SINHGAD COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

S.No. 44/1, Vadgaon (Bk), Off Sinhgad Road, Pune – 411 041.

Department of
Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

First Year Engineering

A Practical Journal of

BASIC ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING (BXE)

(For First Year F. E. All Branches as per revised syllabus 2019 of SPPU)
This is to certify that,

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 Experiment No.1
To Study Different Electronics Components.

Date of Performance

Date of Checking
 To Study Different Electronics Components
Aim: -To study different electronics components.
Objective: To study different types of Electronic components
a) Resistors (Fixed & Variable), Calculation of resistor value using color code.
b) Capacitors (Fixed & Variable)
c) Inductors, Calculation of inductor value using color code.
d) Devices such Diode, BJT, MOSFETs, various IC packages
e) Switches & Relays
Apparatus: Digital multimeter with probes, CRO with probes Samples of Resistors,
Capacitors
Inductors, Diode, BJT, MOSFETs, various IC packages Switches & Relays,
Theory:
Passive Components are the elements which do not introduce gain or do not have a
directional function
and are not capable of amplifying or processing an electrical signal.

Passive Components

1) Resistor 2) Capacitors 3) Inductor

Active component increases the power of signal & must be supplied with the signal & a
source of power.
Example- Bipolar Junction transistor(BJT), Field Effect Transistor(FET). The signal is fed
to one connection of the active device & the amplified version taken from another
connection. In a transistor, the signal can be applied to the base junction & the amplified
version taken from collector. The source of power is usually a DC voltage from battery or
power supply. A network is said to be passive if it contains number of e.m.f. Diodes,
transistors are the types of active component. Integrated Circuit contains both active &
passive components.
1) Resistor
A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component designed to oppose an electric
current by producing a voltage drop between its terminals in proportion to the current,
that is, in accordance with Ohm's law: V = IR. The resistance R is equal to the voltage drop
V across the resistor divided by the current I through the resistor. The ohm (symbol: Ω) is
a SI-driven unit of electrical resistance, named after Georg Ohm. Commonly used
multiples and submultiples in electrical and electronic usage are the milliohm, kilohm,
and megohm. Units The ohm (symbol: Ω) is a SI-driven unit of electrical resistance, named
after Georg Ohm.
i) Carbon film Resistor
A carbon film is deposited on an insulating substrate, and a spiral cut in it to
create a long, narrow resistive path. Varying shapes, coupled with the resistivity of
carbon, (ranging from 9 to 40 µΩm) can provide a variety of resistances. Carbon film
resistors feature a power rating range of 1/6 W to 5 W at 70°C. Resistances available
range from 1 ohm to 10 mega ohm.

Figure 1. Carbon Film Resistors

ii) Metal film Resistor
A common type of axial resistor today is referred to as a metal-film resistor. MELF
(Metal Electrode Leadless Face) resistors of mounting. [Note that other types of resistors,
e.g. carbon composition, are also available in "MELF" packages].

Figure 2. Metal Film Resistors

iii) Wire wound Resistor
Wire wound resistors are commonly made by winding a metal wire around a
ceramic, plastic, or fiberglass core. The ends of the wire are soldered or welded to two
caps, attached to the ends of the core. The assembly is protected with a layer of paint,
molded plastic, or an enamel coating baked at high temperature. The wire leads are
usually between 0.6 and 0.8 mm in diameter and tinned for ease of soldering.
 Figure 3. Wire Wound Resistors
iv) Variable Resistor
The strain gauge, invented by Edward E. Simmons and Arthur C. Ruge in 1938, is a
type of resistor that changes value with applied strain. A single resistor may be used, or a
pair (half bridge), or four resistors connected in a Wheatstone bridge configuration. The
strain resistor is bonded with adhesive to an object that will be subjected to mechanical
strain. With the strain gauge and a filter, amplifier, and analog/digital converter, the
strain on an object can be measured.

Figure 5. Variable Resistors

Table 1: Color band chart for calculating the value of resistor

2) Capacitor
A capacitor is a passive two terminal component which stores electric charge. This
component consists of two conductors which are separated by a dielectric medium. The
potential difference when applied across the conductors polarizes the dipole ions to store
the charge in the dielectric medium. The circuit symbol of a capacitor is shown below:

The capacitance or the potential storage by the capacitor is measured in Farads which is
symbolized as ‗F‘. One Farad is the capacitance when one coulomb of electric charge is
stored in the conductor on the application of one volt potential difference.
The charge stored in a capacitor is given by
Q = CV
C=Q/V
Where Q - charge stored by the capacitor
C - Capacitance value of the capacitor
V - Voltage applied across the capacitor
Note the other formula of current, I = dQ/dt
Capacitors are widely used in a variety of applications of electronic circuits such as
1) Energy storage
 2) Suppression and coupling
3) Noise filters and snubber
4) Motor starters
5) Tuned circuits

i) Electrolyte capacitors
a) Aluminum electrolyte capacitor
b) Tantalum electrolyte capacitor
c) Mica capacitor
d) Ceramic capacitor:
The non – polarized type ceramic capacitors which are also known as ‗Disc capacitors‘
are widely used these days. These are available in millions of varieties of cost and
performance. The features of ceramic capacitor depend upon: Type of ceramic dielectric
used in the capacitor which varies in the temperature coefficient, Dielectric losses.
For example: 103 means 10 * 103 pF which is 0.01uF
or
104 which is 10*104 pF which is 0.1uF
The tolerance is indicated by a letter like j=5%, K=10% and M=20%.

Figure 9. Ceramic Capacitor

These capacitors are commonly used as a timing element in filter circuit and balancing
oscillator circuits in radio frequency applications, coupling and decoupling networks
3) Inductor
An inductor is a passive electrical component that can store energy in a magnetic field
created by the electric current passing through it. An inductor's ability to store magnetic
energy is measured by its inductance, in units of henries. An "ideal inductor" has
inductance, but no resistance or capacitance, and does not dissipate energy. A real
inductor is equivalent to a combination of inductance, some resistance due to the
resistivity of the wire, and some capacitance. At some frequency, usually much higher
than the working frequency, a real inductor behaves as a resonant circuit (due to its self
capacitance).
L=µ0µrAN2/L (H)
Where,
µ0 = Absolute permeability
µr= Relative Permeability
A = Cross-sectional area of the coil
N = Number of turns of the coil
L = Length of the core

Figure 10. Types of Inductor

The following type‘s inductors are in uses. They are,

a) Air core inductor
b) Iron core inductor
c) ferrite core inductor:
4) Diode
A diode is a single junction device made of p and n type materials.. Its main function is to
rectify an ac signal although other special purpose diodes like zener and led‘s are used
for other purposes. A normal diode comes in a black casing whereas a zener diode has a
transparent casing. Other diodes may be made by a p type and n type materials or
between a semiconductor and a metal. If the junction is made between a metal and
semiconductor then it is called a Schottky diode whose application is in rectifying and
non-rectifying contacts and Schottky devices.

