D. Most of Capa’s images of the D-Day landing were destroyed.

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17. Capa’s private life was
A. less dramatic than his professional life. B. spent mostly in Hollywood.
C. very glamorous D. spent in Turkey.
18. Capa wanted his work to
A. be very famous B. show how glamorous war can be
C. show the true horror of war D. make lots of money
19. Which sentence best paraphrases paragraph 4?
A. Capa had a tragic private life and was never able to settle down and find happiness.
B. Despite having many good friends and lovers, Capa always put his work first.
C. Capa wanted to make friends with important people in Hollywood so that he could move into
the movie industry.
D. Capa’s private life was very complicated. He could not choose between the two women he
loved, so he went off to work in Turkey.
20. Which sentence best paraphrases paragraph 5?
A. Capa never tried to avoid danger. He risked his life to take photographs of the D-Day
invasion, but then destroyed most of them.
B. Capa took some of his most famous photographs during the D-Day invasion, but most were
tragically destroyed in an accident.
C. Capa only kept the best eight D-Day photographs as the others were out of focus. These
inspired the visual style of a Hollywood film.
D. Capa left Europe when the war broke out and went to take his most famous photographs of
the D-Day invasion.

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READING 3 - Questions 21 - 30
THE CREATORS OF GRAMMAR
No student of a foreign language needs to be told that grammar is complex. By changing word
sequences and by adding a range of auxiliary verbs and suffixes, we are able to communicate tiny
variations in meaning. We can turn a statement into a question, state whether an action has taken
place or is soon to take place, and perform many other word tricks to convey subtle differences in
meaning. Nor is this complexity inherent to the English language. All languages, even those of so-
called 'primitive' tribes have clever grammatical components. The Cherokee pronoun system, for
example, can distinguish between 'you and I', 'several other people and I' and 'you, another person
and I'. In English, all these meanings are summed up in the one, crude pronoun 'we'. Grammar is
universal and plays a part in every language, no matter how widespread it is. So the question
which has baffled many linguists is - who created grammar?
At first, it would appear that this question is impossible to answer. To find out how grammar is
created, someone needs to be present at the time of a language's creation, documenting its
emergence. Many historical linguists are able to trace modern complex languages back to earlier
languages, but in order to answer the question of how complex languages are actually formed, the
researcher needs to observe how languages are started from scratch. Amazingly, however, this is
possible.
Some of the most recent languages evolved due to the Atlantic slave trade. At that time, slaves
from a number of different ethnicities were forced to work together under colonizer's rule. Since
they had no opportunity to learn each other's languages, they developed a make-shift language
called a pidgin. Pidgins are strings of words copied from the language of the landowner. They have
little in the way of grammar, and in many cases it is difficult for a listener to deduce when an event
happened, and who did what to whom. [A] Speakers need to use circumlocution in order to make
their meaning understood. [B]Interestingly, however, all it takes for a pidgin to become a complex
language is for a group of children to be exposed to it at the time when they learn their mother
tongue. [C] Slave children did not simply copy the strings of words uttered by their elders, they
adapted their words to create a new, expressive language. [D] Complex grammar systems which
emerge from pidgins are termed creoles, and they are invented by children.
Further evidence of this can be seen in studying sign languages for the deaf. Sign languages are
not simply a series of gestures; they utilize the same grammatical machinery that is found in spoken
languages. Moreover, there are many different languages used worldwide. The creation of one such
language was documented quite recently in Nicaragua. Previously, all deaf people were isolated

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from each other, but in 1979 a new government introduced schools for the deaf. Although children
were taught speech and lip reading in the classroom, in the playgrounds they began to invent their
own sign system, using the gestures that they used at home. It was basically a pidgin. Each child
used the signs differently, and there was no consistent grammar. However, children who joined the
school later, when this inventive sign system was already around, developed a quite different sign
language. Although it was based on the signs of the older children, the younger children's language
was more fluid and compact, and it utilised a large range of grammatical devices to clarify
meaning. What is more, all the children used the signs in the same way. A new creole was born.
Some linguists believe that many of the world's most established languages were creoles at
first. The English past tense –ed ending may have evolved from the verb 'do'. 'It ended' may once
have been 'It end-did'. Therefore it would appear that even the most widespread languages were
partly created by children. Children appear to have innate grammatical machinery in their brains,
which springs to life when they are first trying to make sense of the world around them. Their
minds can serve to create logical, complex structures, even when there is no grammar present for
them to copy.

