Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 DEFINITION AND SCOPE OF IRRIGATION

Definition: Irrigation is the science of artificial application of water to the land, in
accordance with the crop requirements throughout the crop period for full nourishment of
the crops.

It is the Engineering of controlling and harnessing the various natural sources of water,
by construction of dams & reservoirs, canals & head works and finally distributing the
water to agricultural fields.

Water is normally supplied to the plants by nature through the rains. However, the total
rainfall in a particular area may be either insufficient, or ill-timed. In order to get the
maximum yield it is essential to supply the optimum quantity of water and to maintain
correct timing of water. This is possible only through systematic irrigation system by
collecting water during the periods of excess rainfall and releasing it to the crops as
when it is needed. Generally the following are some of the factors that necessitate
irrigation.

- inadequate rainfall
- uneven distribution of Rainfall
- increasing the yield of the crops
- growing a number of crops
- insuring against drought.
- growing perennial crops.

Scope of Irrigation Engineering

Irrigation Engineering is not only confined to the application of water to the land for
raising crops. It includes all aspects and problems extending from the watershed to the
agricultural fields. It deals with hydrology, river engineering, design and construction of
dams, weirs, canals and various other hydraulic and irrigation structures. It also deals
with surface and sub surface drainage system, soil reclamation, water-soil-crop
relationships. Other allied sciences such as flood control, hydropower, and inland
navigation are also studied in IRRIGATION ENGINEERING.

Various aspects of Irrigation Engineering is:

1. Water resources and hydrology aspect – to locate various water sources and
to study the hydrology of the region. This includes study of meteorology,
precipitation, stream flow, floods, river engineering, reservoirs and flood control.
The following information are required while designing various irrigation
structures.

• The quantity of water that will be available at a reservoir site for storage.

1
 • Maximum discharge at a river site.
• Reservoir capacity that ensures adequate Quantity of water for various
purposes.
• Quantity of ground water which can be economically exploited.

2. Engineering Aspect - involves the development of a source of water for

irrigation and construction of various irrigation structures.
• Dams and water power Engineering
• Diversion and Distribution structures
• Minor irrigation schemes (well, Tank / Pond, inundation Irrigation).

3. Agricultural aspect – Involves irrigation practice and the study of agricultural

characteristics of the land.

4. Management Aspect- deals with successful implementation and efficient

management of engineering aspects and agricultural works.

1.2 BENEFITS AND ILL- EFFECTS OF IRRIGATION

There are various direct and indirect advantages of irrigation.

- Increase in food production: Irrigation helps in increasing crop yields through

controlled and timely supply of water to the crop.

- Optimum benefits: optimal utilization of water is made possible by irrigation.

Optimum utilization implies obtaining maximum crop yield with any amount of
water. In other words, yield will be smaller for any quantity lesser than or in
excess of optimum quantity.

- Elimination of mixed cropping in areas where irrigation is not ensured,

generally mixed cropping is adapted. Mixed cropping is growing two or more
crops simultaneously in the same field. If the weather condition is not suitable to
one of the crops it may be suitable for the other; and thus at least some yield is
obtained. Mixed cropping can be adopted when irrigation facilities are not
available, but if irrigation is assured it can be eliminated. Mixed cropping is
generally not acceptable, because different crops require different types of field
preparations and different types of manures, amount of water etc.

- General prosperity: Revenue returns are sometimes quite high and helps in all
round development of the country.

- Generation of hydroelectric power: cheaper power generation can be obtained

on objects primarily designed for irrigation alone. Also falls on irrigation channels
can be utilized to generate electricity which may help in industrializing the rural
area and so in solving the problem of fuel shortage.

- Domestic water supply:- irrigation helps in augmenting the town water supply
where water is available with great difficulty. It also provides water for swimming
bathing, cattle drinking etc.

2
 - Facilities of communication: Irrigation channels are generally provided with
embankments and inspection roads. These inspection paths provide a good road
way to the villagers for walking, cycling or even motoring.
- In land navigation

Ill-effects of irrigation

Ill-effects of irrigation occur only when the scheme is not properly designed and
implemented. Most of these are due to excess irrigation water application. Some of the
common ill-effects are

1. Water logging: when cultivators apply more water than actually required by the
crops, excess water percolates in to the ground and raises the water table. Water
logging occurs when the water table reaches near the root zones of the crops.
The soil pores become fully saturated and the normal circulation of air in the root
zones of the crop is stopped and the growth of the crops is decreased. Thus crop
yield considerably reduces. When the water table reaches the ground surface,
the land becomes saline.

