Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering

CHAPTER 4
FIRST ORDER CIRCUITS
4.1. Introduction
A first-order circuit is characterized by a first-order differential equation. We carry out the
analysis of RC and RL circuits by applying Kirchhoff’s laws, as we did for resistive circuits. The
only difference is that applying Kirchhoff’s laws to purely resistive circuit’s results in algebraic
equations, while applying the laws to RC and RL circuits produces differential equations, which
are more difficult to solve than algebraic equations.

4.2. The Source-Free RC Circuit

A source-free RC circuit occurs when its dc source is suddenly disconnected. The energy already
stored in the capacitor is released to the resistors. Consider a series combination of a resistor and
an initially charged capacitor, as shown below.

Figure: Source Free RC Circuit

Our objective is to determine the circuit response, which we assume to be the voltage, 𝒗(𝒕)
across the capacitor. Since the capacitor is initially charged, we can assume that at time 𝒕 = 𝟎 the
initial voltage is 𝒗(𝟎) = 𝑽𝟎 and
𝟏
With the corresponding value of the energy stored as 𝑾𝟎 = 𝟐 𝑪𝑽𝟎 𝟐

Applying KCL at the top node of the circuit in the above figure:
𝒅𝒗 𝒗
𝒊𝑪 + 𝒊𝑹 = 𝟎 𝒃𝒖𝒕, 𝒊𝑪 = 𝑪 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒊𝑹 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝒅𝒕 𝑹
𝒅𝒗 𝒗
𝑪 + =𝟎
𝒅𝒕 𝑹
𝒅𝒗 𝒗
+ = 𝟎 (𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑂𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
𝒅𝒕 𝑹𝑪

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 Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering

This is a first-order differential equation, since only the first derivative of v is involved. To solve
it, we rearrange the terms as
𝒅𝒗 𝟏
= − 𝒅𝒕 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡,
𝒗 𝑹𝑪
𝒕
𝐥𝐧 𝒗 = − + 𝐥𝐧 𝑨 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 ln 𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.
𝑹𝑪
𝒕
𝐥𝐧 𝒗 − 𝐥𝐧 𝑨 = −
𝑹𝑪
𝒗 𝒕
𝐥𝐧( ) = − 𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑠
𝑨 𝑹𝑪
𝒕
𝒗(𝒕) = 𝑨𝒆−𝑹𝑪
But from the initial conditions, 𝒗(𝟎) = 𝑨 = 𝑽𝟎 Hence,
𝒕
−
𝒗(𝒕) = 𝑽𝟎 𝒆 𝑹𝑪

This shows that the voltage response of the RC circuit is an exponential decay of the initial
voltage. Since the response is due to the initial energy stored and the physical characteristics of
the circuit and not due to some external voltage or current source, it is called the natural response
of the circuit.

The natural response of a circuit refers to the behavior (in terms of voltages and currents)
of the circuit itself, with no external sources of excitation

The time constant of a circuit is the time required for the response to decay to a factor of 1e or
36.8 percent of its initial value. 𝝉 = 𝑹𝑪
𝝉
This implies that at 𝒕 = 𝝉 becomes, 𝑽𝟎 𝒆−𝑹𝑪 = 𝑽𝟎 𝒆−𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟔𝟖𝑽𝟎
𝒕
𝒗(𝒕) = 𝑽𝟎 𝒆−𝝉

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Figure: The voltage response of the RC circuit

The key to working with a Source-free RC Circuit is finding:
1. The initial voltage 𝒗(𝟎) = 𝑽𝟎 across the capacitor.
2. The time constant t.

Example 1: Let 𝒗𝑪 (𝟎) = 𝟏𝟓𝑽 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝒗𝑪 , 𝒗𝒙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒊𝒙 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 > 0

Solution:
The equivalent resistance is:
R = (8Ω + 12Ω) // 5Ω = 4Ω
The time constant is:
𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶 = 4Ω ∗ 0.1F = 0.4 Sec
𝒕 −𝒕
𝒗 = 𝒗𝑪 = 𝑽𝟎 𝒆−𝝉 = 𝟏𝟓𝒆𝟎.𝟒 = 𝟏𝟓𝒆−𝟐.𝟓𝒕 𝑽
𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟐
𝒗𝒙 = 𝒗= (𝟏𝟓𝒆−𝟐.𝟓𝒕 𝑽) = 𝟗𝒆−𝟐.𝟓𝒕 𝑽
𝟏𝟐 + 𝟖 𝟏𝟐 + 𝟖
𝒗𝒙 𝟗𝒆−𝟐.𝟓𝒕
𝒊𝒙 = = = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓𝒆−𝟐.𝟓𝒕 𝑨
𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟐
Example 2: The switch in the circuit shown below has been closed for a long time, and it is
opened at t = 0 Find for 𝒕 ≥ 𝟎 Calculate the initial energy stored in the capacitor.

