ASTU/ 2016/17

Chapter 3: Photogrammetry

3.1 Introduction
From the Greek photo(light writing) Gram(graphic) Metry(measure) comes the root of the
science of photogrammetry. In general sense, Photogrammetry is the process of creating
maps from photographs.

Association of photographic Engineering and Remote Sensing(ASPRS) defines

photogrammetry as “ the art,science and technology of obtaining reliable information about
physical objects and the environment through process of recording,measuring and
interpreting photographic images and patterns of recorded radiant electromagnetic energy
and other phenomena”.

Photogrammetrist is a person who is skilled in the application of photo mapping

procedures,produce maps directly from photographs by identifying,symbolizing,and
compiling,cultural and natural features that are visible on the imagery.

Photogrammetry is broadly classified into two distinct areas:

a. Metric Photogrammetry
b. Interpretative Photogrammetry

a.Metric Photogrammetry

Metric Photogrammetry consists of making precise measurements from photos and other
information sources to determine,in general,the relative location of points. These may
include finding distances,angles,areas,volumes,elevations sizes,and shapes of objects.

The most common applications of metric photogrammetry are the preparation of

planimetric and topographic maps from photographs and the production of digital
orthopotos from scanned photography.

b.Interpretative Photogrammetry

Interpretative photogrammetry deals principally in recognizing and identifying objects and

judging their significance through careful and systematic analysis. It includes branches of
photographic interpretation and remote sensing.

3.2 types of photogrammetry(methods)

There are different types of photogrammetry,each serving the needs of a distinct category
of users.

I. Aerial photogrammetry

Surveying Engineering(GEN 2062)/photogrammetry………………/civil Eng. 2nd year Page 1

 ASTU/ 2016/17

It is the most common and widely used category of photogrammetry.it uses vertical
photographs taken from aircraft or other airborne platforms at a specific height.the
resultant aerial photographs are used for various purposes, for example:

a. Topographic planimetric mapping-to map natural and cultural features on

photographs.
b. Field control survey-to establish horizontal and vertical controls in the field
especially in difficult terrain.
c. Aerotriangulation
d. Orthophoto mapping-reconstructed air photos to show natural and cultural features
in their true planimetric positions.
e. Airphoto mosaic preparation-to provide an overview of the landscape where
continuity of the features is maintained.
II. Terrestrial photogrammetry
Utilizes photographic images from fixed ground stations. Distance from camera to a
scene may range from a few hundred to thousand of meters.it can be used for
various applications such as-
 Architectural restoration
 Glacier monitoring,rock slide movements etc

3.3 types of photographs

The two fundamental classification of photography used in the science of photogrammetry

are :

1. Terrestrial
2. Aerial

1.Terrestrial photograph

It is a photograph taken with ground based cameras,the position and orientation of which
are measured directly at the time of exposure.there are a variety of cameras are used for
taking terrestrial photographs, these include:

Hobby camera: it is simple hand held camera that we use in daily life.

Phototheodolite: it is a camera,which is a combination of camera and theodolite mounted

on tripod. The theodolite facilitates aligning the camera in a desired position and elevation.

2.Aerial photographs

In remote sensing we are concerned with the photographs taken by camera operating
above the surface of the earth. These pictorial products are called aerial photographs(the

Surveying Engineering(GEN 2062)/photogrammetry………………/civil Eng. 2nd year Page 2

 ASTU/ 2016/17

process of taking photographs from air).depending upon the orientation of camera axis we
can classify aerial photographs into:

I. Vertical
II. Oblique

Vertical photos are taken with the camera axis directed as nearly vertically as possible.if
the camera axis were perfectly vertical when an exposure was made,the photographic
plane would be parrarel to the datum plane and the resulting photograph would term as
truly vertical.

In practice,the camera axis is rarely held perfectly vertical due to unavoidable aircraft tilts
because of wind velocity. When the camera axis is unintentionally tilted slightly from
vertical, the resulting photograph is called tilted photograph. These unintentionally tilt are
usually less than 1° and seldom 3° for many practical applications.Simplified procedures
suitable for analyzing truly vertical photos may be used for tilted photos without serious
consequence.

Oblique aerial photographs: are exposed with the camera axis intentionally tilted away
from vertical.it occurs when the film is exposed with the camera intentionally directed at
an angle other than vertical to the ground.oblique angles are of two categories,low oblique
and high oblique.

low oblique: they are aerial photograph,which are tilted to such an angle so as not to allow
the horizon to be seen on the imagery.

High oblique: high oblique aerial photograph are tilted at such an angle so as to allow the
horizon to be seen on the imagery.

Surveying Engineering(GEN 2062)/photogrammetry………………/civil Eng. 2nd year Page 3

 ASTU/ 2016/17

3.4 characteristics of aerial photographs

3.4.1 Flight planning

When an area is covered with vertical aerial photograph,the photographs are usually taken
along a series of parallel passes called flight strips. The photographs are normally exposed
in such a way that the area covered by each successive photograph along a flight strip
duplicate or overlaps part of the coverage of the previous photos.