2. Long term application of pesticides under large scale irrigation system might
have a negative influence on soil microbal activities, on the quality of surface and
sub surface water resources and the survival of the surrounding vegetation.
Irrigation may contribute in various ways to the problem of pollution. One of these
is the seepage in to the ground of the nitrates that has been applied to the soil as
fertilizer. Sometimes up to 50% of the nitrates applied to the soil sink in to the
underground reservoir. The under ground water thus get polluted.

3. Irrigation may result in colder and damper climate causing outbreak of disease
like malaria.

4. Irrigation is complex and expensive in itself. Some times cheaper water is to

be provided at the cost of the government and revenue returns are low.

1.3 IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT IN ETHIOPIA

Ethiopia is the “water tower” of North Eastern Africa. Many rivers arising in Ethiopia are
also the sources of the major water resources in neighboring countries. The country is
endowed with water resources that could easily be tapped and used for irrigation.
Ironically this country is already suffering from food shortage because of the increasing
population and chronic drought occurrence in most part of the eastern and northern part
of the country. There is an annual food deficit to the extent of 0.5 to 1.0 million tones in
the country. During the period from 1984 to 1992 the food aid annually received was
around 0.9 to 1.0 tones (World Bank Report), to meet the demand of the ever growing
population (over 72 million) The need for utilizing these resources is most urgent, in
particular, in areas of the country where the length of the growing period is short and the
precipitation is erratic. In Ethiopia, rainfed agriculture contributes the largest share of the
total production. However, over the past few decades, irrigated agriculture has become
more important.

3
Prior to the mid-1980s, irrigation in Ethiopia was concentrated on the production of
commercial crops, principally cotton and sugarcane on large state farms. By 1980 it was
estimated that 85,000 ha. Mainly in the Awash valley, had been developed under this
form of production. In addition some 65,000 ha of traditional irrigation was estimated to
exist. Predominantly in the highlands and developed on the farmer’s own initiative.
These schemes were typically small runoff river diversion, with low production levels.
During this period government involvement in irrigation concentrated on the state farms
and was channeled through various agencies.

Historical Back Ground

• In 1956 water resource development (WRD) was established within Ministry of

public works, with responsibility for undertaking river basin development studies
and such a study was completed for the Blue Nile basin. However irrigation
development remained concentrated in the Awash valley and in 1962 Awash
valley Authority (AVA) was established.

• In 1971 National Water Resources Commission (NWRC) was established.

• In 1977 Valleys agricultural development authority (VADA) was created to extend

the development of large scale irrigated agriculture beyond the Awash valley and
AVA become part of VADA.

• In 1981 NWRC strengthened to absorb functions of VADA. It comprised four

authorities including water resource development authority (WRDA), which
became responsible for the study, design, and implementation of water resource
development projects including large scale irrigation.

The 1984 drought had a considerable impact on Ethiopia’s development policy, and the
1984 Ten-Year perspective plan allocated top priority to agricultural development with
objective of achieving self sufficiency in food production, establishing a strategic reserve
meeting the raw material requirement of industries and expanding output of exportable
agricultural products to increase foreign exchange earnings.

The Water Sector Development programme of MoWR (2002) organizes irrigation

schemes in Ethiopia under four different ways with sizes ranging from 50 to 85,000 ha

• Traditional small scale schemes: These includes up to 100 ha in area, built and
operated by farmers in local communities. Traditionally, farmers have built small scale
schemes on their own initiative with government technical and material support. They
manage them in their own users’ associations or committees and irrigate areas from 50
to 100 ha with the average ranging from 70 to 90 ha. A total of 1,309 such schemes
existed in 1992 covering an estimated area of 60,000ha.

4
Water users’ associations have long existed to operate and manage traditional schemes.
They comprise about 200 users who share a main or branch canal and further grouped
in to several teams of 20 to 30 farmers each.

• Modern communal schemes: schemes up to 200 ha, built by government agencies

with farmer participation. Modern communal schemes were developed after the
catastrophic drought of the 1973 as a means to improve food security and peasant
livelihoods by providing cash incomes through production and marketing of crops. Such
schemes are capable of irrigating about 30,000ha of land.

These schemes are generally based on run-of - diversion of streams and rivers and may
also involve micro dams for storage. On-farm support from the respective agricultural
departments and maintenance of headworks by water, mines and energy sections as
well as technical support from the authorized irrigation development Bureaus in different
regions is giving supports and trying to strengthen the system.

