Sediment Transport Mechanics

Addis Ababa Science and Technology University

Department of Civil Engineering

Getachew Tegegne (Ph.D.)

Hydraulic and Civil Engineering
E-mail: [email protected]
 Chapter 0ne
Introduction
 Introduction to sediment transport in rivers

 Why do we study sediment

transport mechanics?

o Nile river delta, historical change of

shoreline

o Aswan high dam (1967)

 Sediment Transport
o Transport of granular particles by fluids
o Two-phase flow: fluid phase and solid phase
• Fluid phase is river water
• Solid phase is sediment grains (e.g., quartz sand)
 The most common modes of sediment transport
o Bed-load and suspended load
• Dissolved load: Travels in solution
• Suspended load: Particles transported in water column, not in contact with bed
• Bed load: Particles transported by rolling, sliding, or saltation
 Bedload
o Rolling
o Sliding
o Saltating
o Never deviating too far above bed
 Suspended load
o The fluid turbulence comes into play carrying the particles
well up into the water column.
o What is the main driving force for loading?
• Gravity on the fluid phase and it is transmitted to the
particles via drag.
 Phases
o Solid Phase can vary greatly in size
• Clay, silt, sand, gravel, cobbles, and boulders
• Rock types can include quartz, feldspar, limestone, granite, basalt, and other
less common types such as magnitude
o Fluid phase
• Can be almost anything that constitutes a fluid.
• In geophysical sense, the two fluids of major importance are water and air.
 Sediment is any particulate matter that can be transported by fluid flow and
which eventually is deposited as a layer of solid particles on the bottom of a
body of water
 Sedimentation embodies the processes of erosion, transportation, deposition,
etc..
 Sedimentation is essential for the conservation, development, and utilization of
our soil and water development
 The study of sediment transport is thus basic to the proper planning, design,
installation, and maintenance of water works of improvement for the
development, use and conservation of our soil and water resources.
 Example: Dam service life
 Origin of Sediments
 Weathering – breaking down of rocks
o Expansion and contraction by thermal heating and cooling
o Frost action – repeated freezing and thawing in rock fractures,
movement of water into a freezing zone
o Cracking by plant roots, burrowing animals
o Chemical decomposition
 Erosion detachment and removal of weathered material
 Transport Mechanism
 Principal external dynamic agents of sedimentation are water, wind, gravity, and ice
 Our concern: sediment transport by water - hydrospheric forces of streamflow
o Sediment transport by water = fluvial or marine sediment transport
o Sediment transport by wind = Aeolian sediment
o Sediment transport by ice = Glacial sediment
 Detachment of sediment particles in the erosion process occurs through the kinetic
energy of rain drop impact, or by the force generated by flowing water
 Once a particle has been detached, it must be entrained before it can be transported
away
 Both entrainment and transport depend on the shape, size and weight of the particle
and the forces exerted on the particle by the flow
 Nature of Sedimentation Problems
 Geologic Erosion
o It is erosion of the surface of the earth under natural and undisturbed
conditions
o Economic feasibility – the land on which serious geologic erosion often
occurs is usually of lower agricultural productivity
 Vast extent and great thickness of sedimentary rocks found on the earth’s
surface provide evidence of geologic erosion and deposition that has occurred
throughout geologic times
 Accelerated Erosion
o It is the increased rate of erosion over the normal or geologic erosion brought
by man’s activity
o Erodibility of natural materials can be altered by:
• Disturbing the soil structure through plowing or other tillage activities
• Changing the protective vegetative canopy by grubbing, cutting, or burning
existing vegetation and introducing new species
• Altering the natural characteristics of stream channels, e.g., channel cross
sections, alignments, or gradients
 Agricultural Activities
o Widespread use of land and associated practices for agricultural purposes leads all
other activities resulting in accelerated erosion and the production of sediment
o Opening of new lands for agricultural purposes necessarily disturbs the natural
conditions
o The rate of loss of productivity of farm fields depends on the depth of erosion of
plant-producing topsoil
 Holding accelerated erosion of farmland to an acceptable maximum needs
• Continued efforts in education in respect to the desirability of proper land
use and conservation
• Provisions for technical assistance in the planning and application of
measures
 Urbanization
o When fully developed, are actually low sediment‐producing areas, because a large
percentage of the land is protected against erosion by roofs, streets, parking lots
etc.
o Erosion rates are high during actual construction as a result of the removal of trees
and other vegetation, and excavation and grading activities
o Serious erosion can occur when protective vegetation is removed and steeply
sloping cuts and fills are left unprotected
o Such erosion can create local problems of serious downstream sediment damages
 Altering Runoff Conditions
o Erosion energy is a function of the runoff volume and its velocity
o When the volume of runoff water is increased, or is concentrated in natural or
artificial channels, its erosive energy is increased
 Stream and River Control Works
o Any structural work of improvement that changes the direction of flow or
increases the depth, duration, and, velocity of flow may result in erosion
• Channel straightening, which increases the channel gradient and flow
velocity, may initiate channel erosion
• Constricting the cross section of channels usually increases velocity and depth
of flow and the eroding and transport power of streams
o Construction of a dam influences downstream channel stability in two ways:
• it traps the sediment load
• it changes the downstream natural flow characteristics
o Both the sediment load and flow conditions were responsible for establishing the
natural regime of the channel prior to construction of the dam
o Clear water released from a reservoir immediately picks up a new load
downstream if the discharge is sufficient to erode the bed and transport the
sediment
o Seriousness of the problem of degradation of channels below dams depends on
the erodibility of downstream channel materials in respect to the hydraulic
characteristics of outflow from the dam
 Water Quality
o Sediment is not only the major water pollutant by weight and volume but it
also serves as a catalyst, carrier, and storage agent of other forms of pollution
• sediment alone degrades water specially for municipal supply, recreation,
industrial consumption and cooling, hydroelectric facilities, and aquatic
life
• chemicals and wastes are assimilated onto and into sediment particles
• Sediment has become a source of increased concern as a carrier and
storage agent of pesticide residue, adsorbed phosphorus, nitrogen and
other organic compounds, and pathogenic bacteria and viruses
 Sediment in Suspension
o It has adverse effect on the size, population, and species of fish in a stream
o Cost of treatment to remove suspended sediment from water to render it suitable
for industrial use and human consumption is closely related to water Turbidity
 Problems of Sediment Deposition
o Deposition is the counterpart of erosion
o Products of erosion may be deposited immediately below their sources, or may be
transported considerable distances to be deposited in channels, on flood plains, or
in lakes, reservoirs, estuaries, and oceans
o All sediment deposition is not injurious: some deposits may form fertile flood‐plain
or delta soils
 Deposits in Lakes and Reservoirs
o When streamflow enters a natural lake or reservoir, its velocity and transport
capacity is reduced and its sediment load is deposited
• in natural lakes that have no outlets, the total incoming sediment load is
deposited
• in artificial lakes with outlets, e.g., reservoirs, the amount deposited depends
on the detention storage time, the shape of the reservoir, operating
procedure, and other factors
• loss of storage capacity is usually a more important, because the loss of
carryover storage effects the proper functioning of the reservoirs
 Solution of Sediment Problems
o Many problems arising from sediment transport and deposition would be solved
by stopping upstream erosion completely
o Stopping erosion completely is not always physically possible, or economically
feasible in the solution of specific downstream sediment problems
o Solution of one problem in this manner can often lead to the creation of others,
and in such instances, alternatives must be considered
o Several methods of reducing specific sediment damages can be considered:
• erosion control of primary upstream sediment‐source areas
• trapping sediment in sedimentation basins
• allowance for storage of sediment in structure design
• dredging, sediment bypassing, and etc.
 Properties of Sediments
o Sedimentation processes (erosion, entrainment, transport, and subsequent
deposition of sediment) depend on:
• properties of the sediment
• characteristics of the flow involved
 Size and Shape of Sediment Particles
o Size and shape of grains making up a sediment vary over a wide range
• meaningless to consider in detail the properties of individual particle;
thus, it’s necessary to determine average or statistical values
o Sediments are grouped into different size classes or grades
o Natural sediment particles are of irregular shape
o Sediment particles are classified, based on their size, into six general
categories:
• Clay,
• Silt,
• Sand,
• Gravel,
• Cobbles, and
• Boulders
o Any single length or diameter that is to characterize the size of a group of
grains must be chosen arbitrarily or according to some convenient method of
measurement
Sediment Grade Scale
o Sieve diameter is the length of the side of a square sieve opening through which the
given particle will just pass
• sieving is convenient to determine the size of sands
o Sedimentation diameter is the diameter of a sphere of the same specific weight and the
same terminal settling velocity as the given particle in the same sedimentation fluid
• size of silts and clay is generally expressed as sedimentation diameter
o Nominal diameter is the diameter of a sphere of the same volume as the given particle
o Shape of particle describes the form of the particle without reference to the sharpness
of its edges; it has been expressed in terms of true sphericity
• sphericity is the ratio of the surface area of the sphere with the same volume as
the grain to the surface area of the particle
o Roundness is the ratio of the average radius of curvature of individual edges to the
radius of the largest circle that can be inscribed within either the projected area or a
cross section of the grain
• Roundness depends on the sharpness or radius of curvature of the edges
o In studying the fall velocity, the shapes of the particles have been expressed by shape
factor, SF, given by

