Endocrine System - The may be neurotransmitters

themselves. These hormones act as

Pituitary and Adrenal Glands hormones (rather than as
neurotransmitters) in other places.
Scope: Lecture Twenty is the first of three lectures 3. Hormones may take seconds,
on the endocrine system of glands that secrete minutes, or hours to work their
hormones directly into the spaces surrounding their effects, and their duration of action
cells, from which the bloodstream picks up and may be short- or long-lived.
circulates them. After distinguishing endocrine from 4. Hormones generally regulate
exocrine functions and reviewing the endocrine growth, reproduction, and
system organs, we examine the functional metabolism.
differences between the endocrine and nervous C. Nervous system
systems and the basic properties of hormones. 1. The nervous system acts by the
Next, we look at the most important endocrine generation of nerve impulses to
glands: the pituitary gland and hypothalamus and stimulate or inhibit effector organs.
the adrenal glands. 2. It may stimulate the release or
I. Introduction and general definitions inhibition of hormones themselves
from the endocrine organs.
A. Exocrine glands (ex = "out" krinein = "to 3. Nerve impulses have their effect in
secrete") are glands that secrete into ducts, milliseconds, in contrast to the
which in turn, carry the secretions out of the slower endocrine system, but the
glands and into the lumens of certain body effects are also short-lived.
cavities. 4. Nerve impulses primarily cause
B. Endocrine glands (endo - "within") are muscle contraction and the
glands that secrete directly into the spaces secretion of fluids by certain glands.
around the cells and whose products are
picked up and circulated by the III. Endocrine gland locations
bloodstream.
C. The endocrine system includes some A. The hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and
organs that are wholly endocrine in pineal gland are in the brain.
function. These include the pituitary gland, B. The thyroid gland is in the neck, with four
thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, adrenal parathyroid glands behind it.
glands, and pineal gland. C. The thymus is in the chest.
D. Endocrine organs that have other functions D. The adrenal (suprarenal) glands lie atop the
as well as endocrine functions include the kidneys.
pancreas, liver, ovaries, stomach, E. The stomach, ovaries, and testes in the
hypothalamus of the brain, small intestine, abdominal cavity and lower also have
kidneys, testes, and placenta. endocrine functions.