• Modern private schemes: up to 2000 ha, owned and operated by private investors
individually, in partnership, or as corporations. Medium to large scale irrigation schemes
in Ethiopia are private enterprises. The private estates are the pioneers in the
development of medium and large scale irrigation development projects in the upper
Awash during the 1950s and 1960s. During the 1990s some private schemes, mostly in
the form of limited companies re-emerged with the adoption of market based economic
policy but have expanded relatively slowly.

Currently 18 modern private irrigation projects are operating in some form over a total
area of 6000 ha in Oromiya, SNNPR, and Affar regions.

Public Schemes of over 3,000 ha, owned and operated by public enterprises as estate
farms. They are recently developed irrigation schemes during the late 1970s. Gode
West, Omo Ratti and Alwero- Abobo began late in the 1980s and early in the 1990s but
have not yet been completed. Public involvement towards large scale schemes was
withdrawn due to government changes and most of such schemes with the exception of
Fincha sugare estate have been suspended. Large scale schemes being operated by
public enterprise extend over an area estimated at 61,000 ha. Oromiya and Affar
account nearly 87% of all irrigation schemes and about 73% of this is located in Awash
valley. The SNNPR and Somali regions contain 9.9 and 3.3 percent respectively, WSDP
(2003).

Irrigation potential: In 1990 a team of consultants working for WAPCOS, a

consultancy group in India, prepared a preliminary water resource development master
plan for Ethiopia. The potential for medium and large scale irrigation projects was
identified as 3.3 Mha. Areas having irrigation potential were identified from 1:50,000 and
1:250,000 topographic maps and 1:1000:000 geomorphologic maps. The study was
carried out almost entirely as a desk exercise with minimal field verification. It should be
noted that the assessment of irrigation potential is to a large degree subjective as
it is dependent on the physical resources of land and water, but also on the economic
and social feasibility of their exploitation.

Another study conducted by FAO argues the estimation of the potential irrigable land by
WAPCOS is over estimated. That of the total potential irrigable area identified by

5
WAPCOS, some 3 Mha of the soils or 90% of that of the total were classified as only
marginally suitable and in some case non-suitable with the technology available. The
main reason for this is the predominance of vertisols and nitosols in the areas identified.
Theses soils are characterized by high clay content, restricted damage and difficult
workability. To avoid water logging under irrigated conditions it is necessary to adopt a
low cropping intensity or to install expensive sub-surface drainage. Either alternative
significantly reduces the economic viability of irrigation. However, such soils are
frequently classified as highly suitable for rice production.

Ethiopia has a rich water resources potential, but water can be very short in many
places. Except for the Awash and the Omo, all the large rivers originating in Ethiopia
flow into neighboring countries. Unlike in the past Ethiopia is now taking genuine steps
towards fostering close ties, joint planning and harmonious relationships among riparian
countries. The irrigation potential of the12 major river basins is given in the Table below.

Rivers Basin area Mean Ground water 1 2

(Km)2 annual potentialx109m3 potential Net area
Vol.x109m3 gross Under
irrigable irrigation(ha)
area(ha)
Awash 112696 4.60 0.14 205400 69900
Abay(Blue 204000 52.62 1.80 1001550 21010
Nile)
Baro-Akobo 75912 11.81 0.13 600000 350
Rift valley 52739 56.3 0.10 139300 12270
lakes
Omo-Gibe 79000 17.96 0.10 86520 27310
Genale- 17104 5.88 0.03 423300 80
dawa
Wabi- 202697 3.16 0.04 204000 20290
Shebelle
Tekeze 865000 8.20 0.02 189500 1800
Oaden 72121 0.86 - - -
Denakil 62882 0.86 - 3000 -
Aysha 2223 0.22 - - -
Mereb- 5700 0.65 0.05 67560 8000
Gash
Total 1127312 112.45 2.59 2920130 161010
Note 1= the data extracted from EARO and 2= the data from CSE

Ethiopia has not developed irrigation to the potential it has, i.e. according to the
availability of physical resources, land and water. At present only a little more than
3% of the irrigable land is currently irrigated both in large and medium scale. The
development of irrigated areas in the country has also been unevenly spread. Over
70% of the area developed for irrigation to date is in the Awash river basin. Most of
the development has been in the Awash valley, which is the most accessible basin to
Addis and has the best infrastructure to support irrigation development.