𝑐
𝑆𝐹 =
𝑎𝑏
• a = length of the longest perpendicular axis
• b = length of the intermediate perpendicular axis
• c = length of the shortest perpendicular axis
 Values of 0.7 are typical for natural particles
 Specific Weight of Sediment Particles (s)
o Particle specific weight corresponds to the solid weight per unit volume of solid
o It can be also expressed in terms of the mass density of a solid particle times the
gravitational acceleration: 𝛾𝑠 = 𝜌𝑠 × 𝑔
o The average specific gravity of sand is very close to that of quartz, i.e., 2.65, and
this value is used often in calculations and analysis
 Fall (Settling) Velocity of Particles
o Defined as the terminal velocity attained when the grain is settling in an extended
fluid under the action of gravity; this characterizes its reaction to flow
o Important for processes such as sedimentation and suspension
o Reflects the integrated result of size, shape, roughness, specific gravity and
viscosity of the fluid
o Its magnitude reflects a balance between the downward acting force due to the
submerged particle weight and opposing forces due to viscous fluid resistance and
inertia effects (drag forces)
o The drag force on a submerged body is given by the general expression

1
𝐹 = 𝐶𝐷 𝜌𝑉 2 𝐴
2
• CD = drag coefficient
• ρ = density of the fluid
• V = relative velocity
• A = projected area of the body upon a plane normal to the flow direction
o The combined action of gravity and buoyancy on a single spherical particle of
diameter d gives the force
𝜋 3
𝛾𝑠 − 𝛾 𝑑
6
o This must be balanced by the drag force under equilibrium, so that we obtain
𝜋 3 1 2
𝜋 2
𝛾𝑠 − 𝛾 𝑑 = 𝐶𝐷 𝜌𝑊 𝑑
6 2 4
• from which we obtain
4 𝑠 − 1 𝑔𝐷
𝑤=
3𝐶𝐷
o For a single spherical particle in an extended fluid, the value of CD depends on the
grain Reynolds number
𝑤𝑑
𝑅=
𝑣
o When Reynolds number is less than 0.1 for small particles in the silt‐clay range,
viscous resistance dominates and inertia is negligible
o For particles coarser than 2 mm encounter resistance from the inertia of the water
as they fall, and viscosity unimportant
o For a sphere of diameter d, the fall velocity, w, for values of Reynolds number less
than approx. 0.1 is given by Stokes law
𝐹 = 3𝜋𝜇𝑑𝑤 = 3𝜋𝑣𝜌𝑑𝑤
• Thus, fall velocity of spheres can be expressed as
ν = kinematic viscosity of the fluid
𝛾𝑠 − 𝛾 𝑔𝑑2 𝑆 − 1 𝑔𝑑 2  = specific weight of the fluid
𝑤= =
𝛾 18𝑣 18𝑣 s = specific weight of the sphere
g = acceleration of gravity
S =specific gravity
o Fall velocity over the entire range of Reynolds umbers, in terms of the drag
coefficient (CD) is given by

4 𝑔𝑑 𝛾𝑠 − 𝛾
𝑤2 =
3 𝐶𝐷 𝛾

o Drag coefficient in the Stokes range (R < 0.1) is given by

24
𝐶𝐷 =
𝑅
o For larger Reynolds number, CD can also be expressed as a function of R but it has
been determined experimentally
 Fall Velocity of Non‐Spherical Particles
o Shape effect is largest for relatively large particles ( > 300 μm) which deviate more
from a sphere than a small particle
o Fall velocity of non‐spherical sediment particles can be expressed as follows:
• For 1  d  100 m
𝑆 − 1 𝑔𝑑2
𝑤=
18𝑣
• For 100  d  1000 m
3 0.5
10𝑣 0.01 𝑆 − 1 𝑔𝑑
𝑤= 1+ −1
18 𝑣2
• For d  100 m
0.5
𝑤 = 1.1 𝑆 − 1 𝑔 • d =sieve diameter
• S = specific gravity (= 2.65)
• v = kinematic viscosity coefficient
 Effect of sediment concentration on fall velocity
o Fall velocity of a single particle is modified by the presence of other
particles due to the mutual interference of the particles
• If only a few closely spaced particles are in a fluid, they will fall in a
group with a velocity that is higher than that of a particle falling
alone
• If particles are dispersed throughout the fluid, the interference
between neighboring particles will tend to reduce their fall
velocity – referred to as hindered settling
o According to Richardson and Zaki, the fall velocity in a fluid suspension can be
determined as
𝑊𝑠,𝑚 = 1 − 𝑐 𝛾 𝑊𝑠
• Ws,m = particle fall velocity in a suspension
• Ws = particle fall velocity in a clear fluid
• c = volumetric sediment concentration
• γ = coefficient (varies from 4.6 to 2.3 for R increasing from 10-1 to 10-3;
= 4 for particles in the range of 50 to 500 m)
o Oliver formula
𝑊𝑠,𝑚 = 1 − 2.15𝑐 1 − 0.75𝑐 0.33 𝑊𝑠
• Which yields good results over the full range of concentrations
 Effect of Turbulence on Fall Velocity
o Spherical particles would settle more slowly in a fluid oscillating in the
vertical direction than in one at rest
o Reduction in fall velocity resulted from the non-linear relation between
drag on the particle and their velocity relative to the fluid
o Another mechanism may be intensive eddy production close to the bed
inducing vertically upward motions which may reduce the fall velocity
until the eddies dissolve at higher levels
o Asymmetric fluid motion in vertical direction with relatively high (short
duration) downward velocities may result in a slight increase of the fall
velocity
 Angle of Repose (φ)
o The angle of repose of submerged loose material is the side slope, with
respect to the horizontal,
o Referred to as the angle of internal friction, it is related to the particle
stability on a horizontal or slopping bed
o Usually determined from the initiation of motion experiment
o Sand sizes from 0.001 to 0.01 m show values in the range of 30o to 40o
 Size - Frequency Distribution
o Because natural sediments are made up of grains with wide ranges of size, shape,
and other characteristics, it is natural to resort to statistical methods to describe
these characteristics
o Process of obtaining size distribution by separation of a sample into a number of
size classes is known as mechanical analysis
o Results are usually presented as cumulative size‐frequency curves, where the
fraction or percentage by weight of a sediment that is smaller or larger than a
given size is plotted against the size
 Cumulative frequency of normal
Normal size-Frequency distribution curve
distribution i.e % finer
o Frequency distribution is characterized by
• Median particle size d50 which is the size at which 50% by weight is finer or coarser
• Mean particle size 𝑑𝑚 = σ 𝑝𝑖 𝑑𝑖 Τ100 with pi represents the percentage by weight
of each grain size fraction di
• Standard deviation 𝜎𝑑 = σ 𝑝𝑖 𝑑𝑖 − 𝑑𝑚 2 Τ100 or 𝜎𝑑 = 0.5 𝑑50 Τ𝑑16 + 𝑑84 Τ𝑑50
• Geometric mean 𝑑𝑔 = 𝑑84.1 𝑑15.9 0.5 , in which d84.1 and d15.9 are the grain sizes for
which 84.1% and 15.9% by weight, respectively of the sediment is finer
• Geometric standard deviation 𝜎𝑔 = 𝑑84.1 Τ𝑑15.9 0.5

• 𝑆𝑘𝑒𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑑𝑔 Τ𝑑50 ൗ𝑙𝑜𝑔𝜎𝑔

• 𝐾𝑢𝑟𝑡𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑠 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑑16 Τ𝑑5 𝑑95 Τ𝑑84 ൗ𝑙𝑜𝑔𝜎𝑔

 Parameters
o Particle diameter, D*
• Reflects the influence of gravity, density and viscosity and expressed as

1Τ3
𝑆−1 𝑔
𝐷∗ = 𝑑50
𝑣2

• d50 = median particle diameter of bed material

• s = specific gravity (=ρS/ρ)
• ν = kinematic viscosity coefficient
• g = gravitational acceleration
 Particle Mobility Parameter, θ
o Plane bed
• θ is the ratio of the hydrodynamic fluid (drag and lift) forces and the
submerged particle weight
• Fluid force is proportional to 𝜌𝑑2 𝑢∗ 2 and the submerged particle weight is
proportional to 𝜌𝑆 − 𝜌 𝑔𝑑3 , yielding a ratio of:

𝑢∗ 2 𝜏𝑏 ℎ𝐼
𝜃= = =
𝑆 − 1 𝑔𝑑50 𝜌𝑆 − 𝜌 𝑑50 𝑆 − 1 𝑔𝑑50

• τb = overall time-averaged bed-shear stress

• 𝑢∗ = overall bed shear velocity (τb = ρu2∗ )
• h = flow depth
• s = specific gravity (= ρs/ρ)
• I = energy gradient
 Suspension parameter, Z
o Z reflects the ratio of the downward gravity forces and the upward fluid forces
acting on a suspended sediment particle in a current and expressed as:

𝑊𝑠
𝑍=
𝛽𝑘𝑢∗
• 𝑊𝑠 = particle fall velocity in a clear fluid
• u* = overall bed-shear velocity
• K = von Karman constant
• β = ratio of sediment and fluid mixing coefficient
 Transport Rate, φ
o Dimensionless transport φ usually represented as:

𝑞𝑡
𝜙= 0.5 𝑔0.5 𝑑1.5
𝑆−1 50
o Another dimensionless expression is:

𝑞𝑡
𝜙=
𝑊𝑆 𝑑50
o 𝑞𝑡 = volumetric total transport rate (m2/s)
o d50 = median particle size of bed material (m)
o g = gravitational acceleration (m/s2 )
o WS = Particle fall velocity of bed material (m/s)
o S = specific density (ρs/ρ)
o Volumetric sediment transport rate (qt) can also be made dimensionless with
the specific flow discharge (q), yielding the discharge-weighted concentration

𝑞𝑡
𝐶𝑡 =
𝑞
• 𝑞𝑡 = volumetric total transport rate (m2/s)
• q = specific flow discharge (m2/s)
 Chapter Two
Fluid Velocities and Bed Shear Stress

 Overview of open channel flow

o Types of open channel flow
 Hydraulic regimes
 Velocity distribution over the depth
 Bed shear stress and bed friction
 Overview of open channel flow
o Open channel flow is a flow which has a free surface and flows due to gravity
o Pipes not flowing full also fall into the category of open channel flow
o In open channels, the flow is driven by the slope of the channel rather than the
pressure
o Types of Flows:
• Steady and Unsteady Flow
• Uniform and Non-uniform Flow
• Laminar and Turbulent Flow
• Sub-critical, Critical and Super-critical Flow
 Steady and Unsteady Flow
o Steady flow happens if the conditions (flow rate, velocity, depth etc.) do not
change with time.
o The flow is unsteady if the depth is changing with time
 Uniform and Non-uniform Flow
o If for a given length of channel, the velocity of flow, depth of flow, slope of
the channel and cross section remain constant, the flow is said to be
uniform
o The flow is non-uniform, if velocity, depth, slope and cross section is not
constant
 Non-uniform Flow
o Types of non-uniform flow:
• Gradually Varied Flow (GVF)
 If the depth of the flow in a channel changes gradually over a length of
the channel.
• Rapidly Varied Flow (RVF)
 If the depth of the flow in a channel changes abruptly over a small
length of channel
 Laminar and Turbulent Flow
o Laminar flow refers to flow in the form of thin sheet (Lamina).
• This is only possible when velocity of flow is very small.
o In the most of the cases, the velocity of flow is large therefore paths of each
particles are crossing each other. This type of flow is defined as turbulent flow.
o Laminar and turbulent flows can be identified based on the Reynolds number (Re)
o Re = ρVR/µ
• ρ = density of water = 1000 kg/m
• µ = dynamic viscosity
• R = Hydraulic Mean Depth = Area / Wetted Perimeter
• V = average velocity of fluid flow
 Re < 500: Laminar flow
 500 < Re < 1000: Transitional flow
 Re > 1000: Turbulent flow
 Sub-critical, Critical and Super-critical Flow
o The flow in open channel can be classified based on the Froude number (Fe)
o The Froude number is defined as
𝑉
𝐹=
𝑔𝐷
V = mean velocity
D = hydraulic depth of channel; it is equal to the ratio of wetted area (A)
to the top width of the channel (T)
𝐴
𝐷=
𝑇
 F < 1: Sub-critical flow
 F = 1: Critical flow
 F > 1: Super-critical flow
 Velocity and shear stress distribution
o Velocity is always vary across channel because of friction along the boundary
o The maximum velocity usually found just below the surface

a) Velocity distribution throughout the cross

section
b) Shear stress distribution on the wetted
perimeter
 Fluid Velocities and Bed Shear Stresses
o Sediment transport processes are dominant near the near-bed region
o Boundary layer flows: A boundary layer is defined as the flow region next to a
solid boundary where the flow field is affected by the presence of the boundary
• At the boundary, the velocity is zero
• In a boundary layer, momentum is gained from the main stream (or free
stream) and contributes to the boundary layer growth
• A boundary layer is characterized by its thickness  defined in terms of 99%
of the free-stream velocity;
𝛿 = 𝑧 𝑢 𝑧 = 0.99𝑈
 where z is measured perpendicular to the boundary and u is the free-
stream velocity.
 Equation of motion
o For steady uniform (turbulent) flow
𝜏𝑧 ∆𝑥∆𝑦 = 𝜌𝑔 ℎ − 𝑧 ∆𝑥∆𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
𝜏𝑧 = 𝜌𝑔 ℎ − 𝑧 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
𝜏𝑧 = 𝜌𝑔 ℎ − 𝑧 𝐼
where I = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 = 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
 varies linearly with z; for z = 0 this yields 𝜏𝑏 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝐼

Fluid forces and

bottom shear stress
 By definition
𝜏𝑏 = 𝜌 𝑢∗ 2

resulting

𝑢∗ = 𝑔ℎ𝐼 0.5 = 𝑔ℎ𝐼

Where
 b = bed-shear stress, N/m2
 𝑢∗ = bed-shear velocity, m/s
  = fluid density, kg/m3
 g = gravity acceleration, m/s2
 ℎ = flow depth, m
 Turbulent flow
o Turbulence is a random fluctuating velocity field which interacts with and derives
its energy from the mean flow field
o In turbulent flow, the water particles move in very irregular paths, causing an
exchange of momentum form one portion of fluid to another, and hence, the
turbulent shear stress (Reynolds stress)
o In turbulent flow both viscosity and turbulence contribute to shear stress
 Turbulent flow
o According to the Reynolds’ procedure, the shear stress in turbulent flow at height
z in a steady uniform flow can be described as:
𝑑𝑢
𝜏𝑧 = 𝜌𝑣 − 𝜌𝑢′ 𝑤 ′
𝑑𝑧
𝜏𝑧 = 𝜏𝑣 + 𝜏𝑡
𝑑𝑢
𝜏𝑣 = 𝜌𝑣
𝑑𝑧
o u = time-averaged fluid velocity at height z
o 𝜏𝑡 = 𝜌𝑢′ 𝑤 ′ = turbulence shear stress
o U’ = turbulent fluid velocity fluctuation in horizontal direction
o W’ = turbulent fluid velocity fluctuation in vertical direction
o  = fluid density
o  = kinematic viscosity coefficient
 Turbulent flow
o Although the time-averaged vertical velocity w is equal to zero (w = 0), the
vertical turbulent fluctuations are not equal to zero (w’  0)
o Consequently, the turbulent shear stress can be expressed as
𝜏𝑡 = −𝜌𝑢′ 𝑤 ′ ≠ 0

Turbulent shear
stress 𝜏𝑡 is dominant
in the major part of
the flow depth
 Turbulent flow