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Solution:
For t < 0, the switch is closed; the capacitor is an open circuit to dc, as represented in Figure (a).
Using voltage division
𝟗
𝒗𝑪 (𝒕) = (𝟐𝟎𝑽) = 𝟏𝟓 𝑽 , 𝒕<𝟎
𝟗+𝟑
Since the voltage across a capacitor cannot change instantaneously, the voltage across the
capacitor at is the same at 𝑡 = 0− or is the same at 𝑡 = 0
𝒗𝑪 (𝟎) = 𝒗𝟎 = 𝟏𝟓 𝑽
For t > 0, the switch is opened, and we have the RC circuit shown in Figure (b). The 9Ω and 1Ω
resistors in series give
Req = 9Ω + 1Ω = 10Ω
The time constant is:
𝝉 = 𝑹𝑪 = 𝟏𝟎Ω ∗ 𝟐𝟎 ∗ 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟐 𝐒𝐞𝐜
Thus, the voltage across the capacitor for 𝒕 ≥ 𝟎 is:
𝒕 −𝒕
𝒗(𝒕) = 𝒗𝑪 (𝟎) 𝒆−𝝉 = 𝟏𝟓𝒆𝟎.𝟐 = 𝟏𝟓𝒆−𝟓𝒕 𝑽
The initial energy stored in the capacitor is:

Figure: (a) t < 0 (b). t > 0

Exercise: If the switch in Figure below opens at t = 0 find v (t) for 𝒕 ≥ 𝟎 and 𝒘𝑪 (𝟎) ?

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Answer: v (t) = 𝟖𝒆−𝟐𝒕 V, 𝑤𝐶 (0) = 5.33 J.

4.3. The Source-Free RL Circuit

Consider the series connection of a resistor and an inductor, as shown in Figure below. Our goal
is to determine the circuit response, which we will assume to be the current i (t) through the
inductor. We select the inductor current as the response in order to take advantage of the idea
that the inductor current cannot change instantaneously. At t = 0 we assume that the inductor has
an initial current 𝑰𝟎 or i (0) = 𝑰𝟎
𝟏 𝟐
With the corresponding energy stored in the inductor as 𝑾(𝟎) = 𝟐 𝑳𝑰
𝒐

Figure: Source Free RL Circuit

Applying KVL around the loop:
𝒅𝒊
𝒗𝑳 + 𝒗𝑹 = 𝟎 𝒃𝒖𝒕, 𝒗𝑳 = 𝑳 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒗𝑹 = 𝒊𝑹 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒊 𝒅𝒊 𝑹 𝒅𝒊 𝑹
𝑳 + 𝒊𝑹 = 𝟎 ⇔ + 𝒊=𝟎 ⇔ = − 𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝑳 𝒊 𝑳
Rearranging terms and integrating gives:
𝒊 (𝒕) 𝒕
𝒅𝒊 𝑹
∫ = − ∫ 𝒅𝒕
𝑰𝟎 𝒊 𝟎 𝑳

𝒊(𝒕) 𝑹 𝒕 𝑹𝒕
[𝐥𝐧 𝒊] = [− ] ⇔ 𝐥𝐧 𝒊 (𝒕) − 𝐥𝐧 𝑰𝟎 = − +𝟎
𝑰𝟎 𝑳 𝟎 𝑳

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𝒊(𝒕) 𝑹𝒕
𝐥𝐧 = −
𝑰𝟎 𝑳
Taking the powers of e, we have:
𝑹𝒕
𝒊(𝒕) = 𝑰𝟎 𝒆− 𝑳

This shows that the natural response of the RL circuit is an exponential decay of the initial
𝑳
current. The time constant for the RL circuit is 𝝉 =
𝑹
𝒕
It may be written as 𝒊(𝒕) = 𝑰𝟎 𝒆− 𝝉

The key to working with a Source-free RL Circuit is to find:

1. The initial current 𝒊(𝟎) = 𝑰𝟎 through the inductor.
2. The time constant 𝝉 of the circuit.

Example: Assuming 𝑖(0) = 10𝐴 that calculate 𝑖(𝑡) and 𝑖𝑥 (𝑡) in the circuit shown below?

Solution:
There are two ways we can solve this problem. One way is to obtain the equivalent resistance at
the inductor terminals and then use the general formula. The other way is to start from scratch by
using Kirchhoff’s voltage law. Whichever approach is taken, it is always better to first obtain the
inductor current.

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Method-1: The equivalent resistance is the same as the Thevenin resistance at the inductor
terminals. Because of the dependent source, we insert a voltage source 𝑣0 = 1𝑉 with at the
inductor terminals a-b, (We could also insert a 1-A current source at the terminals.) Applying
KVL to the two loops results in

(a) (b)
1
2(𝑖1 − 𝑖2 ) + 1 = 0 ⇒ 𝑖1 − 𝑖2 = − … … … … . (1)
2
5
6(𝑖2 − 𝑖1 ) = 0 ⇒ 𝑖2 = 𝑖 … … … … … … … … … (2)
6 1
Substituting Equation (2) in to (1) gives:
𝒊𝟏 = −𝟑𝑨 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒊𝟎 = −𝒊𝟏 = 𝟑𝑨
𝐯𝟎 𝟏 𝐋 𝟑
Hence, 𝐑 𝐞𝐪 = 𝐑 𝐓𝐡 = = 𝟑 Ω 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝛕 = 𝐑 =𝟐 𝐬
𝐢𝟎 𝐞𝐪

Thus, the current through the inductor is:

𝒕 𝟐
𝒊(𝒕) = 𝒊(𝟎)𝒆− 𝝉 = 𝟏𝟎 𝒆− (𝟑)𝒕 𝑨 , 𝒕 > 𝟎
Method-2: We may directly apply KVL to the circuit as in figure (b)
𝟏 𝒅𝒊𝟏 𝒅𝒊𝟏
For Loop-1: + 𝟐(𝒊𝟏 − 𝒊𝟐 ) = 𝟎 ⇒ + 𝟒𝒊𝟏 − 𝟒𝒊𝟐 = 𝟎 … … … … … . (𝟏)
𝟐 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝟓
For Loop-1: 𝟔𝒊𝟐 − 𝟐𝒊𝟏 − 𝟑𝒊𝟏 = 𝟎 ⇒ 𝒊𝟐 = 𝒊𝟏
𝟔

Substituting Equation (2) in to (1) gives:

𝒅𝒊𝟏 𝟐 𝒅𝒊𝟏 𝟐
+ 𝒊 =𝟎 ⇒ = − 𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒕 𝟑 𝟏 𝒊𝟏 𝟑
Since, 𝑖1 = 𝑖 , we may replace i1 with i and integrate ∶
𝒊(𝒕) 𝒕
𝒅𝒊 𝟐 𝒊(𝒕) 𝟐 𝒕 𝐥𝐧 𝒊(𝒕) 𝟐
∫ = ∫ − 𝒅𝒕 ⇒ 𝐥𝐧 𝒊 { } = − 𝒕{ } ⇒ = − 𝒕
𝒊 𝟑 𝒊(𝟎) 𝟑 𝟎 𝐥𝐧 𝒊(𝟎) 𝟑
𝒊(𝟎) 𝟎

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Taking the powers of e, we finally obtain:

𝒕 𝟐
𝒊(𝒕) = 𝒊(𝟎)𝒆− 𝝉 = 𝟏𝟎 𝒆− (𝟑)𝒕 𝑨 , 𝒕 > 𝟎
The voltage across the inductor is:
𝒅𝒊 𝒅 𝟐 𝟏𝟎 − (𝟐)𝒕
𝒗=𝑳 = (𝟎. 𝟓) (𝟏𝟎 𝒆− (𝟑)𝒕 ) = − 𝒆 𝟑 𝑽
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝟑
Since the inductor and the 2Ω resistor are in parallel:
𝒗 𝟐
𝒊𝒙 (𝒕) = = −𝟏. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟕𝒆− (𝟑)𝒕 𝑨 , 𝒕 > 𝟎
𝟐
Exercise: Find i and in the circuit of Fig shown below. Let i(0) = 5A

Example-2: The switch in the circuit shown below has been closed for a long time. At = 0, the
switch is opened. Calculate i(t) for t >0.

Solution: When t < 0, the switch is closed, and the inductor acts as a short circuit to dc. The 16Ω
is resistor is short-circuited, the resulting circuit is shown below. To get i1 we combine 4Ω and
12Ω resistors in parallel.

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𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟐 𝟒𝟎
= 𝟑Ω 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒊𝟏 = = 𝟖𝑨
𝟒 + 𝟏𝟐 𝟐+𝟑
We obtain i(t) from 𝑖1 using current division:
𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟐 ∗ 𝟖𝑨
𝒊(𝒕) = 𝒊𝟏 = = 𝟔𝑨, 𝒕 < 𝟎
𝟏𝟐 + 𝟒 𝟏𝟐 + 𝟒
Since the current through an inductor cannot change instantaneously,
𝒊(𝟎) = 𝒊(𝟎− ) = 𝟔𝑨
When t > 0, the switch is open and the voltage source is disconnected. We now have the source-
free RL circuit shown below:

𝑹𝒆𝒒 = (𝟏𝟐Ω + 𝟒Ω)||𝟏𝟔Ω = 𝟖Ω

The time constant is:
𝑳 𝟐𝑯 𝟏
𝝉= = = 𝒔
𝑹𝒆𝒒 𝟖Ω 𝟒
𝒕
𝒊(𝒕) = 𝒊(𝟎)𝒆− 𝝉 = 𝟔 𝒆− (𝟒)𝒕 𝑨 , 𝒕 > 𝟎
Example-3: In the circuit shown below, find 𝒊𝟎 , 𝒗𝟎 and i for all time, assuming that the switch
was open for a long time.

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Solution: It is better to first find the inductor current i and then obtain other quantities from it.
For t < 0, the switch is open. Since the inductor acts like a short circuit to dc, the 6Ω resistor is
short-circuited, so that we have the circuit shown. Hence, 𝑖0 = 0𝐴 and
𝟏𝟎
𝒊(𝒕) = = 𝟐𝑨, 𝒕 < 𝟎 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒗𝟎 (𝒕) = 𝟑𝒊(𝒕) = 𝟔𝑽, 𝒕 < 𝟎 𝑻𝒉𝒖𝒔, 𝒊(𝟎) = 𝟐𝑨
𝟐+𝟑

For t > 0, the switch is closed, so that the voltage source is short-circuited. We now have a
source-free RL circuit as shown below: At the inductor terminals,