Figure 11. Types of Diode & its Symbol

If the pn junction is made between very heavily doped materials then it forms a Zener
diode. These are used for voltage regulation in power supplies. and have breakdown
voltages which are very low. The normal diode has a breakdown voltage of greater than
100 V. Some of the diode specifications are: Maximum reverse voltage (Vbr), rated
forward current (If) , maximum forward voltage drop (Vf) and package style. Table 3 gives
some of the most commonly used diodes with their specifications.
5) Light Emitting Diode (LED)
It is pn junction devices which emit light radiation when biased in the forward direction.
The semiconductor material used for these junctions is a compound semiconductor like
AlGaAs whose band gap corresponds to a particular wavelength according to equation Eg
= 1.24 / λ where Eg is the band gap in ev and λ is the wavelength in microns. (e.g. red ~
0.7 μ hence corresponding E g = 1.24 / 0.7 = 1.77 ev). When the pn junction is forward
biased, the electrons are excited to conduction band and when they fall to the valence
band, they give out energy in the form of radiation corresponding to the Eg of the material
Conventional led‘s are made from the materials like AlGaAs, GaAlP, GaAsP, GaP and GaN
which emit Red, green, orange, yellow and blue colours respectively. Some important
specifications before using an led are: LED colour, peak wavelength, viewing angle,
optical power output, luminous intensity, forward current and forward voltage.

Figure 12.Types of LEDs & Its Symbol

6) Transistors
Transistors are semiconductor devices used for applications like amplification of voltages,
current and are also used in oscillator circuits and switches. It‘s a two junction and 3
terminal device made of three layers of n and p type materials. The three regions are
emitter, base and collector. They are of 2 types (i) pnp and (ii) npn. Their most important
specifications are Ic, Vce, hfe and Power rating. They come in different casings like
TO18, TO92C, and TO39 etc Given below is a table of most commonly used transistors
with their specifications (approximate) and casings. Datasheets from the companies can
be referred to to know the exact specifications.
 Figure 13. Types of Transistor
7 ) Integrated Circuit (IC)
Today all electrical, electronic and computer parts have IC‘s in them. Integrated circuit is
a name given to a package which can hold more than 10 and up to millions of electronic
components. They can give various functions like : (i) the function of a full
microprocessor circuit (eg 8085), (ii) a memory chip, (iii) a voltage regulator (LM 7805) or
(iv) Can contain just 10 AND gates (eg LS7400). They come in a black bench like casing
with a notch on one side and with electrical legs for connections, which are called pins.
The size is usually around 1 cm2 X 1 cm2. Refer to the picture. Its name is always written
on top which contains a few letters with numerals, according to its type, make and
company. For example an IC with name LS 7400 would mean LS series with And gates,
LM741C - mA741C is an operational amplifier (opamp). Datasheets can be referred to, to
know the details of pin configurations and make etc. The pins are usually read starting
from left of notch and going anticlockwise as shown in picture for 555 timer IC.

Figure 14. Examples of Integrated Circuits (ICs)

8) Transformers
A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to
another through inductively coupled electrical conductors. A changing current in the first
circuit (the primary) creates a changing magnetic field. This changing magnetic field
induces a changing voltage in the second circuit (the secondary). This effect is called
mutual induction.
 Figure 15. Simple Transformer
If a load is connected to the secondary circuit, electric charge will flow in the
secondary winding of the transformer and transfer energy from the primary circuit to the
load. In an ideal transformer, the induced voltage in the secondary winding (VS) is a
fraction of the primary voltage (VP) and is given by the ratio of the number of secondary
turns to the number of primary turns: By appropriate selection of the numbers of turns,
a transformer thus allows an alternating voltage to be stepped up — by making NS more
than NP — or stepped down, by making it less. Transformers are some of the most
efficient electrical 'machines', with some large units able to transfer 99.75% of their input
power to their output. Transformers come in a range of sizes from a thumbnail-sized
coupling transformer hidden inside a stage microphone to huge units weighing hundreds
of tons used to interconnect portions of national power grids. All operate with the same
basic principles, although the range of designs is wide. While new technologies have
made transformers in some electronics applications obsolete, transformers are still found
in many electronic devices. Transformers are essential for high voltage power
transmission, which makes long distance transmission economically practical. The
transformer is based on two principles: firstly, that an electric current can produce a
magnetic field (electromagnetism) and secondly that a changing magnetic field within a
coil of wire induces a voltage across the ends of the coil (electromagnetic induction).

Figure 16. Leakage flux of a transformer

Application
A major application of transformers is to increase voltage before transmitting electrical
energy over long distances through wires. Wires have resistance and so dissipate
electrical energy at a rate proportional to the square of the current through the wire. By
transforming electrical power to a high-voltage (and therefore low-current) form for
transmission and back again afterwards, transformers enable economic transmission of
power over long distances. Consequently, transformers have shaped the electricity supply
industry, permitting generation to be located remotely from points of demand. All but a
tiny fraction of the world's electrical power has passed through a series of transformers
by the time it reaches the consumer.
9) Relay
A relay is an electrical switch that opens and closes under the control of another
electrical circuit. In the original form, the switch is operated by an electromagnet to open
or close one or many sets of contacts. It was invented by Joseph Henry in 1835. Because
a relay is able to control an output circuit of higher power than the input circuit, it can
be considered to be, in a broad sense, a form of an electrical amplifier. A simple
electromagnetic relay, such as the one taken from a car in the first picture, is an
adaptation of an electromagnet. It consists of a coil of wire surrounding a soft iron core,
an iron yoke, which provides a low reluctance path for magnetic flux, a moveable iron
armature, and a set, or sets, of contacts; two in the relay pictured. The armature is
hinged to the yoke and mechanically linked to a moving contact or contacts. It is held in
place by a spring so that when the relay is de-energized there is an air gap in the
magnetic circuit. In this condition, one of the two sets of contacts in the relay pictured is
closed, and the other set is open. Other relays may have more or fewer sets of contacts
depending on their function. The relay in the picture also has a wire connecting the
armature to the yoke. This ensures continuity of the circuit between the moving contacts
on the armature, and the circuit track on the Printed Circuit Board (PCB) via the yoke,
which is soldered to the PCB.
Application
Relays are used to and for:
 Control a high-voltage circuit with a low-voltage signal, as in some types of
modems or audio amplifiers,
 Control a high-current circuit with a low-current signal, as in the starter solenoid
of an automobile,
  Detect and isolate faults on transmission and distribution lines by opening and
closing circuit breakers (protection relays),

Figure 17. A DPDT AC coil relay with "ice cube" packaging

10) SWITCHES
Switches are mainly used for on off control of AC as well as DC current.
Type of Switches –
1. Toggle switch
This switch is most commonly used for ON/OFF control for AC as well as DC They can be
used up to 1 MHz. Toggle switches are available in single, double & four poles also.
a. SPST- Single pole, single throw, provides ON/OFF.

b. SPDT- Single pole, double throw, provides two connections for circuit.

c. DPDT- Double pole, double throw. This is used to switch both Sides of circuit.