 In case of a smooth bottom, the viscous shear stress becomes dominant close to the
bottom because the turbulent fluctuations u’ and w’ die out near the bottom and are
equal to zero at the bottom (u’ = w’ at z = 0)
 The layer where viscous shear stress is dominant is called the viscous sublayer (δv)
 The most important turbulent sublayer is the logarithmic sublayer
 Between the viscous sublayer and the logarithmic sublayer there is a transition
sublayer, sometimes called buffer sublayer
 Above the viscous sublayer the flow is turbulent
 Hydraulic Regimes
o The roughness elements mainly influence the velocity distribution close to the
bottom by generating eddies distribution close to the bottom by generating
eddies (with a size of the order of the roughness elements)
o Further away, the eddies will rapidly be absorbed in the general existing
turbulence pattern
o The type of flow regime can be related to the ratio of the Nikurdase roughness
(ks) and a length scale of the viscous sublayer (v/u*) in which v = kinematic
viscosity coefficient (m2/s) and u* = bed‐shear velocity (m/s)
o Based on experimental results, it was found that:
o Hydraulically smooth flow, for
𝑘𝑠 𝑢∗ 𝑘𝑠
= ≤5
𝑣 Τ𝑢∗ 𝑣
 Hydraulic Regimes
o Roughness elements are much smaller than the thickness of the viscous sublayer
and do not affect the velocity distribution
o Hydraulically rough flow, for
𝑘𝑠 𝑢∗ 𝑘𝑠
= ≥ 70
𝑣 Τ𝑢∗ 𝑣
• Bed roughness is so large that it produces eddies close to the bottom
• Viscous sublayer does not exist and the flow velocity distribution is not
dependent on the viscosity (v) of the fluid
o Hydraulically transitional flow, for
𝑢∗ 𝑘𝑠
5< < 70
𝑣
• The velocity distribution is affected by viscosity as well as by the bottom
roughness
 Mixing Length
o Fluid parcel travels over a length  before its momentum is transferred, i.e., before
losing their identity by mixing
 Mixing Length
o Fluid parcel, located in layer 1 and having the velocity u1, moves to layer 2 due to
eddy motion
o There is no momentum transfer during movement, i.e., the velocity of the fluid
parcel is still u1 when it just arrives at layer 2, and decreases to u2 sometimes later
by momentum exchange with other fluid in layer 2
o This action will speed up the fluid in layer 2 which can be seen as a turbulent shear
stress t acting on layer 2 trying to accelerate layer 2
o Horizontal instantaneous velocity fluctuation of the fluid parcel in layer 2 is

𝑑𝑢
𝑢′ = 𝑢1 − 𝑢2 = 𝑙
𝑑𝑧
 Mixing Length
o Assuming the vertical instantaneous velocity fluctuation having the same
magnitude
′
𝑑𝑢
𝑤 = −𝑙
𝑑𝑧
 where negative sign is due to the downward movement of the fluid parcel
o Products of velocity fluctuations were then formulated in terms of the mixing
length
2
𝑑𝑢
𝑢′ 𝑤 ′ = −𝑙2
𝑑𝑧 o Turbulent shear stress depends
o Turbulent shear stress now becomes on the magnitude of the velocity
2 gradient and the mixing length
𝑑𝑢
𝜏𝑡 = −𝜌𝑢′ 𝑤 ′ = 𝜌𝑙2
𝑑𝑧
 Mixing Length
o Mixing length is related to the distance to the wall:
𝑙 = 𝑘𝑧
 k is the von Kármán constant ( ≅ 0.4)
o After substituting the above equation into the turbulent shear stress and total
shear stress equations, the viscous and turbulent shear stress components are

2
𝑑𝑢 2 2
𝑑𝑢
𝜏 𝑧 =𝜇 + 𝜌𝑘 𝑧
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧

𝑑𝑢 2 2 𝑑𝑢 2
 Note that 𝜇 is viscous term, and 𝜌𝑘 𝑧 is turbulent term
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧

o The shear stress 𝜏 𝑧 in the region close to the wall is assumed to remain constant
and equal to the boundary shear stress 𝜏𝑏 = 𝜌𝑢∗2
 Turbulent sublayer
o In the turbulent sublayer the total shear stress contains only the turbulent shear
stress
𝑧
𝜏𝑡 𝑧 = 𝜏𝑏 1 −
ℎ
o By Prandtl’s mixing length theory
2
𝑑𝑢
𝜏𝑡 = 𝜌𝑙2
𝑑𝑧
𝑧 1Τ2
o Assuming the mixing length 𝑙 = 𝑘𝑧 1 −
ℎ
o Where von Kármán constant k = 0.4, we get
𝑑𝑢 𝜏𝑏 Τ𝜌 𝑢∗
= =
𝑑𝑧 𝑘𝑧 𝑘𝑧
o Integration of the equation gives the famous logarithmic velocity profile
𝑢∗ 𝑧
𝑢 𝑧 = 𝑙𝑛
𝑘 𝑧0
 Viscous sublayer
o In the case of hydraulically smooth flow there is a viscous sublayer
o Viscous shear stress is constant in this layer and equal to the bottom shear stress
𝑑𝑢
𝜏𝑣 = 𝜌𝑣 = 𝜏𝑏 = 𝜌𝑢∗2
𝑑𝑧
o Integrating and applying 𝑢𝑧=0 = 0 gives
𝜏𝑏 Τ𝜌 𝑢∗2 Linear velocity distribution
𝑢 𝑧 = 𝑧= 𝑧 in the viscous sublayer
𝑣 𝑣
o Linear velocity distribution intersect with the logarithmic velocity distribution at the
elevation 𝑧 = 11.6𝑣Τ𝑢∗ yielding a theoretical viscous sublayer thickness
𝑣
𝛿𝑣 = 11.6
𝑢∗
o With shear velocities of the order of 0.1 m/s, the laminar sub-layer thickness in
open-channel flow is typically of the order of 0.1 mm, which is the size of sands
o Generally speaking, a plane bed surface is hydraulically smooth for silts and clays
 Transition (buffer) zone
o Approximation to the velocity profile between turbulent flow and the laminar sub-
layer has been given by Spalding
𝑢∗ 𝑧 𝑘 𝑢
෤ 2 2 𝑘𝑢෤ 2 3
= 𝑢෤ + 0.1108 𝑒 𝑘𝑢෥ − 1 − 𝑘𝑢෤ − −
𝑣 2 6
𝑢෤ = 𝑢(𝑧)Τ𝑢∗
o Alternatively, an explicit formulation has been proposed by Guo and Julien (2007)
𝑢(𝑧) −1
𝑢∗ 𝑧 7 −3
𝑢∗ 𝑧 −4
𝑢∗ 𝑧
= 7𝑡𝑎𝑛 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 − 0.52𝑡𝑎𝑛
𝑢∗ 7𝑣 3 7𝑣 7𝑣
• This formulation with argument in radians is useful for
𝑢∗ 𝑧
4≤ ≤ 70
𝑣
• Logarithmic velocity profile is valid when
𝑢∗ 𝑧
70 ≤ ≤ 1000
𝑣
 Velocity profiles for smooth surfaces
 Hydraulically rough and smooth boundaries
o Natural boundaries are hydraulically smooth when the surface grain roughness

𝛿 𝑢∗ 𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑠 < 𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝑒∗ = <4
3 𝑣
o A transition zone exists where

𝛿 𝑢∗ 𝑧
< 𝑑𝑠 < 6𝛿 𝑜𝑟 4 < < 70
3 𝑣
o Turbulent flows are hydraulically rough when the grain diameter ds far exceeds
the laminar sub-layer thickness
𝑑𝑠 > 6𝛿 𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝑒∗ > 70
 Hydraulically rough and smooth boundaries
o In early experiments, Nikuradse glued sand particles and measured velocity
profiles for turbulent flow over boundaries with grain roughness height ks
o On rough boundaries, the corresponding value of

𝑢(𝑧) 1 30𝑧 2.3 30𝑧 30𝑧

= 𝑙𝑛 ≡ 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ≅ 5.75𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝑢∗ 𝑘 𝑘𝑠 𝑘 𝑘𝑠 𝑘𝑠

o In practice, gravel- and cobble-bed streams are considered hydraulically rough

o Compared with the particle size distribution of the bed material, the roughness
height has been shown to be approximately
𝑘𝑠 ≅ 3𝑑90 𝑜𝑟 𝑘𝑠 ≅ 6.8𝑑50
 Hydraulically rough and smooth boundaries
o Flow velocity at an elevation z = d90 is equal to 𝑣𝑥 = 5.75𝑢∗ , and the velocity
against a particle is thus roughly 𝑣𝑝 ≈ 6𝑢∗
o Reference velocity is the velocity at 𝑧 = 𝑘𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝑟 = 8.5𝑢∗
o Integration constant of the logarithmic velocity profile, z0 corresponding to the
elevation of zero velocity is given as
• Smooth flow regime:
𝑣 𝑢∗ 𝑘𝑠
𝑧0 = 0.11 𝑓𝑜𝑟 ≤5
𝑢∗ 𝑣
• Rough flow regime:
𝑢∗ 𝑘𝑠
𝑧0 = 0.033𝑘𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 ≥ 70
𝑣
• Transition flow regime:
𝑣 𝑢∗ 𝑘𝑠
𝑧0 = 0.11 + 0.033𝑘𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 5 < ≤ 70
𝑢∗ 𝑣
 Hydraulically rough and smooth boundaries
 Resistance to flow
o In open channels, resistance to flow describes the property of the channel to reduce
the mean flow velocity. Three commonly used parameters that define resistance to
flow and respective flow velocity relationships are:
 Darcy-Weisbach friction factor, f
8 8
𝑢ത = 𝑔𝑅𝐼 = 𝑢∗ R = hydraulic radius
𝑓 𝑓 I = energy slope
 Chezy coefficient, C
𝑢ത = 𝐶 𝑅𝐼 Both f and I describe
 Manning coefficient, n resistance to flow, but
1 2Τ3 1Τ2 describes flow conveyance
𝑢ത = 𝑅 𝐼
𝑛
o The following identities can be defined from 𝑢∗ = 𝑔𝑅𝐼
𝑢ത 𝐶 8 𝑅1/6
= = =
𝑢∗ 𝑔 𝑓 𝑛 𝑔
 Mean Velocity
o Averaging logarithmic velocity profile over the depth yields:

ℎ ℎ ℎ
1 1 𝑢∗ 𝑧 𝑢∗ 𝑧 𝑢∗ 𝑧0 ℎ
𝑢ത = න 𝑢 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = න 𝑙𝑛 𝑑𝑧 = න 𝑙𝑛 𝑑𝑧 = − 1 + 𝑙𝑛
ℎ ℎ 𝑘 𝑧0 𝑘ℎ 𝑧0 𝑘 ℎ 𝑧0
𝑧0 𝑧0 𝑧0

𝑢∗ ℎ 𝑢∗ ℎ
𝑢ത ≈ −1 + 𝑙𝑛 = 𝑙𝑛
𝑘 𝑧0 𝑘 𝑧0 𝑒
o Neglecting the z0/h parameter in 𝑢ത , the depth-averaged flow velocity does occur at
z = h/e  0.37h, in which e is the base of natural logarithm (e  2.72)
• This is the basis for the “Six-tenths-depth rule” for measuring local average
vertical velocity
 Mean Velocity
o Applying the average velocity (ത
𝑢) equation in the logarithmic velocity profile, the
velocity distribution can also be expressed as:

𝑢ത 𝑧
𝑢= 𝑙𝑛
𝑧0 Τℎ − 1 + 𝑙𝑛 ℎΤ𝑧0 𝑧0

o The mean flow velocity for hydraulically smooth and rough boundaries are,
respectively
𝑢ത 𝑢∗ ℎ
≅ 5.75𝑙𝑜𝑔 + 3.25
𝑢∗ 𝑣
and
𝑢ത ℎ 12ℎ
≅ 5.75𝑙𝑜𝑔 + 6.25 ≅ 5.75𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝑢∗ 𝑘𝑠 𝑘𝑠
 Mean Velocity
o For gravel-bed streams, Bray (1982) recommended
𝑘𝑠 ≅ 3.1𝑑90
𝑘𝑠 ≅ 3.5𝑑84
𝑘𝑠 ≅ 5.2𝑑65
𝑘𝑠 ≅ 6.8𝑑50
o The following relationship appears frequently in the literature
𝑘𝑠 ≅ 3𝑑90
o The resulting mean velocity for hydraulically rough channels with plane surface
can thus be approximated by
𝑢ത 4ℎ 2ℎ
≅ 5.75𝑙𝑜𝑔 ≅ 5.75𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝑢∗ 𝑑90 𝑑50
 Bed Shear Stress and Bed Friction
o The overall time-averaged bed-shear stress is defined as:

𝑢ത 2 1
𝜏𝑏 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝐼 = 𝜌𝑔 2 = 𝜌𝑓𝑢ത 2
𝐶 8
• ℎ = water depth (m)
• I = energy line gradient
• 𝑢ത = depth averaged velocity
• C = Chézy-coefficient (𝐶 2 = 8𝑔Τ𝑓), (m2/s)
• f = friction factor of Darcy-Weisbach
• ks = effective bed roughness height (m)
•  = fluid density (kg/m3)
• g = gravitational acceleration (m/s2)
 Bed Shear Stress and Bed Friction
o The frictions factor for laminar flow in a wide open channel is:

64
𝑓=
𝑅𝑒
• 𝑅𝑒 = 𝑢ത ℎΤ𝑣 = Reynolds number
0.5
• Using 𝑢∗ = 𝑔ℎ𝐼 𝑖𝑛 𝑢ത , 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠

𝑔0.5 ℎ 2.3𝑔0.5 0.37ℎ

𝐶= −1 + 𝑙𝑛 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝑘 𝑧0 𝑘 𝑧0

• or using k = 0.4 and g = 9.81 m/s2

0.37ℎ
𝐶 = 18𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝑧0
 Bed Shear Stress and Bed Friction
• or using the corresponding expressions for integration constant, z0, yields:
• Hydraulic smooth flow:
12ℎ
𝐶 = 18𝑙𝑜𝑔
3.3 𝑣Τ𝑢∗
11.4ℎ
𝐶 = 18𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝑣𝐶 Τ𝑢ത
• Hydraulic rough flow:
12ℎ
𝐶 = 18𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝑘𝑠
• Transitional flow:
12ℎ
𝐶 = 18𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝑘𝑠 + 3.3 𝑣Τ𝑢∗
12ℎ
𝐶 = 18𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝑘𝑠 + 1.05 𝑣𝐶 Τ𝑢ത
 Bed Shear Stress and Bed Friction
• The friction factor follows from:

8𝑔
𝑓= 2
𝐶
• That yields for hydraulic rough flow:

−2
12ℎ
𝑓 = 0.24 𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝑘𝑠

• Rough regime equation can be approximated by the Strickler formula (in the
range of C = 40 to 70 m0.5/s):

1Τ6
ℎ
𝐶 = 25
𝑘𝑠
 Bed Shear Stress and Bed Friction
• Another commonly used resistance equation is the Manning equation, which
reads as:

ℎ2Τ3 𝐼 1Τ2
𝑢ത =
𝑛
where
𝑛 = 0.045 𝑘𝑠 1Τ6 = 𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
h = water depth (m)
ks = effective bed roughness (m)
 Note: the water depth (ℎ) should be replaced by the hydraulic radius for
narrow channels
 Turbulent Flow
o In a turbulent boundary layer, the flow can be divided into three
regions:
1) an inner wall region next to the wall where the turbulent
stress is negligible and the viscous stress is large
2) an outer region where the turbulent stress is large and the
viscous stress is small
3) an overlap region sometimes called a turbulent zone
 Turbulent Flow
o Log-wake law
• Departure from logarithmic velocity profiles are observed as the distance
from the boundary increases
• A more complete description of the velocity distribution u(z) is possible after
including the law of the wake for steady turbulent open-channel flow

𝑢 𝑧 2.3 𝑢∗ 𝑧 ∆𝑢 𝑧 2𝜋𝑤 2 𝜋𝑧
= 𝑙𝑜𝑔 + 5.5 + + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (a)
𝑢∗ 𝑘 𝑣 ถ𝑢∗ 𝑘 2ℎ
𝑙𝑎𝑤 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

where
ℎ = total flow depth
Δu(z) = velocity reduction due to boundary roughness
w = wake strength coefficient
 Turbulent Flow
o The wake flow function equals zero near the boundary and increases gradually
towards 2w⁄k at the upper surface ( z = ℎ)
o With u(z) = u(zm) at z = ℎ, the upper limit velocity profile is
𝑢 𝑧𝑚 2.3 𝑢 ℎ ∆𝑢 𝑧 2𝜋𝑤
= 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ∗ + 5.5 − + (b)
𝑢∗ 𝑘 𝑣 𝑢∗ 𝑘

o The velocity defect law obtained after subtracting Equation (a) from (b)
𝑢 𝑧𝑚 − 𝑢(𝑧) 2𝜋𝑤 2.3 𝑧 2𝜋𝑤 2
𝜋𝑧
= − 𝑙𝑜𝑔 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝑢∗ 𝑘 𝑘 ℎ 𝑘 2ℎ
o In this form, the term in brackets is the original velocity defect equation for the
logarithmic law
o The wake flow term vanishes as z approaches zero and the velocity defect
asymptotically reaches the term in braces as z/ℎ diminishes
 Turbulent Flow
o This means that the von Karman constant k must be defined from the slope of the
logarithmic part in the lower portion (lower 15%) of the velocity profile
 Turbulent Flow
o The wake strength coefficient w is then determined by projecting the straight line,
fitting in the lower portion of the velocity profile, to z/ℎ = 1
 Turbulent Flow
𝑘 𝑢 𝑧𝑚 −𝑢(𝑧)
o and calculating w from 𝜋𝑤 =
2 𝑢∗
 Chapter Six
Watershed erosion
 What is watershed? What is erosion?
 Watershed erosion
o A watershed is an area of land that drains all the streams and rainfall to a
common outlet - the outlet can be any point along a stream channel.
o Watershed erosion is the removal of soils from their original site
• Removes top fertile soil
• Source of sediment that pollutes streams and fills reservoirs
• Contributes to non-point source pollution
o Watershed erosion composed of three sub-process:
• Detachment,
• Transport and
• Deposition
 Watershed erosion
o Two major types of erosion
a) Geological erosion
b) Accelerated erosion
o Geological erosion: includes soil-forming as well as soil eroding processes which
maintain the soil in a favorable balance.
o Accelerated erosion: includes the deterioration and loss of soil as a result of man’s
activities. Only accelerated erosion is considered in conservation activities
o Types of soil erosion
• Splash erosion
• Sheet erosion
• Rill erosion
• Gully erosion
 Watershed erosion
o Splash erosion:
• is the first stage of the erosion process.
• It occurs when raindrops hit bare soil.
• The explosive impact breaks up soil aggregates so that individual soil particles
are 'splashed' onto the soil surface.