𝑹𝑻𝒉 = 𝟑Ω | | 𝟔Ω = 𝟐Ω
So that the time constant is,
𝑳 𝟐𝑯
𝝉= = = 𝟏𝒔
𝑹𝒆𝒒 𝟐Ω
Hence,

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𝒕
𝒊(𝒕) = 𝒊(𝟎)𝒆− 𝝉 = 𝟐 𝒆− 𝒕 𝑨 , 𝒕 > 𝟎
Since the inductor is in parallel with the and resistors,
𝒅𝒊
𝒗𝟎 (𝒕) = −𝒗𝑳 = −𝑳 = −𝟐 (−𝟐 𝒆− 𝒕 ) = 𝟒 𝒆− 𝒕 𝑽 , 𝒕>𝟎
𝒅𝒕
𝒗𝑳 𝟐
𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒊𝟎 (𝒕) = = − 𝒆− 𝒕 𝑨
𝟔 𝟑
Thus for all time,
𝟎𝑨, 𝒕<𝟎
𝟔𝑽, 𝒕<𝟎
𝒊𝟎 (𝒕) = { 𝟐 − 𝒕 𝒗𝟎 (𝒕) = {
− 𝒆 𝑨, 𝒕>𝟎 𝟒𝒆− 𝒕 𝑨, 𝒕>𝟎
𝟑
𝟐𝑨, 𝒕<𝟎
𝒊(𝒕) = {
𝟐𝒆− 𝒕 𝑨, 𝒕≥𝟎

Figure: Plot of i (t) and 𝑖0 (𝑡)

4.4. Singularity Function

A basic understanding of singularity functions will help us make sense of the response of first-
order circuits to a sudden application of an independent dc voltage or current source. Singularity
functions (also called switching functions) are very useful in circuit analysis. They serve as
good approximations to the switching signals that arise in circuits with switching operations.
They are helpful in the neat, compact description of some circuit phenomena, especially the step
response of RC or RL circuits to be discussed in the next sections.

Singularity functions are functions that either are discontinuous or have discontinuous
derivatives. The three most widely used singularity functions in circuit analysis are the unit step,
the unit impulse, and the unit ramp functions.

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(1). Unit Step Function: The unit step function u (t) is 0 for negative values of t and 1 for
positive values of t.
𝟎, 𝒕 < 𝟎 𝟎, 𝒕 < 𝒕𝟎 𝟎, 𝒕 < −𝒕𝟎
𝒖(𝒕) = { 𝒖(𝒕 − 𝒕𝟎 ) = { 𝒖(𝒕 + 𝒕𝟎 ) = {
𝟏, 𝒕 > 𝟎 𝟏, 𝒕 > 𝒕𝟎 𝟏, 𝒕 > −𝒕𝟎

(a) (b) (c)

Figure: (a) Unit step function
(b) Unit step function delayed by 𝑡0
(c) Unit step function advanced by 𝑡0
We use the step function to represent an abrupt change in voltage or current, like the changes that
occur in the circuits of control systems and digital computers. For example, the voltage
𝟎, 𝒕 < 𝒕𝟎
𝒗(𝒕) = {
𝑽𝟎 , 𝒕 > 𝒕𝟎
May be expressed in terms of the unit step function as 𝒗(𝒕) = 𝑽𝟎 𝒖(𝒕 − 𝒕𝟎 )

(2). Unit Impulse Function: The unit impulse function 𝜹(𝒕) is zero everywhere except at t = 0,
where it is undefined. Also known as the delta function and Is the derivative of the unit step
function u (t) which we write as,

𝒅 𝟎, 𝒕<𝟎
𝜹(𝒕) = 𝒖(𝒕) = {𝑼𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅, 𝒕 = 𝟎
𝒅𝒕
𝟏, 𝒕>𝟎

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Figure: Unit impulse function

Impulsive currents and voltages occur in electric circuits as a result of switching operations or
impulsive sources.
(3). Unit Ramp Function: The unit ramp function r (t) is zero for negative values of t and has a
unit slope for positive values of t. Integrating the unit step function results in the unit ramp
function r (t), we write
𝒕
𝟎, 𝒕≤𝟎
𝒓(𝒕) = ∫ 𝒖(𝒕)𝒅𝒕 = 𝒕𝒖(𝒕) 𝒐𝒓 𝒓(𝒕) = {
−∞
𝟏, 𝒕≥𝟎

Figure: Unit ramp function

Generally, the relationship between the three singularity functions by differentiation or by
integration:
𝒕 𝒕
𝒅𝒖(𝒕) 𝒅𝒓(𝒕)
𝜹(𝒕) = , 𝒖(𝒕) = , 𝒖(𝒕) = ∫ 𝜹(𝒕)𝒅𝒕 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒓(𝒕) = ∫ 𝒖(𝒕)𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 −∞ −∞

Example: Express the voltage pulse in Figure shown below, in terms of the unit step. Calculate
its derivative and sketch it.

Solution:
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4.5. Step Response of an RC Circuit

When the dc source of an RC circuit is suddenly applied, the voltage or current source can be
modeled as a step function, and the response is known as a step response. The step response of
a circuit is its behavior when the excitation is the step function, which may be a voltage or a
current source.

