Therapy – treatment

STEM 11 – GENERAL CHEMISTRY

Jaundice – known as yellow coloring which is mostly
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION affected are babies. The process is their skin and eyesare
Chemistry – a field of physical science which deals with placed under fluorescent lights of specific wavelength.
the study of matter & energy. Exposure to light breaks down bilirubin (responsible for
jaundice) & facilitates its elimination through urine &
Analytic Chemistry – spans nearly all areas of chemistry. stools.
Has broad application in forensics, medicine, science,
and engineering. Food Chemistry – deals with food analysis. It embraces
food processing techniques and how to enhance helpful
Inorganic Chemistry – study of substances that do not processes.
have a carbon-hydrogen (Hydrocarbon) bonds.
Agricultural Chemistry – study of the principles
Physical Chemistry – studies the structure, energy, & governing aspects of crop & animal production such as
transformation of substances from one state of matter fertilizers, herbicides, etc. It is directed toward control of
to another. those processes to increase yields, improve quality, &
Biochemistry – study of the chemical processes of & reduce costs.
relating to living organisms. Polymer Chemistry – deals with plastic production.
Organic Chemistry – study of substances that possesses Colloidal Chemistry – one or more substances are
carbon-hydrogen bonds. dispersed. (Ex. Marshmallows, Mayonnaise, Aerosol
Geochemistry – study of earth’s composition. Explaining Sprays)
mechanisms involved in geological systems.
CHAPTER 2: MATTER & ITS PROPERTIES
Pharmaceutical Chemistry – study of drugs & medicines. Matter – anything that takes up spaces & has mass
Its synthesis is by chemical/biological means from
natural sources (plants). PHASES OF MATTER
Electrochemistry – study of substances with regards to Solid – rigid, fixed volume, & definite shape. A very little
their reaction with electricity. Describes overall reactions space between particles & cannot slide past one another.
of reduction-oxidation reactions when connected to an
Liquid – it flows & take the form of the container they
external electric circuit.
occupy. Molecules are close together & move around
Electrode – solid metal/semiconductor slowly. It can slide past one another.

Industrial Chemistry – application of chemical principles. Gases – diffuse & fill the container. Molecules are widely
For development in our modern world economy; to separated & move around freely at high speeds.
convert raw materials such as oil, water, minerals into
Plasma – a special type of gas. Also referred as ionized
different products.
gas. Plasma is capable of conducting electrical currents.
Metallurgical Chemistry – analysis of metals (gold, Plasma forms when molecules & atoms break apart.
aluminum, silver). Deals with an in-depth understanding
Cation – positively charge
of the physical & chemical properties of metals.
Anion – negatively charge
Nuclear Chemistry – study of radioactive materials. It
includes the study of chemical effects resulting from Supercritical Fluids – highly compressed gases that
absorption of radiation within living things. Used for combines properties of gases & liquids. They possessthe
medicine, research, energy, & weaponry. density of a liquid & the mobility of a gas.

Photochemistry – deals with the effects of lights on Degenerate Matter – a collapsed state of matter. It
chemical systems. happens when atomic structure has broken down
because of electromagnetic forces are overcome by
Photo – light
gravity. Used to explain the existence of ‘black holes’, & Metals – are good conductors of heat. Properties of
other theorized states & hypothetical suppositions. ductility, malleability, exhibit metallic luster, &have high
melting points & densities. (Ex. Aluminum, Iron, Gold)
Degenerate Gases – are super compressed * very dense.
Alkali Metals – found in GROUP IA. Very reactive & do
PROPERTIES OF MATTER not occur freely in nature.
Physical Properties – qualities of matter that are Alkaline Earth Metals – found in Group IAA. They are
observable & measurable without changing its naturally occurring in nature.
composition.
Transition Metals – have a lot of electrons that are
Intensive Properties – do not depend on the amount of distributed in different ways. These metals are more
matter present. (Ex. Color, odor, luster, malleability, electronegative.
ductility, conductivity, hardness, melting, freezingpoint,
boiling point, & density) Rare Earth Metals