o Sheet erosion:
• It is the planar removal of surface soil by
the action of either raindrop splash,
shallow flows of surface of water, or even
by wind
 Watershed erosion
• Sheet erosion can be prevented by maintaining plant cover (preventing splash
erosion) and maximizing infiltration of ponded water through the
maintenance of soil structure and organic matter
o Rill erosion:
• It is caused by slow movement of water along small channels on bare land
with less vegetative cover.
• It occurs when runoff water forms small channels as it concentrates down a
slope. These rills can be up to 0.3 m deep. If they become any deeper than
0.3 m they are referred to as gully erosion
 Watershed erosion
o Gully erosion:
• Gully erosion creates a deep channels that the surface runoff is
further enhanced when the water movement is faster, creating a
deeper channels.

• Gully erosion produces channels

larger then rills.
• These channels carry water during
and immediately after rain.
 Watershed erosion
o Principles of gully erosion:
• The rate of gully erosion depends primarily on the runoff producing
characteristics of the watershed, the drainage area, soil characteristics, the
alignment, size and shape of gully and the slope in the channel.
o Gully development processes
• Water fall erosion at the gully head
• Channel erosion caused by water flowing through the gully or by raindrop
splash on unprotected soil
• Alternate freezing and thawing of exposed soil banks
• Slides or mass movement of soil in the gully
 Four stages of gully development
o Stage1: Channel erosion by down ward scour of the topsoil. This stage
normally proceeds slowly where the topsoil is fairly resistant to erosion
o Stage2: Upstream movement of the gully head and enlargement of the gully
in width and depth. The gully cuts to the horizon and the weak parent
material is rapidly removed.
o Stage3: Healing stage with vegetation to grow in the channel.
o Stage 4: Stabilization of the gully. The channel reaches a stable gradient,
gully walls reach and stable slope and vegetation begins to grow in
sufficient abundance to anchor the soil and permit development of new
topsoil
 Major factors affecting erosion by water
a) Climate,
b) Soil,
c) Vegetation and
d) Topography
o Climate: precipitation, wind, etc.
• Note that wind can change raindrop velocities and angle of impact.
o Soil: physical properties of soil –
• The extent to which it can be dispersed and transported.
• Physical properties of soil include:
 Soil structure, texture, organic matter, moisture content, density or
compactness, chemical and biological characteristics
 Major factors affecting erosion by water
o Vegetation:
• Major effect of vegetation in reducing erosion are:
 Interception of rainfall
 Retardation of erosion by decreasing surface velocity
 Physical restraint of soil movement
 Improvement of aggregation and porosity of the soil by roots and
plants residue
o Topography:
• Features that influence erosion are: Degree of slope, length of slope, size
and shape of the watershed, etc.
 Soil Erosion Models
o There are several approaches for the estimation of the average annual soil loss:
• Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE)
 Empirical model
 Estimates soil erosion by raindrop impact and surface runoff
• Modified Soil Loss Equation (MUSLE)
• Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE)
• WEPP
• Rose Erosion Model
• CREST
• Others
 What are the Factors of USLE?
o The critical factors affecting soil erosion were based on the empirical formula
developed by Wischmeir and Smith (1978) widely known as USLE.
• Erosive power of rainfall (R)
• Soil erodibility (K)
• Topographic Factor (LS)
• Vegetative cover (C)
• Erosion measures (P)
• The USLE is expressed by the formula:
A = R * K* L*S * C * P
A = Annual soil loss
R = Erosivity (EI30 = 10.8 + 4.15Rm)
K = Erodibility (K = [(0.043pH)+(0.0621/OM)+(0.0082S)-(0.0062C)]Si
L = Slope length factor, S = Slope gradient factor, C = Cover factor
P = Erosion control factor
o Rainfall
• R is the rainfall and runoff erosivity index
• R depends on the amount of raindrop energy and rainfall intensity
• This index is equal to the mean annual erosivity value divided by 100:
R = EI30/100
• The value of EI for a given rainstorm equals the product: total storm energy
(E) times the maximum 30-min intensity (I30),
• Where
 E is in hunderds of foot-tones per acre
 I30 is in inches per hour (in/h)
o Soil erodibility factor
• Soil erodibility is called K factor
• It is the erodibility of the soil – the ability of soils to resist erosion
• Depends on soil structure, texture and composition
• K ranges from 0 – 0.7
 The higher K factor indicates a lower water infiltration rate thus more prone
to erosion
o Slope length Factor
• Also called the L factor
• Slope length determines the concentration of water
 The greater the length of slope of the area, the greater the concentration of
water
o Slope steepness factor
• This is the S factor
• It is the steepness of an area
• Combination of S factor and L factor gives topographic factor (LS)
• The greater the slope the more the erosion
o Cover management (also called C factor)
• It represents the influence of cropping systems and management variables
• These variables are:
 Prior land use, canopy cover, soil surface cover, and surface roughness
• If a C factor of 0.15 represents the specified cropping management system, it
signifies that the erosion will be reduced to 15% of the amount that would have
occurred under continuous fallow conditions
o Supporting Practices Factor
• This is the P factor
• These are the erosion control practices: Contouring, strip cropping, terracing etc.
• Areas with no conservation measures have a P value of 1.0
 Chapter Seven
Sediment Samplers and Sampling