Photo lap

Aerial photos projects for all mapping and most image analysis require that a series of
exposure be made along each multiple flight lines. In order to guarantee stereoscopic
coverage throughout the site the photograph must overlap in two directions: in the line of
flight and between adjacent flights.

1. End lap
End lap,also known as a forward over lap, is the common image area on consecutive
photograph along a flight strip. This overlapping portion of two successive aerial
photos,which creates the three-dimensional effect necessary for mapping,is known
as a stero model,or more commonly”model”.practically all projects require more
than a single pair of photographs. Usually the aircraft follows a predetermined flight
line as the camera exposes successive overlapping images.
Amount of end lap
Normally,end lap ranges between 55 and 65% of the length of a photo,with a
nominal average of 60% for most mapping projects. It may be advantages to fly with
80% end lap. This is especially true for two dimensional ortho photo projects. Then
the best stereo pair to fit on specific sheets can be selected, thus perhaps avoiding
the necessity of splicing the ortho image.
End lap gain
Endlap gain,the distance between the centers of the consecutive photographs along
a flight path,it can be calculated by using a formula

Gend =Sp*W( )
Where; Gend=distance b/n exposure station
Sp is photo scale denominator
Oend is end lap(%)
W is width of exposure frame(cm/inch)
When employing a precision aerial mapping camera with 9*9 inch exposure format
and a normal end lap of 60%,the formula is simpler; in this situation, two of the
variables then become constant.

Surveying Engineering(GEN 2062)/photogrammetry………………/civil Eng. 2nd year Page 4

 ASTU/ 2016/17

W= 9 inch
Oend= 60%
Then the expression [W( )] becomes a constant equal to 3.6 then
Gend=sp*3.6

2. Side lap

Side lap sometimes called side overlap,encompasses the overlapping areas of photographs
between adjacent flight lines. It is designed so that there are no gaps in the three
dimensional coverage of a multi-line project.

Amount of side lap

Usally side lap ranges between 20 and 40% of the width of the photo, with a nominal
average of 30%.

Side lap gain

Side lap gain,the distance between the centers of adjacent flight lines and calculated by the
following equation:

Gside=Sp*W*( )

Where,Gside is distance between flight line centers

Sp is photo scale denominator

Oside is side lap(percent)

W is width of the exposure frame

When employing a precision aerial mapping camera with 9*9 inch exposure format and a
normal side lap of 30%,the formula is simpler; in this case, two of the variables then
becomes constant,i.e W=9inch and Oside=30% then the expression W*( ) becomes
a constant equal to 6.3 and the above equation can be reduced to: Gside=Sp*6.3

When utilizing a camera other than a 9*9 inch format and side lap other than 30%, the first
equation must be used.

Surveying Engineering(GEN 2062)/photogrammetry………………/civil Eng. 2nd year Page 5

 ASTU/ 2016/17

3.5 Marginal information on Aerial photographs

The information present at the margin as well as inside the photographs are called
marginal information. These often include:

 Clock to show time of the exposure

 Altimeter denoting height of the aircraft
 Date of exposure
 Photo scale
 Focal length of the camera(mm)

Apart from these marginal information, there are other information present in the
photograph, these include:

1.Fiducial Mark

These are marks,usually four or eight in numbers,appear as dark shades at the

edges of and corner of the photograph.

Surveying Engineering(GEN 2062)/photogrammetry………………/civil Eng. 2nd year Page 6

 ASTU/ 2016/17

2.Principal point

It is the intersection point of the lines that connects opposites pairs of fiducial
marks. It is the optical center of the image.

3.Ground Nadir and Photographic Nadir

Ground nadir is defined as the point on the ground vertically beneath the center of
the camera lens at the time the photograph was taken;whereas,Photographic nadir
is defined by the intersection with the photograph of the vertical line that intersects
the ground nadir and the center of the lens.
For the vertical photograph the principal point and the photographic nadir coincide.

Surveying Engineering(GEN 2062)/photogrammetry………………/civil Eng. 2nd year Page 7

 ASTU/ 2016/17

3.6 Principles of Stereoscopic Vision

Stereoscopy
Science that deals with the use of binocular vision to achieve a 3-D effect
Based on the simultaneous observation of a single object from two different
perspectives
In terms of aerial photography, this is achieved using two adjacent overlapping
photos referred to as a stereo-pair
When overlapping portions are cut out and mounted together, it is referred to as a
stereogram

3.7 Photographic Scale

Variations in Photo Scale
Occur as a result of:

Surveying Engineering(GEN 2062)/photogrammetry………………/civil Eng. 2nd year Page 8

 ASTU/ 2016/17

Tilt (pilot error)

Variations in light height (pilot error)
Variations in topography affecting the distance between ground and camera
Distance b/w lens and point at Earth’s surface (i.e. features directly below
camera are closer than those near the edge of the ield of view)

Surveying Engineering(GEN 2062)/photogrammetry………………/civil Eng. 2nd year Page 9

 ASTU/ 2016/17

Surveying Engineering(GEN 2062)/photogrammetry………………/civil Eng. 2nd year Page 10

 ASTU/ 2016/17

Surveying Engineering(GEN 2062)/photogrammetry………………/civil Eng. 2nd year Page 11