Figure: An RC circuit with voltage step input

Vs is a constant dc voltage source. Again, we select the capacitor voltage as the circuit response
to be determined. We assume an initial voltage Vo on the capacitor, although this is not
necessary for the step response. Since the voltage of a capacitor cannot change instantaneously,
𝒗(𝟎− ) = 𝒗(𝟎+ ) = 𝑽𝒐
Where 𝒗(𝟎− ) is the voltage across the capacitor just before switching and 𝒗(𝟎+ ) is its voltage
immediately after switching. Applying KCL, we have
𝒅𝒗 𝒗 − 𝑽𝑺 𝒖(𝒕) 𝒅𝒗 𝒗 𝑽𝑺 𝒖(𝒕)
𝑪 + =𝟎 𝒐𝒓 + = … … … … (𝟏)
𝒅𝒕 𝑹 𝒅𝒕 𝑹𝑪 𝑹𝑪
Where, v is the voltage across the capacitor. For t > 0 the Equation (1) becomes:
𝒅𝒗 𝒗 𝑽𝑺
+ = Rearranging terms gives,
𝒅𝒕 𝑹𝑪 𝑹𝑪
𝒅𝒗 𝒗 − 𝑽𝑺 𝒅𝒗 𝒅𝒕
= − ⇒ = −
𝒅𝒕 𝑹𝑪 𝒗 − 𝑽𝑺 𝑹𝑪
Integrating both sides and introducing the initial conditions,
𝑽(𝒕) 𝒕
𝒅𝒗 𝒅𝒕 𝒗(𝒕) 𝒕 𝒕
∫ = ∫ − ⇒ 𝐥𝐧(𝒗 − 𝑽𝑺 ) | |= − | |
𝑽𝒐 𝒗 − 𝑽𝑺 𝟎 𝑹𝑪 𝑽𝒐 𝑹𝑪 𝟎
𝒕 𝒗(𝒕) − 𝑽𝑺 𝒕
𝐥𝐧(𝒗(𝒕) − 𝑽𝑺 ) − 𝐥𝐧(𝑽𝒐 − 𝑽𝑺 ) = − + 𝟎 ⇒ 𝐥𝐧 ( )= −
𝑹𝑪 (𝑽𝒐 − 𝑽𝑺 𝑹𝑪
Taking the exponential of both sides

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 Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering
𝒗(𝒕) − 𝑽𝑺 𝒕
= 𝒆−𝝉 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝝉 = 𝑹𝑪
𝑽𝒐 − 𝑽𝑺
𝒕 𝒕
𝒗(𝒕) − 𝑽𝑺 = (𝑽𝒐 − 𝑽𝑺 )𝒆−𝝉 ⇒ 𝒗(𝒕) = 𝑽𝑺 + (𝑽𝒐 − 𝑽𝑺 )𝒆−𝝉 , 𝒕 > 𝟎

𝑽𝒐 , 𝒕<𝟎
𝒗(𝒕) = { −
𝒕 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2)
𝑽𝑺 + (𝑽𝒐 − 𝑽𝑺 )𝒆 , 𝒕 > 𝟎
𝝉

This is known as the complete response (or total response) of the RC circuit to a sudden
application of a dc voltage source, assuming the capacitor is initially charged. If we assume
that the capacitor is uncharged initially, we set 𝑽𝒐 = 𝟎 and Equation (2) becomes,

𝟎 , 𝒕<𝟎 𝒕
𝒗(𝒕) = { −
𝒕 ⇒ 𝑽𝑺 (𝟏 − 𝒆−𝝉 ) 𝒖(𝒕)
𝑽𝑺 (𝟏 − 𝒆 ) 𝝉 , 𝒕>𝟎

This is the complete step response of the RC circuit when the capacitor is initially
uncharged. The current through the capacitor
𝒅𝒗 𝒅 𝒕 𝑽𝑺 − 𝒕
𝒊(𝒕) = 𝑪 = 𝑪 [ 𝑽𝑺 (𝟏 − 𝒆−𝝉 ) 𝒖(𝒕)] = 𝒆 𝝉 𝒖(𝒕)
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝑹

(a) (b) (c)

Figure: (a) Response of an RC circuit with initially charged capacitor
(b) Step response of an RC circuit with initially uncharged capacitor voltage response,
(c) Current response.
It is evident that V (t) has two components. Classically there are two ways of decomposing this
into two components. The first is to break it into a “natural response and a forced response’’
and the second is to break it into a “transient response and a steady-state response.’’
Case-1: 𝐂𝐨𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞𝐭𝐞 𝐑𝐞𝐬𝐩𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐞 = 𝐍𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐚𝐥 𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐩𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐞
(𝑺𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚)
𝐅𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞𝐝 𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐩𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐞
+ (𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑺𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒄𝒆)
or

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 Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering

𝒗 = 𝒗𝒏 + 𝒗𝒇 Where, 𝒗𝒏 = 𝑽𝒐 𝒆−𝒕/𝝉 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒗𝒇 = 𝑽𝑺 (𝟏 − 𝒆−𝒕/𝝉 )

𝒗𝒇 is known as the forced response because it is produced by the circuit when an external
“force’’ (a voltage source in this case) is applied. It represents what the circuit is forced to do by
the input excitation. The natural response eventually dies out along with the transient component
of the forced response, leaving only the steady state component of the forced response.
Case-2: 𝐂𝐨𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞𝐭𝐞 𝐑𝐞𝐬𝐩𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐞 = 𝐓𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐩𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐞
(𝑻𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕)
+ 𝐒𝐭𝐞𝐚𝐝𝐲 𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐞 𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐩𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐞
(𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕)
or
𝒕
𝒗 = 𝒗𝒕 + 𝒗𝒔𝒔 Where, 𝒗𝒕 = (𝑽𝒐 − 𝑽𝑺 )𝒆−𝝉 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒗𝒔𝒔 = 𝑽𝑺
The transient response is the circuit’s temporary response that will die out with time. The
steady-state response is the behavior of the circuit a long time after an external excitation is
applied.