21. In paragraph 1, why does the writer include information about the Cherokee language?
A. To show how simple, traditional cultures can have complicated grammar structures.
B. To show how English grammar differs from Cherokee grammar.
C. To prove that complex grammar structures were invented by the Cherokees.
D. To demonstrate how difficult it is to learn the Cherokee language.

22. What can be inferred about the slaves' pidgin language?

A. It contained complex grammar.
B. It was based on many different languages.
C. It was difficult to understand, even among slaves.
D. It was created by the land-owners.
23. All the following sentences about Nicaraguan sign language are true EXCEPT:
A. The language has been created since 1979.
B. The language is based on speech and lip reading.
C. The language incorporates signs which children used at home.
D. The language was perfected by younger children.

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24. In paragraph 3, where can the following sentence be placed?
It included standardised word orders and grammatical markers that existed in neither
the pidgin language, nor the language of the colonizers.
A. [A] B. [B] C. [C] D. [D]
25. 'From scratch' in paragraph 2 is closest in meaning to:
A. from the very beginning B. in simple cultures
C. by copying something else D. by using written information
26. 'Make-shift' in paragraph 3 is closest in meaning to:
A. Complicated and expressive B. Simple and temporary
C. Extensive and diverse D. Private and personal
27. Which sentence is closest in meaning to the bolded sentence?
Grammar is universal and plays a part in every language, no matter how widespread it is.
A. All languages, whether they are spoken by a few people or a lot of people, contain grammar.
B. Some languages include a lot of grammar, whereas other languages contain a little.
C. Languages which contain a lot of grammar are more common that languages that contain a
little.
D. The grammar of all languages is the same, no matter where the languages evolved.
28. All of the following are features of the new Nicaraguan sign language EXCEPT:
A. All children used the same gestures to show meaning.
B. The meaning was clearer than the previous sign language.
C. The hand movements were smoother and smaller.
D. New gestures were created for everyday objects and activities.
29. Which idea is presented in the final paragraph?
A. English was probably once a creole.
B. The English past tense system is inaccurate.
C. Linguists have proven that English was created by children.
D. Children say English past tenses differently from adults.
30. Look at the word 'consistent' in paragraph 4. This word could best be replaced by which of the
following?
A. natural
B. predictable
C. imaginable
D. uniform

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 READING 4 – Questions 31 – 40
THE LIFE CYCLE OF A STAR
All stars in the universe operate on the same fundamental principle: the
compressive force of gravity creates the heat and pressure necessary to induce
the fusion of atoms within the star’s core. Since gravity is the controlling force
within a star, and gravity is a simple function of mass, a star’s mass ultimately
(5) determines all aspects of its life and death.
All stars, no matter what their size, spend most of their lives in what is known as
the main sequence. In this stage, the compressive force of gravity is counter-
balanced by the outward pressure and heat created by fusion; as long as a star
has material available for fusion, gravity will be held at bay. Somewhat counter-
(10) intuitively, however, the larger the star, the faster it will burn through its fuel
supply. Larger stars have more gravity and thus greater temperatures and
pressures in their cores. This allows larger stars to create fusion reactions at a
much faster rate. A relatively small star like the sun may remain in the main
sequence for as long as 10 billion years. In contrast, the largest stars will burn
(15) through all of their nuclear fuel in as little as 1 million years.
As a star’s primary supply of fuel, hydrogen, begins to dwindle, it will attempt
to fuse successively heavier elements. Heavier elements, however, require higher
temperatures and pressures in order to achieve fusion. Thus, it is once again the
mass of the star (which determines the pressure and temperatures possible within
(20) the core) that is the determining factor in what elements a star may use to fuel
fusion reactions. The sun, once it has fused all of its hydrogen, will be able to
use helium as a secondary fuel, but not heavier elements such as carbon or
oxygen. Larger stars can use heavier elements as fuel, but eventually any star
will reach a point at which it can no longer sustain fusion. At this point, the star
(25) will have left the main sequence and its death will have begun.
Stars with a mass less than 1.5 times that of the sun are destined to end their lives
as white dwarfs. These stars are only able to fuse relatively light elements, and,
once this fusion has stopped, the force of gravity will take over and the star will
begin to collapse on itself. As the star collapses, however, the matter it contains
(30) becomes more and more densely packed. As this occurs, a new force comes into