Figure 18. A toggle switch

The typical insulation resistance of a toggle switch is in MΏ and contact
resistance is in m Ώ. Switch life is defined by electrical and mechanical operations. These
switches have ratings on AC and DC While choosing a toggle switch environmental
conditions DC or AC working voltage, maximum current type of load etc. will have to be
considered.

2. Push Button Switch

As the name suggests a contact is made when switch is pushed. This switch has similar
characteristics and contact arrangements like toggle switch.

Figure 19. Three pushbutton switches

Locking and unlocking arrangement is possible with push button switch. Normally for
mixture used in pitches locking arrangement is used.

3. Knife Switch

It normally used for power switch boards and battery charging equipment .These
switches when connected to electronic chassis can take up to 300 A and 500 V.

4. Relay Switch -

A relay is an automatic switch with contacts that can be closed or opened by current in
relay coil. The coil which is called solenoid is usually for one contact while relays can
activate multiple contacts. In operation, relay is activated by current in coil. Its magnetic
field attracts the iron armature. It has movable switch contacts. Construction can allow
either A.C. or D.C. operation.

5. Rotary Switch

These are broadly classified as –

i) Power ii) Heavy duty iii) Miniature

6. Slide Switches

7. Lever or Key Switch

8. Micro switch

9. Vacuum Switches

10. Mercury Switch

11) Connector
An electrical connector is a conductive device for joining electrical circuits together. The
connection may be temporary, as for portable equipment, or may require a tool for
assembly and removal, or may be a permanent electrical joint between two wires or
devices. There are hundreds of types of electrical connectors. In computing, an electrical
connector can also be known as a physical interface. Connectors may join two lengths of
flexible wire or cable, or may connect a wire or cable to an electrical terminal. Connectors
can also be described as-

a. Audio Connector
b. BNC Connector
c. TNC Connector
d. UHF Connector
e. Board Connector
f. RF Connector
g. Phone plug and jacks

f. RF Connector

Impedance is 50 Ώ and is used for cables having the same impedance. They come
in various sizes.

Figure 20. A male plug made by Amphenol.

Figure 21. Conductor hermaphrodite connector for token-ring attachment.

Figure 22.Detail of mating surfaces of hermaphrodite connector.

Figure 23. 8P8C Connector crimped to cable

Figure 24. A male DE-9 plug.

Figure 25. A male USB series A plug

Calculations:

1. Resistors

2. Capacitor

Conclusion:

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 Experiment No.2

To Study Electronics Instruments

1. Digital Multimeter (DMM)

2. Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)
3. Signal Generator (SG)
4. DC Power Supply

Date of Performance

Date of Checking
 To Study Electronics Measuring Instruments

Aim: To study electronics instruments

1. Digital Multimeter (DMM),
2. Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO),
3. Signal Generator (SG).
4. DC Power Supply
Objective: 1. To study different controls of DMM & measurement of Parameters
like AC& DC voltage, current, Resistance, checking of diode, BJT etc.
2. To study controls of CRO, measurement of frequency
3. To study various controls of signal generator.
Apparatus: Digital Multimeter, Cathode Ray Oscilloscope, Signal Generator, DC Power
Supply, Sample resistor, diode, transistor etc
A. Digital Multimeter:
Theory:
Digital multimeters are used for measuring DC and AC Voltage, DC Current,
Resistance and Testing Diode. Some models also provide transistor test function, signal
output or performing continuity test. Overload protection and low battery indication are
provided. Figure 1 shows the front panel of DMM and description is given. Table 1 show
Electrical Symbols used in DMM.
Procedure:
A) Measurement of AC, DC voltage & current.

1) Voltage Measurement

1) Connect red test lead to ―V-V‖input terminal and black test lead to―COM‖ input
terminal.
2) Set Function/Range switch to desired voltage type (DC or AC) and range. If magnitude
of voltage is not known, set switch to the highest range and reduce until a satisfactory
reading is obtained.
3) Turn off power to the device or circuit being tested.
4) Connect test leads to the device or circuit being measured.
5) Turn on power to the device or circuit being measured. Voltage value will appear on
the digital display along with the voltage polarity.
6) Turn off power to the device or circuit being tested prior to disconnecting test leads.
2) Current Measurement
1) Connect red test lead to the ―mA‖ input terminal for current measurements up to 200
mill amperes. Connect black lead to the COM input terminal.
2) Set Function/Range switch to desired current type (DC or AC) and range. If
magnitude of current is not known, set switch to the highest range and reduce until a
satisfactory reading is obtained.
3) Turn off power to the device or circuit being tested.
4) Open the circuit in which current is to be measured. Now securely connect test leads
in series with the load in which current is to be measured.
5) Turn on power to the device or circuit being tested.
6) Read current value on digital display.
7) Turn off all power to the device or circuit being tested.
8) Disconnect test leads from circuit and reconnect circuit that was being tested.
9) For current measurement of 200mA or greater, connect the red test lead to ―20 A‖
input terminal & black test lest lead to the ―COM‖ input terminal.
B Diode and Transistor Test Measurements
The special Diode Test Function allows relative measurements of forward voltage
drops across diodes and transistor junctions.
3) Diode Tests
A) Forward Bias Test
1) Connect red test lead to ―V-V‖ input terminal and black test lead to COM input
terminal.
2) Set Function/Range switch to the diode test position.
3) Connect test leads to the device
4) Read forward voltage drop value on digital display.
4) Transistor Junction Tests
1) Bipolar transistors can be tested in the same manner as diode, junctions formed
between the base and emitter and the base and collector of the transistor.
Measurement between the collector and emitter also should be made to determine if a
short is present.
5) Transistor hFE Measurements
1) Transistor must be out of circuit. Set the function/range switch to the hFE position.
2) Plug the emitter, base and collector leads of the transistor into the correct holes in
either the NPN or the PNP transistor test socket, whichever is appropriate for the
transistor being checked. Read the hFE (beta, or DC current gain) in the display.
6) Resistance Measurements
1) Connect red test lead to V-V input terminal and black test lead to COM input
terminal.
2) Set Function/Range switch to desired V position. If magnitude of resistance is not
known, set the switch to highest range and reduce until a satisfactory reading is
obtained.
3) If the resistance being measured is part of a circuit, turn off power to the circuit.
4) Connect test leads to the device or circuit being measured.
5) Read resistance value on digital display.
7) Continuity Test
1) Set Range Switch to ―V Ω mA‖ and Black lead to COM input terminal.
2) Set Range Switch to ―:)))‖ position.
3) Connect test lead to Two points of Circuit to be tested.
If the resistance is lower than 30Ω + or – 20 Ω the buzzer will be sound.
B) Cathode Ray Oscilloscope:
The cathode-ray oscilloscope is common laboratory instrument that provides
accurate time and amplitude measurement of voltage signals over a wide range of
frequencies. Its reliability, stability and ease of operation make it suitable as a general
purpose laboratory instruments.
Procedure:
I) AC VOLTAGE MEASUREMENT:
1) Adjust the beam to certain reference level.
2) Keep AC/DC selector switch on AC position.
3) Apply test voltage to CRO.
4) Measure the shift of beam from reference level.
5) Calculate A.C. voltage = No. of divisions on Y axis × Volts/Div.
6) Note down reading.
II) DC VOLTAGE MEASUREMENT:
1) Adjust the beam to certain reference level.
2) Keep AC/DC selector switch on DC position.
3) Apply test voltage to CRO.
4) Measure the shift of beam from reference level.
5) Calculate A.C. voltage = No. of divisions on Y axis × Volts/Div.
6) Note down reading.
III) FREQUENCY MEASUREMENT:
1) Connect the signal from the signal generator to the Y-input/X-input.
 2) Adjust the time base generator switch to get a steady pattern.
3) Measure the time interval T for one cycle.
4) Determine the frequency F =1/T.
5) Repeat the same procedure for different frequencies.
C) Signal Generator:
The various signals available from the function generator make it a versatile
signal source useful for most measurement and test applications.. A function generator is
a signal source that has capability of producing several different types of waveform at its
output signals. Most function generators can generate sine waves, square waves and
triangular waves over wide range of frequencies. (0.001Hz to 20MHz).
A triangular wave is generated with the help of charging and discharging of a capacitor
from positive and negative current source. The triangular wave is then converted to a
square wave with a comparator and to a sine wave with a diode array or other sine
converter.
Procedure:
1) Connect output of FG /SG to CRO input.
2) Measure the shift of beam from reference level.
3) Calculate A.C. voltage, D.C. voltage and Frequency of signal.
4) Note down reading.