Where, 𝒗(𝟎) is the initial voltage at and 𝒗(∞) is the final or steady state value. Thus, to find the
step response of an RC circuit requires three things:
The initial capacitor voltage, 𝒗(𝟎)
The final capacitor voltage, 𝒗(∞)
The time constant, 𝝉
We obtain 𝒗(𝟎) from the given circuit for t < 0 and 𝒗(∞) and 𝝉 from the circuit for Once these
items are determined, we obtain the response.
NB: If the switch changes position at time 𝒕 = 𝒕𝒐 instead of at t = 0, there is a time delay in the
response so that the equation becomes:

Example 1: The switch in fig shown below has been in position A for a long time. At t = 0, the
switch moves to B. Determine v(t) for t > 0 and calculate its value at t = 1s and 4 s.

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Solution:
For t < 0, the switch is at position A. The capacitor acts like an open circuit to dc, but v is the
same as the voltage across the 5 kΩ resistor. Hence, the voltage across the capacitor just before t
= 0, is obtained by voltage division as
𝟓
𝑽(𝟎− ) = (𝟐𝟒) = 𝟏𝟓 𝑽
𝟓+𝟑
Using the fact that the capacitor voltage cannot change instantaneously,
𝑽(𝟎 ) = 𝑽(𝟎− ) = 𝑽(𝟎+ ) = 𝟏𝟓 𝑽
For t > 0, the switch is in position B. The Thevenin resistance connected to the capacitor is
𝑹𝑻𝒉 = 𝟒𝒌Ω and the time constant is
𝝉 = 𝑹𝑪 = (𝟒𝒌Ω)(𝟎. 𝟓𝒎𝑭) = 𝟐 𝒔
Since the capacitor acts like an open circuit to dc at steady state, 𝑉(∞) = 𝟑𝟎 𝑽 . Thus,
𝒕
𝒗(𝒕) = 𝒗(∞) + [𝒗(𝟎) − 𝒗(∞)]𝒆−𝒕/𝝉 = 𝟑𝟎 + [𝟏𝟓 − 𝟑𝟎]𝒆−𝟐 = (𝟑𝟎 − 𝟏𝟓 𝒆−𝟎.𝟓 𝒕 ) 𝑽
𝐀𝐭 𝐭 = 𝟏 𝐬, 𝒗(𝟏) = (𝟑𝟎 − 𝟏𝟓 𝒆−𝟎.𝟓∗𝟏 ) 𝑽 = 𝟐𝟎. 𝟗 𝑽
𝐀𝐭 𝐭 = 𝟒 𝐬, 𝒗(𝟐) = (𝟑𝟎 − 𝟏𝟓 𝒆−𝟎.𝟓∗𝟒 ) 𝑽 = 𝟐𝟕. 𝟗𝟕 𝑽
Example 2: In Fig shown below, the switch has been closed for a long time and is opened at t =
0. Find i and v for all time.

Solution:

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 Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering

The resistor current i can be discontinuous at t = 0, while the capacitor voltage v cannot. Hence,
it is always better to find v and then obtain i from v.
𝟎, 𝒕<𝟎
𝟑𝟎𝒖(𝒕) = {
𝟑𝟎 , 𝒕>𝟎
For t < 0, the switch is closed and 𝟑𝟎𝒖(𝒕) = 𝟎 so that the 𝟑𝟎𝒖(𝒕) voltage source is replaced by
a short circuit. Since the switch has been closed for a long time, the capacitor voltage has
reached steady state and the capacitor acts like an open circuit.
𝒗 𝟏𝟎
𝒗 = 𝟏𝟎 𝑽 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒊 = − = − = −𝟏 𝑨
𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎
Since the capacitor voltage cannot change instantaneously,
𝑽(𝟎 ) = 𝑽(𝟎− ) = 𝟏𝟎 𝑽
For t > 0, the switch is opened and the 10-V voltage source is disconnected from the circuit. The
𝟑𝟎𝒖(𝒕) voltage source is now operative. After a long time, the circuit reaches steady state and
the capacitor acts like an open circuit again.
𝟐𝟎
𝒗(∞) = (𝟑𝟎) = 𝟐𝟎 𝑽
𝟏𝟎 + 𝟐𝟎
The Thevenin resistance at the capacitor terminals is
𝟏𝟎 ∗ 𝟐𝟎 𝟐𝟎 𝟐𝟎 𝟏 𝟓
𝑹𝑻𝒉 = 𝟏𝟎 | | 𝟐𝟎 = = Ω 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝝉 = 𝑹𝑪 = ( ) ∗ ( ) = 𝒔
𝟏𝟎 + 𝟐𝟎 𝟑 𝟑 𝟒 𝟑
𝟑𝒕
𝒗(𝒕) = 𝒗(∞) + [𝒗(𝟎) − 𝒗(∞)]𝒆−𝒕/𝝉 = 𝟐𝟎 + [𝟏𝟎 − 𝟐𝟎]𝒆− 𝟓 = (𝟐𝟎 − 𝟏𝟎 𝒆−𝟎.𝟔 𝒕 ) 𝑽
To obtain I, i is the sum of the currents through the resistor and the capacitor; that is,
𝒗 𝒅𝒗 (𝟐𝟎 − 𝟏𝟎 𝒆−𝟎.𝟔 𝒕 ) 𝟏 𝒅
𝒊 = +𝑪 = +( ) (𝟐𝟎 − 𝟏𝟎 𝒆−𝟎.𝟔 𝒕 ) = (𝟏 + 𝒆−𝟎.𝟔 𝒕 ) 𝑨
𝟐𝟎 𝒅𝒕 𝟐𝟎 𝟒 𝒅𝒕
𝟏𝟎𝑽 , 𝒕<𝟎 −𝟏 𝑨 , 𝒕<𝟎
𝒗(𝒕) = { −𝟎.𝟔 𝒕 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒊(𝒕) = { −𝟎.𝟔 𝒕
(𝟐𝟎 − 𝟏𝟎 𝒆 )𝑽, 𝒕≥𝟎 (𝟏 + 𝒆 )𝑨, 𝒕>𝟎