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 play: the repulsive force between electrons. Two similar electrical charges will
always repel each other. Therefore, as the electrons in a collapsing star’s ore are
pushed closer and closer together, the repulsive force between the negatively
charged electrons grows greater and greater. Eventually, a state of equilibrium
(35) will be achieved, with the compressive force of gravity being matched by the
repulsive force of the electrons. The star will cease to collapse and will become
what is known as a white dwarf. This is essentially the corpse of a star; fusion no
long occurs in its core, and, over billions and billions of years, the white dwarf
will radiate away its remaining heat.
(40) Stars greater than 1.5 but less than 3 solar masses will suffer a somewhat
different fate. The initial stages of such a star’s death will proceed along the
same line as that of a smaller star; once fusion has stopped, the star will begin to
collapse. In these more massive stars, however, the force of gravity is great
enough to overcome the repulsive force of electrons. The star will continue to
(45) collapse into a state of such extreme density that individual electrons will be
forced to merge with protons in their atomic nuclei, forming neutrons. Since
neutrons hold no electrical charge, they can be forced into a much greater
density. In fact, a star that was once three times as massive as the sun may
collapse into a sphere that is perhaps no greater than 10 miles in diameter. The
(50) collapse, however, is not infinite. At very great densities, neutrons, like
electrons, also exhibit a repulsive force, and eventually this force will become
great enough counteract the force of gravity and halt the star’s collapse. [A]
What will remain is one of the most bizarre objects known to astronomers: a
neutron star. [B] What little we know about neutron stars comes from high-
energy observations. [C] Neutron stars emit very little heat or light, but emit
powerful waves on the upper end of the electromagnetic spectrum, through
which they are visible to astronomers. [D]

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31. According to paragraph 1, what is the most important factor in determining the fate
of a star?
A. the make-up of its initial fuel
B. the total amount of matter it contains
C. the rate at which it can induce fusion
D. its ability to resist gravity in order to induce fusion
32. The term ‘main sequence’ in line 7 can best be defined as
A. the period in which a star is still forming
B. the period in which a star still exerts gravitational force
C. the period in which a star has fuel available for fusion
D. the period in which heat and pressure are still increasing within a star
33. The word ‘their’ in line 11 refers to
A. main sequence stars B. fusion reactions in stars
C. the fuel supplies of stars D. large stars
34. According to paragraph 2, what is the role of heat and pressure within a star’s
core?
A. They determine the gravity of a star.
B. They prevent gravitational collapse.
C. They prevent heavy elements from being fused.
D. They determine the size of a star.
35. In paragraph 2, why does the author mention the sun?
A. to illustrate the relationship between the mass and life span of a star.
B. to contrast the sun with stars that are still in their main sequence.
C. to give an example of a star with a high rate of fusion.
D. to suggest that the sun is unique among stars.
36. The word ‘dwindle’ in line 16 is closets in meaning to
A. escape B. lessen C. deteriorate D. burn
37. According to paragraph 3, how do stars delay their deaths?
A. They increase their internal heat and pressure.
B. They end their main sequence.
C. They convert heavy elements into hydrogen.
D. They utilize secondary fuels.

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38. According to paragraphs 2 and 3, all of the following are true of main sequence
stars EXCEPT:
A. They manage to resist gravity.
B. They sustain fusion reactions.
C. They all have equivalent life spans.
D. They will all eventually die.
39. Based on the information in the passage, what can be inferred about the sun?
A. It is not a main sequence star.
B. It will end its life as a neutron star.
C. It will end its life as a white dwarf.
D. It is uncertain how it will end its life.
40. Where can the following sentence be added to the passage?
‘Because the great densities in these stars test the very laws of physics, much
of our knowledge about them is highly speculative’.
A. [A] B. [B] C. [C] D. [D]

This is the end of the reading test.

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