1.Measurement of DC Voltage using DMM and CRO

Sr. Applied DC voltage DC Voltage measured on DC Voltage measured on
No using DC power DMM CRO
supply
1 2V 2V 2V
2 5V 5V 5V
2.Measurement of AC Voltage using DMM and CRO
Sr. Applied AC voltage AC Voltage measured on AC Voltage measured on
No using signal DMM CRO
generator
1 230V 224V -
2 10V 10V 9.8V
3.Measurement of Frequency using DMM and CRO
Sr. Applied Frequency Frequency measured on Frequency measured on
No DMM CRO
1 1KHZ 1KHZ 990HZ

2 5KHZ 5KHZ 4.9KHZ

 4.Measurement of Resistor value using Color code and DMM
Sr. Color Bands on Resistance Value Resistance Value
No Resistor (Use color code) measured on DMM
1 Grey, Red, Red, Golden 8.2K Ω ±5% 8.2K Ω
2 Brown, Red, Orange,Silver 12K Ω ±10% 11.9K Ω

6. Testing of Transistor
Sr. Model Type of Probe Connection
No Number transistor Red - Base Red - Red - Base
Red-
of and its Black - Collector Black- Collector
Emitter
Transistor hfe Emitter Black -
Black -
Base
Base

1 SL100B NPN & 176 ∞ 0.6 ∞ 0.6

2 TIP32C PNP & 168 0.6 ∞ 0.6 ∞

Conclusion:
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 Experiment No.3

Study of V-I characteristics of PN junction diode and

Zener diode.

Date of Performance

Date of Checking

1
Study of V-I characteristics of PN junction diode and zener diode.
Expt. No. 3 (A)
Aim: 1. To study the characteristics of PN junction diode under forward bias and reverse
bias condition.
2. To plot the V-I characteristics of PN Junction diode.

Apparatus / Components Required: Diodes, resistors, rheostat, voltmeter, ammeter, dc

power source and breadboard
Theory:

PN Junction:

When a P type and N type semiconductors are joined together, a junction diode is created. A
PN junction diode is a two terminal junction device. It has a unique ability to permit the flow
of current in only one direction. The lead connected to the P-type semiconductor is called
anode and that connected to the N type is called cathode. The P-type and N-type
semiconductors are electrically neutral before junction is formed. The symbol for PN Diode is
shown in fig 1.

Fig 1. The circuit symbol for PN diode

FORWARD BIAS Condition:

When the anode of the diode is connected to the positive terminal of battery and cathode
to the negative terminal, diode is said to be in forward biased. On forward biasing, initially no
current flows due to barrier potential. As the applied potential exceeds the barrier potential
the charge carriers gain sufficient energy to cross the potential barrier and hence enter the
other region. The holes, which are majority carriers in the P-region, become minority carriers
on entering the N-regions, and electrons, which are the majority carriers in the N-
region, become minority carriers on entering the P-region. This injection of Minority
carriers results in the current flow, opposite to the direction of electron movement

REVERSE BIAS Condition:

When the anode of the diode is connected to the negative terminal of battery and anode
to the negative terminal, diode is said to be in forward biased. This connection makes the
majority carriers in the semiconductor move away from the junction and hence the depletion
region gets more widened.
On reverse biasing, the majority charge carriers are attracted towards the terminals
due to the applied potential resulting in the widening of the depletion region. Since
the charge carriers are pushed towards the terminals no current flows in the device due
to majority charge carriers. There will be some current in the device due to the thermally
2
generated minority carriers. The generation of such carriers is independent of the applied
potential and hence the current is constant for all increasing reverse potential. This
current is referred to as Reverse Saturation Current (IO) and it increases with
temperature. When the applied reverse voltage is increased beyond the certain limit, it
results in breakdown. During breakdown, the diode current increases tremendously.

Fig 3. VI Characteristics of PN Junction Diode

Static and Dynamic Resistance of Diode:

When the diode is forward biased, it offers a finite resistance in the circuit. The static or dc
resistance is the ratio of dc voltage across the diode to the dc current flowing through it.
Dynamic resistance or ac resistance of the diode at any point is the reciprocal of the slope of
the tangent of the characteristics curve at that point i.e. ,

Dynamic Resistance = Change in voltage / Resulting Change in current = ΔV / ΔV

The volt-ampere characteristics of a diode explained by following equation:

I=current flowing in the diode I0=reverse saturation current

V=voltage applied to the diode

VT=volt-equivalent of temperature=kT/q=T/11,600=26mV (@ room temp).