Extensive Properties – depend on the amount of matter  Lanthanides – have similar arrangement of their
present. outer electrons & they all react similarly. All
found in nature. When they react with other
Mass – measures the amount of matter in an object.
elements to form compounds, they lose three (3)
Weight – measures the gravitational force of attraction outer electrons to form tripositive ions.
of the earth acting on an object  Actinides – they have high diversity in oxidation
numbers & all are radioactive.
Volume – measures the amount of space a substance
occupies. Non-metals – are dull & poor conductors of heat &
electricity. (Ex. Carbon, Nitrogen, Phosphorus)
Length – measurement of reach/distance from one point
to another.  Halogens – halogen means salt-former. They are
Fluorine, Chlorine, Bromine, Iodine, & Astatine.
Chemical Properties – undergoes a change in
 Noble Gases – not readily combining with other
composition. It also describes the behavior of substances
elements to form compounds. They are Helium,
in the presence of other substances. (Ex. Rusting or an Neon, Argon, Krypton, Xenon, & Radon.
iron, burning of paper, & etc.)
Metalloids – bears both characteristics of metals & non-
CHANGES IN MATTER metals. They are Boron, Silicon, Germanium, Arsenic,
Physical Change – change in shape, size, state, & Antinomy, & Tellurium.
appearance. Its composition remains the same (Ex. Periodic Table – divided into Groups and Periods.
Cutting down wood to small pieces, boiling water that is
converted to steam, etc.) Groups/Families – vertical column of elements

Chemical Change – will alter the original substances to Periods – are the horizontal assembly of elements.
form new substances. (Ex. Precipitates, production of a
Compounds – are pure substance that are made from
gas, color change. Release of energy in the form of heat)
two or more elements that have reacted chemically to
CLASSIFICATIONS OF MATTER each other. It cannot be separated by physical means
which means may be broken down by chemical change.
Substances – cannot be separated into components by
physical separation techniques. A substance can be solid,  Organic – made up of carbon element in
liquid, gas. It can be an element/compound but NOT a combination with other elements.
mixture.  Inorganic – made up of other elements other
than Carbon.
Element – are pure in nature.
o Salts – formed when an acid is
Atoms – made up of protons, electrons, & neutrons. neutralized by a base. Consists of anion
from the acid & cation from the base.
 o Acids – compounds that produce CHEMICAL SYMBOLS TO REPRESENT
Hydrogen (Sour Taste). SUBSTANCES
o Bases – compounds that contain
Hydroxide (Bitter Taste)> Elements – represented by chemical symbols thatconsist
Mixtures – are formed when two or more substances are of the first letter (Capitalized) & second letter
mixed together that can be separable by physical means. (Lowercase).

Subscripts – written below the line

 Homogeneous mixture – two or more
substances are mixed & its final substances Superscript – written above the line
formed appears to have the same chemical
composition. CHAPTER 3: MEASUREMENTS
 Heterogeneous mixture – phases that were
SI – The International System of Units (1960)
mixed are distinguishable from each other.
Usually observable to the naked eye.  The use of exponential (power of ten) notation
for numbers.
Solute – or dissolved material (larger volume)

Solvent – or dissolving material (smaller quantity) LENGTH

Length – SI unit of length is meter (m)
METHODS OF SEPARATING MIXTURES
1km = 103m = 1000m
Centrifugation – the process of separating
heterogeneous mixtures by applying centripetal force to 1cm = 10-2m = 0.01m
a mixture using a centrifuge machine. It is a piece of
1mm = 10-3 m = 0.001 m
equipment that is equipped with a fixed axis and a
rotating unit. 1µm = 10-6m
Chromatography – often used in food industry. Used to 1nm = 10-9m
identify chemicals (coloring agents) in foods/inks.
1pm = 10-12 m
Decantation – a process that allows a heterogeneous
mixture of solid & liquid to be separated.

Distillation – the components of the mixture are

separated.

Evaporation – mixture of a soluble solid & a solvent can

be separated through this. This process involves the
application of heat to allow the solvent to evaporate.

Filtration – this process involves filter paper that is lined

into a funnel. Filtration is for mixtures of solids & liquids
wherein the smaller size of solid do not settle at the TIP: If it goes UP = DIVIDE, DOWN = MULTIPLY (Applies
bottom of container. in Length, Volume, & Mass)
Fractional Distillation – a technique that can separate
two liquids that dissolved each other.