IV. General properties of hormones

II. There are differences between the functions
controlled by the nervous system and the
A. Each of the 50+ hormones affect only a few
endocrine system.
cells, though they may reach all the cells of
the body via the bloodstream. What
A. Both systems coordinate functions of body accounts for the selectivity?
systems in general. Both are mutually 1. Target cells contain highly specific
interconnected. receptors, which are surface
B. Endocrine system glycoproteins.
1. The endocrine system releases 2. The geometry of the molecules
chemical messengers allows only for very specific
called hormones (hormon = "urge hormones to attach to the receptor
on"), which act on other organs in all in the target cell surface.
parts of the body. B. Down regulation: Each target cell has up to
2. Some hormones promote or inhibit 100,000 receptors for a certain hormone.
nerve impulses, while others When there is an excess of hormone, the
(epinephrine and norepinephrine)
 number of receptors decreases, reducing molecules from the hypothalamus to
sensitivity. act on the pituitary before they are
C. Up regulation: If a low number of hormone diluted with the blood in larger
molecules are circulating, the number of vessels.
receptors increases, raising the level of 4. The anterior pituitary evolved
sensitivity. anatomically up from the floor of the
D. Locally acting hormones: These hormones mouth (in contrast to the posterior
do not enter the general circulation. pituitary [neurohypophysis'], which
1. Paracrine hormones (para = "near") evolved down from the base of the
act on cells next to the secreting brain).
cells without entering the 5. Hormones released by the anterior
bloodstream. pituitary flow into the general
2. Autocrine hormones (auto = "self") circulation for action in far parts of
act on the cell that secreted them. the body.
Cancer cells use autocrine signaling 6. Seven releasing hormones are
to trigger growth. secreted by the hypothalamus and
are responsible for the release or
V. Pituitary gland and hypothalamus inhibition of the anterior pituitary
hormones. These include growth-
A. General principles hormone-releasing hormone and gr
1. The pituitary is about 1 cm in owth hormone—inhibiting hormone.
diameter, and it lies in They are generally controlled by
the sella turcica ("Turkish saddle") at negative feedback mechanisms.
the base of the brain, directly behind 7. Anterior pituitary hormones are also
the optic chiasm. controlled by negative feedback
2. The pituitary gland, also called from the brain and the target organ.
the hypophysis, was thought to be
the "master gland" that controlled all 8. Principal anterior pituitary hormones
the other endocrine glands. a. Thyroid-stimulating hormone
3. The hypothalamus actually controls (TSH) stimulates the thyroid
the pituitary gland; it integrates gland to release thyroid
many messages from parts of the hormones.
brain and tells the pituitary what to b. Follicle-stimulating hormone
do. (FSH) and luteinizing
4. Together, they regulate all hormone (LH) together
processes having to do with stimulate the release of
primitive reactions, such as stress, estrogens and
rage, flight, body temperature, thirst, progesterones, which cause
hunger, sexual activity, and survival maturation of ova in the
in general. female and sperm cells and
5. Between them, the hypothalamus testosterone in the male.
and pituitary gland secrete 16 c. Prolactin (PL) stimulates the
hormones. production of milk by the
6. The pituitary gland is divided into breasts. It can cross the
two embryologically and functionally placenta-blood barrier,
different parts: the anterior pituitary causing "witch's milk," or
and posterior pituitary. milk production from a
baby's nipples.
B. Anterior pituitary gland d. Adrenocorticotrophic
1. The anterior pituitary gland is also hormone (ACTH) stimulates
called the adenohypophysis. It the release of adrenal
makes up 75% of the pituitary gland. cortical hormones by the
2. A portal blood capillary system adrenal glands.
connects the hypothalamus and the e. Melanocyte-stimulating
pituitary. hormone (MSH) causes
3. Portal flow allows blood-borne increased skin pigmentation.
 f. Human growth hormone 2. It does not synthesize hormones,
(hGH, or somatotropin) but it stores and secretes two of
stimulates body growth and them. Hormones made in the brain
regulates metabolic are transported in small packets for
processes. High hGH storage in the posterior pituitary.
increases the growth of the a. Oxytocin (oxytocia = "rapid
skeleton in the growing years child birth"; also, Pitocin)
of the child, and it maintains enhances the strength of
muscle and skeletal size in uterine contraction and
the adult. stimulates the ejection of
milk after delivery. It may
9. The following abnormal conditions also foster maternal instincts
are associated with anterior pituitary and sexual pleasure during
hyper- or hypo-secretion. and after intercourse.
a. Pituitary dwarfism: Low b. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH;
levels of hGH during the also vasopressin) decreases