η=1 (for Ge) and 2 (for Si)

Table 1: Specification for diode 1N400X series.

Circuit Diagram:

3
 Fig : Set up for Forward Bias Characteristics

Fig : Set up for Reverse Bias Characteristics

PROCEDURE:

Forward Bias:
1. Connect the circuit as per the diagram.
2. Vary the applied voltage V in steps of 0.1V.
3. Using multimeters in appropriate modes, measure voltage drop across the diode and
the If current in the circuit. Switch off the supply after taking sufficient readings.
4. Plot a graph between Vf & If Switch on the graph paper for both forward bias and reverse
bias modes.
Reverse Bias:
1. Connect the circuit as per the diagram.
2. Vary the applied voltage Vr in steps of 0.5V.
3. Note down the corresponding Ammeter readings Ir.
4. Plot a graph between Vr & I

4
Observation Table:

Forward Bais Reverse Bais

(Forward Voltage VF v/s Forward Current IF) (Reverse Voltage VR v/s Reverse Current IR)

Graphs: Plot I~V characteristics for the diodes and estimate the required parameters.

5
Expt. No. 3 (B)

Aim : To study and plot the zener diode characteristics in reverse wise

Apparatus used: Zener diode, voltmeter (0-2volt), voltmeter (0-30 volt), mili-ammeter, micro- ammeter,
variable source (0-2 volt and 0-30 volt).
Theory:
Zener Diode: Zener diode is a heavily doped PN junction diode. Due to heavily doped, its depletion layer
is very thin and is order of micrometer. The forward bias characteristic of Zener diode is same as the normal
PN junction diode but in reverse bias it has different characteristic.
Initially, a negligible constant current flow through the zener diode in its reverse bias but at certain
voltage, the current becomes abruptly large. This voltage is called as zener voltage. This sudden and sharp
increase in zener current is called as zener breakdown.
Circuit diagrame:

Fig 1: Zener Diode in FB

Fig 2: Zener Diode in RB

6
Observation:
1. Least count of voltmeter (0-2volt) =0.02 volt
2. Least count of voltmeter (0-30volt) =0.5 volt
3. Least count of miliammeter =0.2 mA
4. Least count of micro-ammeter =5 A
5. VF and IF for PN junction Diode in FB 6. VR and IR for PN junction diode in RB

Sr. VF IF
No. (Volt) (mA)
Sr. VR IR
1. 0 0
No. (Volt) (mA)
2. 0.1 0
1. 0 0
3. 0.2 0
2. 1 0
4. 0.3 0
3. 2 0
5. 0.4 0
4. 3 0
6. 0.5 0
5. 4 0
7. 0.6 0.2 6. 5 0
8. 0.62 0.2 7. 6 0
9. 0.64 0.4 8. 7 0
10. 0.66 0.6 9. 8 0
10. 0.68 0.8 10. 8.8 0.2
11. 0.70 1.2 10. 9 0.4
12. 0.72 2.2 11. 9.2 3.0
13. 0.74 3.2
14. 0.76 5.2
15. 0.78 7.0
16. 0.80 9.4

Result:
The V-I characteristic of Zener diode indicates that characteristic of Zener diode in forward bias
is same as PN junction diode. In reverse bias, a negligible constant current flow through the
zener diode but the current becomes abruptly large at certain voltage. This voltage is called as
zener voltage. This sudden and sharp increase in zener current is called as zener breakdown.
Vknee=0.7 volt and VZ= 9.2 volt.
Precautions:
1. The connection should be tight otherwise fluctuation in voltage and current will happen.
2. At the turning point of curve, more reading should be taken.
3. For the plot of Graph, current should be taken mA for both forward and reverse biased diode.
4. The reading should be in multiple of least count.

7
V-I Characteristic Curve for Zener Diode in FB

8
V-I Characteristic Curve for Zener Diode In RB

9
 Experiment No.4
To Study Regulated Power Supply.

Date of Performance

Date of Checking

A Journal of Basic Electronics Engineering 40 Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune - 41

 To Study Regulated Power Supply

Aim: To Study Regulated Power Supply.

Apparatus: CRO, Digital Multi-meter, Regulated Power Supply Kit.
Theory:

Regulation of a power supply refers to how effectively the power supply can control the output voltage
under varying resistive loads.

Figure 1. Block Diagram of Power Supply

Regulator is a circuit which gives a constant DC output voltage as per the required design. The regulator has
following main block.
1. Transformer
2. Rectifier
3. Filter
4. Regulator
Transformer: The incoming AC voltage is applied to transformer this step down the voltage as per the
transformer voltage.
Rectifier: The transformed voltage is fed to rectifier which converts the AC voltage to a rectified (pulsating)
DC voltage. The bridge rectifiers used to convert AC voltage to DC voltage.
Filter: the rectified waveform (voltage) is applied to filter that smoothes out the variation or ripple in the
rectified waveform. Here we are using capacitor filter.

A Journal of Basic Electronics Engineering 41 Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune - 41

Regulator: Filters can eliminate most, but not all, all the ripples in a signal Therefore output of a filter is a DC
quantity with a small residual AC component superimposed on it. This ripple or AC component is suppressed by
using regulator IC. Here we are using IC78xx Series of Regulator IC to get DC regulated voltage.

Figure 2. Circuit Diagram of Regulated Linear Supply

This arrangement of diodes is called a bridge rectifier. When point A is positive in Figure 2, diode D1and
D3conducts. At this same time point B is negative (it is 180° out of phase, remember). The current path is
through the transformer, D1, the load, and D3 back to the transformer. On the other, diodes D2 and D4 are not
conducting. The output of rectifiers is not pure DC so it must be filtered before it is suitable for use. Filtering
involves "smoothing out" the pulsations or ripple so that an essentially constant DC voltage remains.
A capacitor will block DC and pass AC this characteristic is used in power supplies. Output voltage is
higher. The most common capacitors used here are electrolytic capacitors, and it is imperative that the polarity of
the capacitor be observed when inserting it into the circuit. The capacitor reduces the fluctuations in the output
voltage from the rectifier because it is charged and therefore stores energy while the rectifier is producing
another pulse.
We can see that the capacitor charges to approximately the peak of the input voltage on each half cycle that the
rectifier conducts. This is in Fig.3 point "A" on the waveform. At this time high peak current is drawn from the
transformer secondary through the rectifier diode to both supply the load and re-charge the capacitor. When the
input voltage drops below the capacitor voltage, point "B", current is again taken from the capacitor. The rate of
discharge depends on the RC time constant of the capacitor and the load.