4.6. Step Response of an RL Circuit

Consider the RL circuit shown below:

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 Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering

Figure: An RL circuit with a step input voltage

Our goal is to find the inductor current i as the circuit response. Rather than apply Kirchhoff’s
laws, we will use the simple technique. Let the response be the sum of the transient response and
the steady-state response, 𝒊 = 𝒊𝒕 + 𝒊𝑺𝑺
We know that the transient response is always a decaying exponential, that is,
𝒕 𝑳
𝒊𝒕 = 𝑨𝒆−𝝉 , 𝝉 = where, 𝑨 is a constant to be determined
𝑹

The steady-state response is the value of the current a long time after the switch is closed. We
know that the transient response essentially dies out after five time constants. At that time, the
inductor becomes a short circuit, and the voltage across it is zero. The entire source voltage VS
appears across R. Thus, the steady-state response is
𝑽𝑺
𝒊𝑺𝑺 =
𝑹
𝒕 𝑽𝑺
𝒊 = 𝒊𝒕 + 𝒊𝑺𝑺 = 𝑨𝒆−𝝉 + . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (𝟏)
𝑹
We now determine the constant A from the initial value of i. Let IO be the initial current through
the inductor, which may come from a source other than VS. Since the current through the
inductor cannot change instantaneously,
𝒊(𝟎− ) = 𝒊(𝟎+ ) = 𝑰𝒐
Thus, at t = 0, Equation (1) becomes:
𝑽𝑺 𝑽𝑺
𝑰𝑶 = 𝑨 + ⇒ 𝑨 = 𝑰𝑶 − . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (𝟐)
𝑹 𝑹
Substituting Equation (2) in to (1), we get:
𝑽𝑺 𝑽𝑺 − 𝒕
𝒊(𝒕) = + (𝑰𝑶 − ) 𝒆 𝝉 , This is the complete response of the RL circuit.
𝑹 𝑹

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The response may be written as:

𝒊(𝒕) = 𝒊(∞) + [𝒊(𝟎) − 𝒊(∞)]𝒆−𝒕/𝝉
Where 𝒊(𝟎) and 𝒊(∞) are the initial and final values of i, respectively. Thus, to find the step
response of an RL circuit requires three things:
The initial inductor current 𝒊(𝟎) at t = 0
The final inductor current 𝒊(∞)
The time constant 𝝉
We obtain 𝒊(𝟎) from the given circuit for t < 0 while 𝒊(∞) and 𝝉 for t > 0.

Figure: Total response of the RL circuit with initial inductor current Io

NB: If the switching takes place at time 𝒕 = 𝒕𝒐 instead of at t = 0, there is a time delay in the
(𝒕−𝒕𝒐 )
response so that the equation becomes: 𝒊(𝒕) = 𝒊(∞) + [𝒊(𝒕𝒐 ) − 𝒊(∞)]𝒆− 𝝉

If 𝑰𝑶 = 𝟎, then
𝟎, 𝒕<𝟎 𝑽𝑺 𝒕
𝒊(𝒕) = { 𝑽𝑺 𝒕 𝒐𝒓 𝒊(𝒕) = (𝟏 − 𝒆−𝝉 ) 𝒖(𝒕)
(𝟏 − 𝒆−𝝉 ) , 𝒕>𝟎 𝑹
𝑹
This is the step response of the RL circuit with no initial inductor current. The voltage across the
inductor is obtained:
𝒅𝒊 𝑽𝑺 𝑳 − 𝒕 𝑳 𝒕
𝒗(𝒕) = 𝑳 = 𝒆 𝝉, 𝝉= , 𝒕 > 𝟎 ⇒ 𝒗(𝒕) = (𝑽𝑺 𝒆−𝝉 ) 𝒖(𝒕)
𝒅𝒕 𝝉𝑹 𝑹

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Figure: Step responses of an RL circuit with no initial inductor current: (a) current response, (b)
voltage response.
Example 1: Find i(t) in the circuit shown below for t > 0. Assume that the switch has been
closed for a long time.