growth years causes bone- urine production by
growth-plate closure before increasing reabsorption by
normal size is achieved. the kidneys. The effect is to
Many organs are small, and raise blood volume and,
the person has a childlike therefore, to raise blood
stature. Synthetic hGH pressure. Alcohol inhibits
produced by recombinant ADH secretion, thus
DNA technology in bacteria producing profuse urination
has resulted in safe, plentiful after a drinking binge and the
sources and can prevent this headache and thirst
if diagnosed in time. associated with a hangover.
b. Pituitary giantism:
Hypersecretion of hGH VI. Adrenal glands
during childhood causes long
bones and tall stature but A. General principles
otherwise normal 1. The adrenal glands are located
proportions. almost directly on top of each
c. Acromegaly: Usually caused kidney; hence, the
by functioning pituitary terms ad renal and supra renal.
tumors in the already normal 2. They are small retroperitoneal
adult; causes thickening of glands, about 5 cm in length, and
bones of the face, hands, weigh about 5 gm each.
and feet (bones can't get 3. They are supplied abundantly by
longer after closure of growth three sets of vessels:
centers) and thickening of a. Inferior phrenic arteries off
the tongue, eyelids, and the aorta.
nose. b. Middle suprarenal arteries off
d. Goliath might have been an the aorta.
acromegalic giant. A pituitary c. Inferior suprarenal arteries of
tumor could place pressure each renal artery.
on peripheral vision nerve 4. Like the pituitary, they are
fibers, causing tunnel vision, composed of tissue from separate
and a rock hurled from the anatomic development during
side could hit the temple at embryology.
the thinnest part of the skull. a. The adrenal cortex is the
outer layer.
b. The adrenal medulla is the
C. Posterior pituitary gland (neurohypophysis) inner layer.
1. It is anatomically derived from a 5. The adrenal glands are absolutely
down growth of the brain. essential for life.
B. The adrenal cortex produces three moon-face, buffalo hump on
hormones in three separate zones. back, flushed skin,
1. Mineralocorticoids: Aldosterone is hypertension, osteoporosis,
96% of this group, and it controls and decreased resistance to
water and electrolyte (sodium and infection or stress.
potassium) homeostasis. Their
action is on the kidneys. Adrenal 3. Androgens are masculinizing
adenomas cause hyperproduction of hormones that occur in insignificant
aldosterone, which may account for amounts in the adult male.
25% of hypertensive patients. a. In females, androgen
2. Glucocorticoids: Cortisol (also called accounts for sexual drive,
hydrocortisone) is 95% of the total, and it is converted into
plus corticosterone, cortisone. female hormones
a. This drug depresses the (estrogens) after
immune system. menopause.
b. It promotes protein b. Old treatments for breast
catabolism (breakdown). cancer involved removing
c. It promotes lipolysis: the pituitary gland to prevent
triglycerides to fatty acids. the adrenal glands from
d. It promotes resistance to producing estrogen.
stress, resulting in higher
blood pressure. C. Adrenal medulla
e. It has anti-inflammatory 1. Hormones here are produced in
effects. the chromaffin cells ("color +
f. It retards allergic affinity").
overreactions and slows 2. They are innervated by the
wound repair. sympathetic division of the
g. It promotes glucose autonomic nervous system (ANS).
formation (gluconeogenesis). 3. Stimulation releases two hormones,
called epinephrine (80%)
h. Addison's disease results and norepinephrine (20%),
from adrenocortical or adrenalin and noradrenalin.
insufficiency. Collectively, they are called
i. The results are catecholamines.
lethargy, low blood 4. Thus, these cells are the post-
pressure, weight loss, ganglionic fibers of the sympathetic
anorexia, and low ANS.
blood sugar. 5. Because the chromaffin cells are
ii. Addison's disease is directly innervated by the
treated with steroid preganglionic fibers of the ANS,
hormone they respond very quickly, as
replacement. necessary in a system that
iii. John F. Kennedy had responds to emergency situations.
Addison's disease They continue to stimulate the
and required regular secretion of adrenal hormones after
cortisone injections to nervous stimulation has passed.
deal with stress. 6. Unlike the adrenocortical hormones,
These injections medullary hormones are not
changed his skin essential for life in the quiescent
pigmentation, state.
resulting in his 7. Hypersecretion by
constant deep "tan." pheochromocytoma, a tumor of the
i. Cushing's syndrome results adrenal medulla, causes
from excessive adrenal paroxysmal hypertension, producing
cortical function. It results in an extreme "fight or flight" reaction.
spindly arms and legs,
TSH metabolism

FSH repro hormones

PL milk production

ACTH stimulates cortex

Abnormalities

1. Pituitary dwarfism - low level of HGH, growth plate

closure

2. Pituitary Giantism - hyper production of HGH

3. Acromegaly - bones thicken

4. Adult Pituitary Giantism - tumor which is not taken

care of. pituitary adenoma.