A Journal of Basic Electronics Engineering 42 Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune - 41

 Figure 3. Waveforms

Voltage regulator ICs are available with fixed (typically 5, 12 and 15V) or variable output voltages.
Negative voltage regulators are available. Many of the fixed voltage regulator ICs has 3 leads and look like
power transistors, such as the 7805 +5V.

Table No. 1 Examples of Regulator ICs with Specification

IC IC
Maximum Maximum
78XX Output Output 79XX Output Output
Input Input
Series Voltage Current Series Voltage Current
Voltage Voltage
(Positive) (Negative)

7805 05 500mA 35V 7905 -05 500mA -35V

7806 06 500mA 35V 7906 -06 500mA -35V

7812 12 500mA 35V 7912 -12 500mA -35V

7815 15 500mA 35V 7915 -15 500mA -35V

7818 18 500mA 35V 7918 -18 500mA -35V

7820 20 500mA 40V 7920 -20 500mA -40V

7824 24 500mA 40V 7924 -24 500mA -40V

A Journal of Basic Electronics Engineering 43 Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune - 41

Procedure:

1. Connect power supply to primary of transformer

2. Observe output waveform across secondary of transformer on CRO.
3. Apply secondary output of transformer to bridge rectifier.
4. Observe the waveforms across bridge rectifier on CRO.
5. Connect bridge rectifier output to regulator, measure voltage across regulator with the help of DMM.

Conclusion:
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A Journal of Basic Electronics Engineering 44 Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune - 41

 Experiment No.5
Linear applications of Op-amp
a) Build inverting and non-inverting amplifier using
op-amp
Date of Performance

Date of Checking
 Linear applications of Op-amp
Aim: a) Build inverting and non-inverting amplifier using op-amp
Apparatus: Dual Power Supply, DMM, CRO, circuit chassis, connecting wires.
Theory:
OPAMP is direct coupled high gain amplifier usually consists of one or more differential amplifiers. An OPAMP is
available I as a single integrated circuit (IC) package. The operational amplifier is versatile device that can be used to
amplify AC as well as DC t input signals and was originally designed for computing such mathematical functions as
addition, subtraction, multiplication, integration. Thus the name operational amplifier.

Inverting Op-Amp:
The open loop gain (Ao) of the OP-AMP is very high which makes it very unstable, so to make it stable with a
controllable gain, a feedback is applied through some external resistor (Rf) from its output to inverting input terminal
(i.e. also known as negative feedback) resulting in reduced gain (closed loop gain, Av). So the voltage at inverting
terminal is now the sum of the actual input and feedback voltages, and to separate both a input resistor (Ri) is introduced
in the circuit. The non-inverting terminal of the OPAMP is grounded, and the inverting terminal behaves like a virtual
ground as the junction of the input and feedback signal are at the same potential.

Formulae:

Voltage gain of Inverting amplifier:

Non-Inverting Op-Amp:
In this configuration of Op-amp the input signal is directly fed to the non inverting terminal resulting in a positive gain
and output voltage in phase with input as compared to inverting Op-amp where the gain is negative and output voltage
is out of phase with input , and to stabilize the circuit a negative feedback is applied through a resistor(Rf) and the
inverting terminal is grounded with a input resistor(R2).This inverting Op-Amp like layout the at inverting terminal
creates a virtual ground at the summing point make the Rf and R2 a potential divider across inverting terminal, Hence
determines the gain of the circuit.
Formulae:

Voltage gain of Inverting amplifier:

Observation Table:
a) Inverting Op-Amp:
Rf= R1=

Calculation:
Sr. Input Voltage, Output Voltage, Vo Output Voltage, Vo
No. Vin (Calculated) (Observed)
Vo = Acl* Vin
1
2

a) Non-Inverting Op-Amp:
Rf= R1:

Calculation:

Sr. Input Voltage, Output Voltage, Vo Output Voltage, Vo

No. Vin (Calculated) (Observed)
Vo = Acl* Vin
1
2

Conclusion:

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 Experiment No.6

To Study Digital Circuit

a) Test and verify the truth tables of Basic and Universal

Gates (Study the data sheet of respective IC’s)

b) Half and Full Adder

Date of Performance

Date of Checking
 To Study Digital Circuit
Aim: To build and test half adder and full adder circuit
Objective: a) To identify pins and study the data sheet of basic and universal
Digital logic gate IC’s such as AND, OR, NOT, ExOR, ExNOR,
NAND,NOR.
b) To implement Half adder & Full adder circuits with basic logic gate IC’s.
Apparatus: IC-74LS32, IC-74LS08, IC-74LS86, IC-7404, IC7400, IC7402. etc.
Theory: Logic gates are building blocks of digital system. A digital system functions in a binary
number. There are two states system and are referred as logic '1' and logic '0' OR 'high' and 'low'
OR True' and 'False' respectively. Depending on the values of voltages used to represent the two
states, we have positive logic system and negative logic system.
a) Logic Gates: Logic gate is a logic circuit having one or many input but only one output i.e. high
or low depending upon input conditions.
b) Truth Table: It is a table which shows all possible combinations of input and corresponding
output for a particular gate.
Logic circuit that performs binary addition is called electronic adder or adder. It consists of
properly added logic gates. There are two types of adders
1. Half Adder
2. Full Adder

1. Half Adder : The addition of the binary digits is done as follows,

0+0=0
0+1=1
1+0=1
1+1=0 and a carry of 1

These operations are performed by a logic circuit called Half Adder. The Half Adder accepts two
binary digits on its inputs and procedures two binary digits on its inputs and Procedures two
binary digits on its outputs, a sum bit, as shown in the symbol below,
The logic circuit that can add two binary bits (0 or 1) is called half adder. Fig. 1 shows block symbol
of the half adder. The adder circuit would need two inputs and two outputs. The two inputs are for
two digits to be added either 0 or 1. One output terminal is for the sum of the two inputs and other
output is for the carry.

`
Figure 1. Block Diagram of Half Adder

Observing the truth table, we can see that the output column (sum and carry) can be produced
by using two gates.
i) Sum column is the output of XOR gate
ii) Carry column is output of AND gate.
 Thus we can produce half adder using two input AND gate and two inputs XOR gate as
shown in figure below. Following diagram shows Logic diagram of Half Adder.

Figure 2. Logic diagram of Half Adder

2. Full Adder:
A full adder adds two binary bits plus carries input (Cin) to produce the Sum and Carry (Co)
outputs. Figure 3 shows block diagram of full adder. It is formed by using two half adder circuit
and an OR gate as shown in Fig. 4.

Cin Sum

A Full
Adder
A
B Carry

Figure. 3. Block Diagram of Full Adder

Procedure:
1. Build the circuit as above on digital trainer kit.
2. Make the connections and apply the supply voltage.
3. See the result as per truth table.