Solution:
When t < 0, the 3Ω resistor is short-circuited, and the inductor acts like a short circuit. The
current through the inductor at 𝒕 = 𝟎− (i.e., just before t = 0) is
𝟏𝟎𝑽
𝒊(𝟎− ) = = 𝟓𝑨
𝟐Ω
Since the inductor current cannot change instantaneously,
𝒊(𝟎− ) = 𝒊(𝟎+ ) = 𝒊(𝟎 ) = 𝟓𝑨
When t > 0, the switch is open. The 2Ω and 3Ω resistors are in series, so that
𝟏𝟎𝑽
𝒊(∞) = = 𝟐𝑨
𝟐Ω + 𝟑Ω
The Thevenin resistance across the inductor terminals and time constant is:
𝟏
𝑳 (𝟑 ) 𝟏
𝑹𝑻𝒉 = 𝟐Ω + 𝟑Ω = 𝟓Ω 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝝉 = = = 𝒔
𝑹 𝟓 𝟏𝟓

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𝒕
− 𝟏
( )
𝒊(𝒕) = 𝒊(∞) + [𝒊(𝟎) − 𝒊(∞)]𝒆−𝒕/𝝉 = 𝟐 + (𝟓 − 𝟐)𝒆 𝟏𝟓
= 𝟐 + 𝟑𝒆−𝟏𝟓𝒕 𝑨 , 𝒕>𝟎
𝒅𝒊
Check: By applying KVL at the given circuit for t > o i.e. 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟓𝒊 + 𝑳 𝒅𝒕.

Exercise: The switch has been closed for a long time. It opens at t = 0. Find i(t) for t > 0.

Example 2: At t = 0, switch 1 in the circuit shown below is closed, and switch 2 is closed 4s
later. Find i(t) for t > 0. Calculate i for t = 2s and t = 5s.

Solution:
We need to consider the three time intervals 𝒕 ≤ 𝟎, 𝟎 ≤ 𝒕 ≤ 𝟒 and 𝒕 ≥ 𝟒 separately. For t < 0
switches S1 and S2 are open so that i = 0. Since the inductor current cannot change instantly,
𝒊(𝟎− ) = 𝒊(𝟎+ ) = 𝒊(𝟎 ) = 𝟎 𝑨
For 𝟎 ≤ 𝒕 ≤ 𝟒 , S1 is closed so that the 4Ω and 6Ω resistors are in series. (Remember, at this
time, S2 is still open.) Hence, assuming for now that is S1 closed forever,
𝟒𝟎 𝑳 𝟓
𝒊(∞) = = 𝟒𝑨 𝑹𝑻𝒉 = 𝟒Ω + 𝟔Ω = 𝟏𝟎Ω 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝝉= = = 𝟎. 𝟓 𝒔
𝟒+𝟔 𝑹𝑻𝒉 𝟏𝟎
𝒕
−
−𝒕/𝝉 (𝟎.𝟓 )
𝒊(𝒕) = 𝒊(∞) + [𝒊(𝟎) − 𝒊(∞)]𝒆 = 𝟒 + (𝟎 − 𝟒)𝒆 = 𝟒(𝟏 − 𝒆−𝟐𝒕 ) 𝑨 , 𝟎≤𝒕 ≤𝟒

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 Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering

For 𝒕 ≥ 𝟒, is closed; the 10-V voltage source is connected, and the circuit changes. This sudden
change does not affect the inductor current because the current cannot change abruptly. Thus, the
initial current is:
𝒊(𝟒 ) = 𝒊(𝟒− ) = 𝟒(𝟏 − 𝒆−𝟖 ) ≅ 𝟒𝑨
To find 𝒊(∞), let be V the voltage at node P, by applying KCL
𝟒𝟎 − 𝑽 𝟏𝟎 − 𝑽 𝑽 𝟏𝟖𝟎
+ = ⇒ 𝑽= 𝑽
𝟒 𝟐 𝟔 𝟏𝟏
𝟏𝟖𝟎
𝑽 ( 𝟏𝟏 )
𝒊(∞) = = = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟐𝟕 𝑨
𝟔 𝟔
The Thevenin resistance at the inductor terminals is:
𝟒∗𝟐 𝟐𝟐 𝑳 𝟓 𝟏𝟓
𝑹𝑻𝒉 = 𝟒||𝟐 + 𝟔 = +𝟔= Ω 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝝉 = = = 𝒔
𝟐+𝟒 𝟑 𝑹𝑻𝒉 𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐
𝟑
Hence,
𝒊(𝒕) = 𝒊(∞) + [𝒊(𝟒) − 𝒊(∞)]𝒆−(𝒕−𝟒)/𝝉 = ,
(𝒕−𝟒)
−
(𝟐𝟐/𝟓 ) −𝟏.𝟒𝟔𝟔𝟕(𝒕−𝟒)
𝒊(𝒕) = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟐𝟕 + (𝟒 − 𝟐. 𝟕𝟐𝟕)𝒆 = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟐𝟕 + 𝟏. 𝟐𝟕𝟑𝒆 𝑨, 𝒕 ≥𝟒
Putting all this together,
𝟎𝑨 , 𝒕≤𝟎
𝒊(𝒕) = {𝟒(𝟏 − 𝒆−𝟐 𝒕 ) 𝑨 , 𝟎≤𝒕≤𝟒
−𝟏.𝟒𝟔𝟔𝟕(𝒕−𝟒)
𝟐. 𝟕𝟐𝟕 + 𝟏. 𝟐𝟕𝟑𝒆 𝑨, 𝒕 ≥𝟒
At t = 2, 𝒊(𝒕) = 𝟒(𝟏 − 𝒆−𝟐∗𝟐 ) = 𝟑. 𝟗𝟑 𝑨
−𝟏.𝟒𝟔𝟔𝟕(𝟓−𝟒)
At t = 5, 𝒊(𝒕) = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟐𝟕 + 𝟏. 𝟐𝟕𝟑𝒆 = 𝟑. 𝟎𝟐 𝑨

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