Magnet – mixtures that consists metallic or non-metallic

substances can be separated with the use of magnet.

Separatory Funnel – to facilitate the separation of liquid-

liquid mixtures that did not mix.
 FORMULA

 oC to oF = [oC x 1.8] + 32
 oF to oC = [oF -32] /1.8
VOLUME
 oK = oC + 273

 oR = 1.8 x oK

Liter (L) – is not an SI Unit but in the Old Metric System  oR to oC = (oR – 491.67) x 5/9

to express volumes.  oC = oR – 273

1L = 1000mL = 1 x 103 mL = 1 x 103cc

DENSITY
MASS
Density – is a derived quantity from mass & volume.
Mass – amount of matter in an object. SI base quantity is It is expressed in grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm3)
kilogram (kg).
1mL = 1 cc
3 6 12 12 15
1kg = 10 g = 10 mg = 10 µg = 10 ng = 10 pg
Density = Mass (g)/
TIME Volume (cc)
Time – is the interval between two events or
occurrences.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
1 day = 24 hours
Specific Gravity – of a substance is the ratio of its
1 hour = 60 minutes
density to the density of water.
1 minute = 60 seconds
Density of water = 1.000 g/mL (we settle as the
TEMPERATURE specific gravity of water up to 25 oC
Temperature – is a numerical expression of the measure FORMULA
of heat in a system.
Specific Gravity = density of a substance / density
SI UNITS
of water
 Kelvin (oK)
PRECISION AND ACCURACY
 Celsius (oC)
 Fahrenheit (oF) Precision – refers to how closely individual
 Rankine (oR) measurements agree with one another.

GETTING AVERAGE – add them all then divide by the

count of those numbers.
Accuracy – refers to the closeness of the average of MATHEMATICAL OPERATIONS INVOLVING
all of the measurements to the true/correct value. SCIENTIFIC NOTATION

1. Additional & Subtraction

a. Change the exponent to the same
powers of 10. In increasing the
exponent, move the decimal pointtothe
left, to decrease the exponent move the
decimal point to the right.
b. Proceed in subtracting or adding then
round off answers to the least no. of
decimal places following the rule on
significant numbers.
2. Multiplication & Division
a. Multiply/divide the numbers then add
TIP: Look for closeness of the numbers. the exponents for multiplication;
subtract exponents for division.
FORMULA
b. Simplify your answer by rounding offthe
Accuracy = (Average/True Value) x 100 answers to the least number of decimal
places.
PERCENT ERROR TIP:
Percent Error – the difference between estimated
Addition & Subtraction – exponent stays the same/ copy
value & the actual value in comparison to the actual
the exponent.
value & is expressed as a percentage.
Multiplication – add the exponents
FORMULA
Division – subtract the exponents

RULES FOR SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

 Zeros within a number are always significant.
SCIENTIFIC NOTATION (Ex. 4308 & 40.05 = 4 significant numbers)
 Zeros that do nothing but set the decimal point
Scientific Notation – is a way of expressing numbers by
are NOT SIGNIFICANT. (Ex. 47,000 = 2 Significant
the powers of ten.
figures) (Ex. 4.00 = 3 Significant Figures)
TIP: If it has decimal point = negative exponent.
Addition & Subtraction of Significant Numbers
-6
Ex 1. 0.0000089 = 8.9 x 10
- Choose the smallest significant figure of the
Ex 2. 18,900,000 = 1.89 x 107 given numbers.

ROUNDING OF NUMBERS Multiplication & Division of Significant Numbers

1. If the number is greater than 5, drop the - Count the significant figures in each
number & add 1 to the preceding number. (Ex. measurement, NOT the number of decimal
16 to 20) places.
2. If the number is less than 5, drop the number, & - The final answer can contain no more significant
retain the preceding number. (Ex. 14 to 10) figures than the least accurate measurement.
3. If the number is equal to 5, consider the
preceding number.
a. Even no. = add 1
b. Odd no. = drop/round off to lower no.
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS IN CONVERSION

 Done by the factor label method where the

conversion equivalent is represented in fraction
form, the unit converted being the denominator
& the desired conversion unit as the numerator.