Figure. 4. Logic Diagram of Full Adder

Observation Table:

Half Adder:

Inputs Outputs
A B Sum Carry
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
XOR AND

Full Adder:
Inputs Outputs
A B Cin Sum Carry
0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0
1 0 0 1 0
1 1 0 0 1
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1
Conclusion:
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 Experiment No.7

Study of Transducers (Any 3)

Date of Performance

Date of Checking
TITLE : Study of different types of transducers ( e.g. Thermistor, LDR, LVDT etc)

OBJECTIVE : 1. To Acquaint with transducer characteristics

2. To understand applications of Transducer.
THEORY:
INTODUCTION
A device which converts a physical quantity into the proportional electrical signal is called a
transducer. The electrical signal produced may be a voltage, current or frequency. A transducer uses
many effects to produce such conversion. The process of transforming signal from one form to other
is called transduction. A transducer is also called pick up. The transduction element transforms the
output of the sensor to an electrical output, as shown in the Fig.

A transducer will have basically two main components. They are

1. Sensing Element
The physical quantity or its rate of change is sensed and responded to by this part of the transistor.
2. Transduction Element
The output of the sensing element is passed on to the transduction element. This element is
responsible for converting the non-electrical signal into its proportional electrical signal.
Classification of Transducers
The transducers can be classified broadly
i. On the basis of transduction form used
ii. As primary and secondary transducers
iii. As active and passive transducers
1.Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)

When an externally applied force moves the core to the left-hand position, more magnetic flux links
the left-hand coil than the righthand coil. The emf induced in the left-hand coil, ES], is therefore
larger than the induced emf of the right-hand [oil, Es2' The magnitude of the output voltage is then
equal to the difference between the two secondary voltages and it is in phase with the voltage of the
left-hand coil.
Construction of LVDT
Main Features of Construction are as,
• The transformer consists of a primary winding P and two secondary winding S1 and S2 wound
on a cylindrical former(which is hollow in nature and will contain core). Both the secondary
windings have equal number of turns and are identically placed on the either side of primary
winding
• The primary winding is connected to an AC source which produces a flux in the air gap and
voltages are induced in secondary windings.
• A movable soft iron core is placed inside the former and displacement to be measured is connected
to the iron core.
• The iron core is generally of high permeability which helps in reducing harmonics and high
sensitivity of LVDT.
• The LVDT is placed inside a stainless steel housing because it will provide electrostatic and
electromagnetic shielding.
• The both the secondary windings are connected in such a way that resulted output is the
difference of the voltages of two windings.
Principle of Operation and Working
• CASE I When the core is at null position (for no displacement) When the core is at null position
then the flux linking with both the secondary windings is equal so the induced emf is equal in
both the windings. So for no displacement the value of output eout is zero as e1 and e2 both are
equal. So it shows that no displacement took place.
• CASE II When the core is moved to upward of null position (For displacement to the upward of
reference point) In the this case the flux linking with secondary winding S1 is more as compared
to flux linking with S2. Due to this e1 will be more as that of e2. Due to this output voltage eout is
positive.
• CASE III When the core is moved to downward of Null position (for displacement to the downward
of reference point) In this case magnitude of e2 will be more as that of e1. Due to this output eout
will be negative and shows the output to downward of reference point.
Output VS Core Displacement A linear curve shows that output voltage varies linearly with
displacement of core.
Advantages of LVDT
• High Range
• No Frictional Losses
• High Sensitivity Low Hysteresis
• Low Power Consumption
• Direct Conversion to Electrical Signals
• Disadvantages of LVDT
• LVDT is sensitive to stray magnetic fields so they always require a setup to protect them from
stray magnetic fields.
• They are affected by vibrations and temperature.
It is concluded that they are advantageous as compared than any other inductive transducers.
Applications of LVDT
1. They are used in applications where displacements ranging from fraction of mm to few cm are to
be measured. The LVDT acting as a primary Transducer converts the displacement to electrical
signal directly.
2. They can also acts as the secondary transducers. E.g. the Bourbon tube which acts as a primary
transducer and covert pressure into linear displacement. then LVDT coverts this displacement
into electrical signal which after calibration gives the ideas of the pressure of fluid.
2. Thermocouples
Basically thermocouple consists of two different metals which are placed in contact with each other
as shown in the diagram

First part is called the heater element because when the current will flow through this, a heat is
produced and thus the temperature will increased at the junction. At this junction an emf is produced
which is approximately proportional to the temperature difference of hot and cold junctions.
The emf produced is a DC voltage which is directly proportional to root mean square value of
electriccurrent. A permanent magnet moving coil instrument is connected with the second part to
read the current passing through the heater. One question must be arise in our mind that why we
have used only a permanent magnet coil instrument? Answer to this question is very easy it is
because PMMC instrument has greater accuracy and sensitivity towards the measurement of DC
value. The thermocouple type instruments employ thermocouple in their construction. Thermocouple
type instruments can be used for both ac and DC applications. Also thermocouple type of instruments
has greater accuracy in measuring the current and voltages at very high frequency accurately.
Now we will look how the temperature difference is mathematically related to generated emf at the
junction in thermocouple type of instruments. Let us consider temperature of the heater element be
Ta and the temperature of cold metal be Tb. Now it is found that the generated emf at the junction is
related to temperature difference as:
Where a and b are constant whose values completely depends upon the type of metal we are using.
The above equation represents parabolic function. The approximated value of a is from 40 to 50 micro
volts or more per degree Celsius rise in temperature and value of constant b is very small and can be
neglected if the air gap field of permanent magnet moving coil is uniform. Thus we can approximate
the above temperature emf relation as e = a(Ta - Tb), here we have assume b = 0. The current flowing
through the heater coil produces heat as I2R where I is the root mean square value of current, if we
assume the
temperature of cold junction is maintained at room temperature then the rise in the temperature of
the hot junction will be equal to temperature rise at the junction. Hence we can write (Ta-Tb)is directly
proportional to I2R or we can say (Ta - Tb) = kI2R. Now the deflection angle x in moving coil instrument
is equal to; x = Ke or x = K[a(Ta - Tb)] hence we can write k.K.a.I2R = k1I2, where k1 is some constant.
From the above equation we see that the instrument shows the square law response.
Advantages of Thermocouple Type Instruments
Following are advantages of Thermocouple type of instruments,
1. The thermocouple type of instruments accurately indicates the root mean square value of current
and voltages irrespective of the waveform. There is a wide variety of range of thermocouple
instruments are available in the market.
2. Thermocouple type of instruments give very accurate reading even at high frequency, thus these
types of instruments are completely free from frequency errors.
3. The measurement of quantity under these instruments is not affected by stray magnetic fields.
4. These instruments are known for their highs sensitivity.
5. Usually for measuring the low value of current bridge type of arrangement is used i.e. ranging
from 0.5 Amperes to 20 Amperes while for measuring the higher value of current heater element
is required to retain accuracy.
Disadvantages of Thermocouple Type Instruments
Instead of many advantages these type of instruments posses one disadvantage, The over load
capacity of thermocouple type of instrument is small, even fuse is not able to the heater wire because
heater wire may burn out before the fuse blows out.
3.LDR / photoresistor symbol
The LDR symbol used in circuits is based around the resistor circuit symbol, but shows the light, in
the form of arrows shining on it. In this way it follows the same convention used for photodiode and
phototransistor circuit symbols where arrows are used to show the light falling on these components.
The light dependent resistor / photoresistor circuit symbols are shown for both the newer style
resistor symbol, i.e. a rectangular box and the older zig-zag line resistor circuit symbols.