 Sediment samplers and sampling

o A major part of our knowledge and understanding of the morphology and behavior
of natural water course has been gained or derived from many long-term
observations
o This knowledge has to be based on regular measurements or measurements
executed during special river survey
o The complex phenomena of fluvial sedimentation cause the required
measurements and related analyses of sediment data to be relatively expensive in
comparison with other kinds of hydrologic data
 Sediment samplers and sampling
o Sediment data needs practical concern. Some of the general categories include:
1) The evaluation of sediment yield with respect to different natural environmental
conditions – geology, soils, climate, runoff, topography, ground cover, and size of
drainage area
2) The evaluation of sediment yield with respect to different kinds of land use
3) The time distribution of sediment concentration and transport rate in streams
4) The evaluation of erosion and deposition in channel systems
5) The amount and size characteristics of sediment delivered to a body of water
6) The characteristics of sediment deposits as related to particle size and flow
conditions
7) The relations between sediment chemistry, and water quality
 Sediment samplers and sampling
o The amount of sediment passing a section can be determined:
• directly – involves determination of weight of sediment passing a section in a
particular time
• indirectly – requires measurement of the sediment concentration, the cross-
sectional area, and the velocity of particles in motion
o An important phase prior to the actual field survey is the selection of the most
appropriate instruments from a wide range of instruments
o The selection of instruments is primarily dependent on:
• variables to be measured
• available facilities
• required accuracy
 Sediment samplers and sampling
o The development of adequate measurement equipment and techniques is
dependent on a thorough understanding of the erosion, transportation, and
deposition phenomena
o The accuracy of sediment discharge determination is dependent not only upon
the field methods and equipment utilized in the collection of data, but upon
knowledge of the distribution of the sediment in the flow
• understanding of the vertical and horizontal distribution of sediment in a
stream cross section
• information on the size of the bed material
 Sediment samplers and sampling
o In alluvial streams, the concentration of coarse material transported in suspension
depend mainly upon
• velocity
• concentration of fine sediment
• bed configuration
• shape of the measuring section
o Therefore, the concentration of coarse material in suspension may increase or
decrease from section to section, even though water and total sediment discharge
remain uniform
 Sediment samplers and sampling
o Bed-load sampling
• Bed load is difficult to measure for several reasons
 Any mechanical device placed on the bed disturbs the flow and hence
the rate of bed-load movement
 Bed load is characterized by extensive spatial and temporal variability
• In general, the overall sampling efficiency of a specific sampler is not
constant, but varies with
 size distributions
 stream velocities near the bed
 turbulence
 rate of bed-load transport
 the degree of filling of the sampler
 Sediment samplers and sampling
o Bed-load sampling
• Due to the significant temporal and spatial variation in bed-load transport,
many repetitive measurements must be made at a number of different
lateral locations
• The sampling sequence must be long enough to include the passage of
several bed forms to account for the temporal variation in transport rate
• Consideration must be given to the variation in hydraulic forces through a
reach that may cause certain size classes to move primarily as bed load in
one reach, but as suspended load in another reach
 Sediment samplers and sampling
o Bed-load sampling
• This extensive sampling needs to be made over the entire range of stream
discharges in order to obtain a reliable bed-load transport rating curve
• It is apparent that temporal variations are more significant than spatial
variations, then a smaller number of verticals may be sampled (about five),
but many replications at each vertical should be conducted
• The following instruments can be distinguished: Box- or basket-type sampler
 They collect the sediment by causing a reduction of the flow velocity
and/or screening the sediment from the flow
 Box samplers are usually open at the front and top with rigid plates on
other sides, bottom and back
Box- or basket-type sampler
 Sediment samplers and sampling
o Bed-load sampling
• Basket- or box-type sampler
 Basket sampler is normally provided
with mesh on all sides except the front
and bottom
 Basket type sampler causes considerable
resistance to flow; hence bed-load is
dropped in front of the sampler
 Sediment samplers and sampling
o Bed-load sampling
• Tray- or pan-type sampler
 The bed-load moves up the entrance ramp and drops into the slop at
the rear
 Sediment samplers and sampling
o Bed-load sampling
• Slot-type sampler
 A portion of a river bed is provided
with a slot usually extending over the
entire width of the river
 The bed load and water dropping into
the slot is continuously pumped into
a tank
 The weight of sediment collected in a
known time is noted
 Sediment samplers and sampling
o Bed-load sampling
• Pressure difference type samplers
 Sediment samplers and sampling
o Bed-load sampling
• Delft Nile sampler
 Sediment samplers and sampling
o Bed-load sampling
• Helley-Smith sampler
 A variation of the Arnhem pressure-difference Sampler
 Sediment samplers and sampling
o Bed-load sampling
• Indirect measurement of bed-load
 Indirect measuring bed-load samplers are of recent origin and have been
used in very few cases so far
 Field experience with these samplers is limited
• Acoustic instruments
 A base plate or fork shaped rod with a microphone attachment is lowered
on to the stream bed
 The sound of particle impact on the plate and inter-particle collisions are
picked up by the microphone
 Sediment samplers and sampling
o Bed-load sampling
• Acoustic instruments
 This is then transmitted by a magnetic tape recorder, an oscilloscope or
a headphone
 Useful in determining only the relative bed load transport in the cross
section and the relative variation with time
 Such information is useful in the choice of the number and location of
sampling points
 More suitable for streams with coarse bed material than for those with
fine bed material
 Sediment samplers and sampling
o Bed-load sampling
• Ultrasonic method
 Instruments using this method are devised on the principle that the
amount of acoustic energy absorbed by a sediment-water mixture
is dependent on the sediment concentration
 Measurement of energy absorbed when acoustic energy is
transmitted through the medium enables computation of the
concentration
 Suited for streams carrying fine sediment at high concentrations
 Sediment samplers and sampling
o Bed-load sampling
• Bed-load rate from dune profile
 In sand-bed channel, the rate of bed-load transport depends largely
on the motion of large-size bed forms such as dunes
 If dune profile and its velocity are known, one can determine the
rate of bed-load transport
 The bed load transport corresponds to the dune volume divided by
the time required during a full wavelength migration
 Sediment samplers and sampling
o Suspended-load sampling
• The purpose of suspended-sediment sampler is to obtain a
representative sample of the water-sediment mixture moving in the
stream in the vicinity of the sampler
• The determination of suspended load in a cross-section of a stream is
based on measurements in a number of verticals
• The following instruments can be distinguished:
 depth integrating sampler
 point integrating sampler
 Sediment samplers and sampling
o Suspended-load sampling
• Depth-Integrating Samplers
 Designed to accumulate a water-sediment sample as the instrument is
lowered to the streambed and raised to the surface at a uniform rate
 The nozzle is always open
 The sampling depth is limited depending on the size of the nozzle
 Two types of samplers can be distinguished:
 Hand-held – where streams can be wedded or where a low bridge
is available
 Cable and reel – when streams cannot be wedded
 Sediment samplers and sampling
o Suspended-load sampling
• Point-Integrating Samplers
 Can be used to collect a sample at any selected point in the water
column, or they can be used to sample continuously over a range of up
to 30 ft in depth
 More versatile than the simpler depth-integrating types
 Because of their greater mass, point-integrating samplers can be used in
streams too deep or swift for the standard depth-integrating samplers
 Sampling is controlled by a rotary valve, which is operated electrically by
the operator
 Sediment samplers and sampling
o Bed material sampling
• Done to collect samples of the sediment of which the stream bed is
composed
• Deposited sediment is sampled to provide information related to:
 Size, specific gravity, shape, and mineralogy of the particles that
make up the bed
 Stratigraphy, density, and composition of the deposits
 Quantity and distribution of contaminants
 Sediment samplers and sampling
o Bed material sampling
• The sampling design of determining location of sampling stations as well as
the depth at which samples will be taken must take into account the
following general facts
 Composition of bed material on the stream bed changes with discharge
carried by the stream
 The composition of the bed material may vary along the length of the
stream as well as the vertical
• Two types of samplers can be distinguished:
 Samplers which are filled by dragging
 Samplers which collect material by grabbing or digging
 Sediment samplers and sampling
o Bed material sampling
• For sediment transport studies
 Typically, streambed samples are obtained in order to determine the
potential for sediment transport
 For this purpose, undisturbed samples are not required
 The sample is taken from the upper 2 in. of the bed surface in sand-bed
streams
 In gravel-bed streams, samples of the armor layer and the subsurface
layers should be collected
 The sample depth for the armor layer should be about equal to the
diameter of the maximum size class in the bed
 Sediment samplers and sampling
o Bed material sampling
• For sediment transport studies
 The depth and quantity of sample for the subsurface depends on the
size of sediment and the equipment being used
 When sampling for sediment transport studies, do not sample over long
distances along the stream
 Collect all samples along cross sections to characterize that reach
 Then proceed to the next sampling cross section and repeat the
procedure
 Chapter Eight
Reservoir Sedimentation

 Reservoir Sedimentation
o Today an increasing number of dams are reaching the end of their
“design life” and their operation is increasingly affected by long-term
sedimentation issues ignored at the time of construction.
o Dam sites are limited and irreplaceable.
o But, when sedimentation is controlled, dams can have useful lives greatly
exceeding any other type of engineered infrastructure.
 Sedimentation Rate
o Sedimentation rate is expressed as of the percentage of total original reservoir
volume lost each year.
o Crowder (1987) estimated the rate of storage loss in the US at 0.22% per year.
o Dendy et al. (1973) showed that storage loss tends to be more rapid in smaller
reservoirs than in larger ones due to generally higher capacity: inflow ratios and
lower specific sediment yields in the latter.
o The rate of storage loss in other parts of the world is generally higher than in
the US, and Mahmod (1987) estimated that storage capacity worldwide is being
lost at an annual rate of 1%.
 Reservoir Half-Life
o Reservoir life is computed by dividing total reservoir volume by annual
sedimentation volume during the early years of impoundment, thereby
estimating the number of years to completely fill the reservoir.
o Reservoir half life is the time required to lose half the original capacity to
sedimentation is thus a much better approximation of when sedimentation
problems will become truly serious.
o Loehlein (1999) describes problems including hindered floodgate operation and
clogging of hydropower and water supply intakes due to sedimentation at
several flood control reservoirs in Pennsylvania, with only 6% storage loss.
 Reservoir Life
o Reservoir life has traditionally been conceptualized based on the continuous
filling of the usable storage pool, presumably followed by abandonment of the
structure.
o Three stage
• Stage 1: continuous sediment trapping - During the first stage of reservoir
life, continuous sediment trapping occurs during all inflowing flood events.
• A cross section perpendicular to the axis of the reservoir in continuously
impounded areas will reveal a depositional sequence that fills the deepest
part of the cross section first, eventually producing sediment deposits that
are essentially flat.
 Reservoir Life
• Stage 2: Partial sediment balance - During the second stage, the reservoir
transitions from a continuously depositional environment to a mixed
regime of deposition and removal
• If sedimentation is allowed to proceed uninterrupted, the reservoir at this
stage will become largely filled with sediment and a channel-floodplain
configuration will develop in the former pool area.
• The inflow and outflow of fine sediment may be nearly balanced but
coarse bed material continues to accumulate. Sediment management
techniques, such as drawdown to pass sediment-laden flood flows
through the impounded reach or periodic flushing, can produce a partial
sediment balance to help preserve useful reservoir capacity.
 Reservoir Life
• Stage 3: Full sediment balance - A long-term balance between sediment
inflow and outflow is achieved when both the fine and the coarse portions
of the inflowing load can be transported beyond the dam or artificially
removed on a sustainable bases.
• However, sediment movement through the impoundment condition
because sediment may accumulate during smaller events and be washed
out during large floods or may be removed at intervals by dredging or
flushing.
 Reservoir Life