How an LDR works

It is relatively easy to understand the basics of how an LDR works without delving into complicated
explanations. It is first necessary to understand that an electrical current consists of the movement
of electrons within a material.

Good conductors have a large number of free electrons that can drift in a given direction under the
action of a potential difference. Insulators with a high resistance have very few free electrons, and
therefore it is hard to make the them move and hence a current to flow.The snake like track shown
below is the Cadmium Sulphide (CdS) film which also passes through the sides. On the top and
bottom are metal films which are connected to the terminal leads. It is designed in such a way as to
provide maximum possible contact area with the two metal films. The structure is housed in a clear
plastic or resin case, to provide free access to external light. As explained above, the main component
for the construction of LDR is cadmium sulphide (CdS), which is used as the photoconductor and
contains no or very few electrons when not illuminated. In the absence of light it is designed to have
a high resistance inthe range of megaohms. As soon as light falls on the sensor, the electrons are
liberated and the conductivity of the material increases. When the light intensity exceeds a certain
frequency, the photons absorbed by the semiconductor give band electrons the energy required to
jump into the conduction band. This causes the free electrons or holes to conduct electricity and thus
dropping the resistance dramatically (< 1 Kiloohm).
Advantages
LDR’s are cheap and are readily available in many sizes and shapes. Practical LDRs are available in
a variety of sizes and package styles, the most popular size having a face diameter of roughly 10 mm.
They need very small power and voltage for its operation.
Disadvantages
Highly inaccurate with a response time of about tens or hundreds of milliseconds.

CONCLUSION: ______________________________________________________________________
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 Experiment No.8

Case Study of any one electronics appliance with block

diagram, specification etc.

Date of Performance

Date of Checking
Aim: To Study Public Address System (PA System)
Theory:
When a large distance gathering is to be addressed, needs to be amplified so that people at a
distance from the rostrum or stage may receive good intensity of sound for comfortable listening.
The system which fulfils this function is called ‘ Public Address System’ or simply “PA” System. It
is used in sports meet, public meetings, auditoriums, concerts, functions etc. It is also used to
convey information to isolated locations as at railway stations, airports, hospitals, factorials, etc.

Block Diagram Description:

It is an electro acoustic system in which sound is first converted into electrical signals by a
microphone. The electrical audio signals are amplified, processed and fed to another transducer,
the loudspeaker, which converts the audio signals into sound waves. A block diagram of a basic
PA system is shown in figure. The function of each block of PA system is described below:

Microphone-
It picks up sound waves and converts them into electrical variations, called audio signals.

Mixer-
The output of microphones is fed to a mixer stage. The function of the mixer stage is to effectively
isolate different channels from each other before feeding to the main amplifier.

Voltage amplifier-
It further amplifies the output of the mixer.

Processing Circuits-
These circuits have ‘Master gain control’ and tone controls( Bass/Treble control).

Driver amplifier-
It gives desired power amplification to the signal. It uses push pull type of circuit in general, so
that the even harmonics are eliminated from the output and the transformer core does not get
saturated. The output of power amplifier is connected to the loudspeaker through a matching
transformer to match the low impedance of the loudspeaker for maximum transfer of power.

Loudspeaker-
It converts electrical audio signal into pressure variations resulting in sound.

Requirement of a public address system

The following precautions should be taken while installing a PA system.

Acoustic feedback-
Sound from the loudspeaker should not reach the microphone, as the acoustic feedback will result
in loud howling sound.

Distribution of sound intensity-

Loudness of sound is contained in low notes and the intelligibility in high notes. As high notes
suffer greater attenuation with distance than the low notes, intelligibility suffers at farther
distances. PA system should take cognizance of this fact, and hence sound should be uniformly
distributed amongst the audience. This means that instead of one or two powerful loudspeakers
near the stage along, audio power should be divided between several loudspeakers to spread it
right up to the farthest point so that each one covers a specified area.

Reverberation-
In a reverberation medium the intelligibility is poor. This is due to overlapping of successive sound
waves. PA system should throw additional power in those areas where the direct sound gets
submerged in echoes. The problem of reverberation halls can be solved by locating several small
power loudspeaker of various point of the auditorium rather than using a single high power unit.

Orientation of loudspeaker-
To make the best use of the available power of the PA system, loudspeaker should be so oriented
as to direct the sound towards the audience and not towards the walls. Loudspeakers should
preferably be placed a meter off the floor, so that their axes are about the height of the ears of the
seated listeners.

Ambient noise-
When ambient noise is high as in a sports event, or a market place, the PA system should boost
the high frequencies (treble boost) to restore the intelligibility. It is the high frequency part of the
noise spectrum which affects intelligibility. PA system should attenuate the power notes to keep
natural timbre of the sound in high noise environment. Noise canceling microphones are also
helpful.

Dynamic range limitation-

The amplifier of a good PA system is equipped with a level limiter which keeps the output level
constant when the input level exceeds a certain predetermined value.

Election of microphone-
Microphones for a PA system should preferably be cardioids type, so that they neither pick up
reflected sound nor the sound from loudspeakers.

Sense of direction of the source of sound-

Loudspeakers should be so placed that sound appears to be coming from the direction of the
source.

Phase delay-
Sound from the nearest loudspeaker may be heard along with the sound from other loudspeakers
with time difference. Hence loudspeakers should not be located beyond 16 meter apart. 10 meter
separation is considered quite good.

Matching-
Matching of the total loudspeaker impedance with the output impedance of the amplifier is
necessary for maximum transfer of energy from amplifier to loudspeaker. Hence series-parallel
combination of loudspeakers should be such as to ensure maximum power transfer.

Grounding-
Chassis and shields of equipment and coaxial cables should be properly earthed through water
pipe (not through earth of mains plug).

CONCLUSION: ______________________________________________________________________
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