Lake Francis Case on Missouri River above Randall Dam

 Capacity-History Curves
• Reservoir volumetric capacity will
steadily diminish in a reservoir that is
continuously impounded, although the
rate of storage loss will tend to
decrease as the reservoir’s hydrologic
size and trap efficiency diminish.
• Capacity-history curves may be drawn
to illustrate historical and anticipated
changes in usable storage volume
under different management options.
 Sediment Impact
 Sediment delivery to reservoirs
o Sediment yields vary remarkably over time and space
o This variability must be understood to properly interpret data, to predict
sediment yields, and to successfully implement strategies for reducing
sediment inflow or passing sediment laden flows around or through the
storage pool.
 Erosion and sediment yield
o Erosion rates from farms and watersheds are computed by empirical models,
• the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) and its variants (MUSLE, RUSLE)
• More complex physically based detachment and transport models, such
as AGNPS, ANSWERS, CREAMS, SEDIMONT, and WEPP
o Sediment yields:
• Is the amount of sediment transported beyond or delivered to a specified
point in the drainage network over a specified time period.
• Always lass than and typically much less than the amount of sediment
eroded within a watershed due to re-deposition prior to reaching stream
channels or reservoirs
 Erosion and sediment yield
o Sediment delivery ratio
• Ratio of eroded sediment to delivered sediment.
• Because erosion rates are computed rather than measured,
the sediment delivery ratio is actually the ratio of computed
erosion to measured yield.
 Quantifying sediment yield
o Estimating sediment yield by reservoir survey
o There are two basic strategies for measuring sediment yield
• By the volume of sediment deposited in reservoirs
 More accurate since reservoirs collect sediment from all events since
their construction.
 Revealing patterns of sediment deposition critical to evaluating
remedial actions.
 But nor reveal the spatial or temporal patterns of sediment delivery
needed to analyze some sediment management alternatives.
• Continuous monitoring of fluvial sediment discharge
 Quantifying sediment yield
o Bathymetric survey
• Successive reservoir surveys are used
 To track volume depletion and revise elevation-capacity curves;
 To predict the type, magnitude and time horizon for sedimentation
problems
 To calibrate mathematical models of sedimentation
 To help develop and monitor the effectiveness of sediment management
practices.
• For modeling of sedimentation processes, bathymetric mapping should be
complemented with borings to determine the grain size of the deposits and
verify estimates of deposit bulk density determined by empirical methods.
 Quantifying sediment yield
o Contour surveying line
o Determine the volume of
reservoir or sediment.
o Through this, we can compute
average specific sediment yield
(ton/km2/yr)
 Quantifying sediment yield
o Effective watershed-year: the changing area of the watershed effectively
contributing sediment

æ Effective ö é æ Sediment ö ù
ç watershed ÷= ê æ Unregulated ö æ Regulated ö ç ÷ ú
ê ç ÷ +ç ÷ø ´ ç Release ÷ ú ´ years
ç ÷ è area ø è area
è years ø êë è Efficiencyø úû

o Where the sediment release efficiency = 1- trap efficiency for upstream reservoirs.
 Sediment yield estimation from fluvial data
o Sediment rating curves
• Fluvial sediment load is determined by the product of stream-flow
and discharge-weighted sediment concentration.
o Sediment load is usually computed from a long-term discharge record and
a sediment rating curve that relates concentration to stream flow.
o The large floods or hurricane events responsible for much sediment
transport may be represented by very few data points.
 Sediment rating curve
o Relation between water discharge and suspended-sediment concentration for
the Missouri river at Hermann, Holmes 1993)
 Sediment deposition in reservoirs
o Delta deposition can cause a stream to aggrade upstream of a reservoir and
affect flood levels, groundwater levels, bridge clearance, commercial and
recreational navigation and environmentally sensitive area.
o The shape of the stage-storage curve will change because of sedimentation.
o Deposition by turbidity currents can interfere with low level intake at the dam,
even with as little as 1% storage loss in the impoundment.
o Observations of deposition patterns can also be helpful in developing
strategies for sediment management.
 Trapping and Releasing Efficiency
o Trap efficiency:
• Is the percentage of the total inflowing sediment load that is trapped within a
reservoir over a stated period of time.
o Release efficiency
• Is the amount of sediment exiting a reservoir, expressed as a percentage of
the inflowing load
Trap efficiency = sediment trapped/inflowing sediment
Release efficiency = released sediment/inflowing sediment = (1- trap efficiency)

o Sediment trapping or releasing efficiency is influenced by factors

• Detention period, inflowing sediment characteristics, and reservoir operation.
 Important factors determining reservoir capacity
o Depositional geometry
o Turbidity density current
o Bulk density of sediment deposits
o Sediment consolidation over time
• Sandy sediments attain ultimate bulk density virtually as soon as they
are deposited, but fine sediment may compact and consolidate for
decades
 Sediment Management in Reservoirs
o Sediment control strategy
• Sediment yield reduction
 Apply erosion control techniques to reduce sediment yield from
tributary watersheds - “soil stabilization and revegetation”
• Sediment storage
 Provide some storage for sediment and debris
• Sediment routing
 Pass sediment around or through the storage pool to minimize
sediment trapped
 Off-stream storage, temporarily reservoir drawdown for pass through
or density current
 Sediment Management in Reservoirs
• Sediment removal
 Dredging or hydraulic flushing
• Sediment yield reduction
 Erosion control to reduce sediment yield
 Most difficult to implement successfully
 In developing country there is intensive land use, deforestation
 Accelerated soil erosion has many negative impact in addition to
reservoir sedimentation
 Sediment routing strategies
o Sediment-Routing strategies
• Off-stream reservoir for sediment bypass

o High volumes of sediment-laden flood waters can be bypassed around a storage

pool by placing the pool offstream and diverting only relatively clear water from
moderate flows into storage.
 Sediment routing strategies
o Benefits of Off-stream reservoir for sediment bypass
• The dam does not pose a barrier to migratory aquatic species or to
navigation
• Instream water quality is not altered by the reservoir
• Riparian wetland and river corridor habitats are not submerged
• The dam does not impact bed-load transport processes essential to
maintain instream sediment transport, river morphology and the
ecological integrity of instream ecosystem.
• Etc.
 Sediment routing strategies
o Sediment bypass of on-stream reservoirs.
• Using trucking or pipeline, deliver to downstream
 Asahi hydropower dam has tunnel for bypassing sediment
o Pass-through by drawdown
• By opening high-capacity gates to minimize reservoir level, drawing down
the pool as much as possible to pass sediment-laden floods at the highest
possible velocity.
• Reservoir pool is refilled at the end of the drawdown.
 Sediment routing strategies
o Drawdown duration and operation rules will vary depending on hydrologic
characteristics and reservoir sizes
• Large reservoir: seasonal basis
• Smaller reservoir: by the prediction of hydrographs for specific runoff
• Very small reservoir: based on a rule curve that does not require
hydrograph prediction.
 Hydrograph prediction based drawdown
o A: when storm begin, reservoir gates opened
o B: As storm continues, lowered until fully opened
o C: Remain full open

D: storm recession, the

gates closed as soon as
the total tributary water
volume drops to the full
reservoir volume
 Drawdown by rule curve
 Sediment Removal by Hydraulic Dredging
o Mainly for a limited area
o Problem is in the infinite repetition
o Two major impediments to large-scale dredging
• High cost and limited availability of sediment disposal sites
• The cost of slurry transportation to distant sites.
o Conventional dredging is done with a cutter head
 Sediment Removal by Hydraulic Dredging
o Siphon dredge
• Eliminate pump by discharging through the vase of the dam and into
the downstream channel, using the static head in the reservoir to
discharge the dredge slurry
• Environmentally not good so US does not allow to use it
 Sediment removal by hydraulic flushing
o Hydraulic flushing involves the opening of bottom outlets to completely
empty the reservoir and allow streamflow to scour sediment deposits.
o The difference from pass through is in that its principal objective is to scour
and remove previously deposited sediment.
o Flushing flow will erode a “main channel” through the sediments, but
deposits on the normally submerged “flood plan” will be unaffected by
scour.
 Sediment removal by hydraulic flushing