6
The spells of drought during the last two decades have led to increased interest in
irrigation development. Irrigation is thus expanding in the Wabi-Shebelle and Genale
rivers and in the Ziway-Meki area of the rift valley. There are also a number of
proposals for further irrigation schemes in several of the other basins including the
Omo river, Rift valley lakes and Baro-Akobo. Following the decentralization of
governance, there are now a number of regional initiatives to develop irrigation,
especially at the small and medium scales, building on existing traditional small-scale
irrigation systems, and augmenting them with the diversion of streams and the
construction of earth dams. Irrigation development in Ethiopia, as in other countries,
has a number of ecological implications because of its impact upon river regimes and
downstream flows.

Some of the adverse effects of irrigation development on the environment are: The
development of medium and large scale irrigation projects causes a displacement of
the indigenous population engaged in pastoral modes of life. Clear examples include
the displacement of 60,000 Afar pastoralists from the Amibara irrigation project in the
Middle Awash (Mac Donald, 1990) and unspecified number of kereyou pastoralists
during the establishment of the Metehara sugar plantation in the upper Awash.

With respect to the use of irrigation for crop production in the highlands, the success
has been little. The existence of small scales irrigation by small holders in parts of
Shewa. Tigray Harerege, Gojjam, North omo and few others is known. But the
constraints of small scales of irrigation in the highlands of Ethiopia are physical,
know-how. capacity and climatic ones.

Until last year Ethiopia did not have a coherent water resource policy. Lack of an
irrigation policy precluded the preparation of a strategy for he sub-sector which would
have identified development targets and priorities. The large number of different
agencies involved particularly in medium and large scale irrigation created
considerable difficulties in coordination of activities leading to overlap of
responsibilities and inefficient use of scarce human, financial and physical resources.
Defined institutional responsibilities and allowed rational planning of future
manpower requirements and its development. The sub-sector also suffered from
unnecessary institutional and fragmentation.

OVERALL OBJECTIVE OF THE IRRIGATION POLICY IN ETHIOPIA

The overall objective of the irrigation policy is to develop the huge irrigated
agriculture potential for the production of food crops and raw materials
needed for agro-industries, on efficient and sustainable basis and without
degrading the fertility of the production fields and water resource base.

7
 Major irrigation methods

Irrigation Methods

Surface Irrigation Sub surface irrigation Pressurized irrigation

Border Natural Sprinkler

Check basin Artificial Drip/Trickle

Furrow

Functions of Irrigation water

The function of soil moisture in plant growth are diversified

1. It adds water to the soil to supply the moisture essential for plant growth

• It acts as a solvent for the nutrients. Water forms the solution of the nutrients
and this solution is absorbed by the roots. Thus water acts as a nutrient carrier.
• The irrigation water supplies moisture which is essential for the life of bacteria
beneficial to the plant growth.
• Irrigation water supplies the moisture which is essential for the chemical action
within the plant, leading to its growth.

2. Some salt present in soil react to produce nourishing food products only in
the presence of water
3. Water cools the soil and the atmosphere and thus makes more favorable
environment for healthy plant growth.
4. Irrigation water, with controlled supplies, washes out or dilutes salts in the soil
5. It reduces the hazard of soil piping.
6. It softens tillage pans

8
1.4 STANDARDS OF IRRIGATION WATER

Every water is not suitable for irrigation. The quality of irrigation water is very much
influenced by the contents of the soil, which is to be irrigated. Particular water may be
harmful for irrigation on a particular soil but the same water may be tolerable or even
useful on some other soil. Irrigation water may be said to be unsatisfactory for its
intended use if it contains:
• Chemicals toxic to plants or the persons using plant as food
• chemicals that react with the soil to produce unsatisfactory moisture
characteristics
• Bacteria injurious to persons or animals eating plants irrigated with water.

There are two main causes of salinity: Salinity caused by the supply of irrigation water
and Salinity caused by the upward movement of water and salts, related to high water
tables and lack of drainage; it is only indirectly related to salts in the irrigation water. The
general solution to these problems is to remove the salts from the soil by providing extra
water, which dissolves the salts and percolates to the saturated zone where it is
removed by drainage. The process is called leaching. This is one of the reasons why
irrigation systems also require drainage systems.

a. Sediment: its effect depends upon the type of irrigated land when fine sediment
from water is deposited on sandy soils the fertility is improved on the other hand
if the sediment has been derived from the eroded areas it may reduce the fertility
or decrease the soil permeability. Sediment water creates troubles in irrigation
canals as it increases their siltation and maintenance costs. In general ground
water or surface water from reservoirs, etc does not have sufficient sediment to
cause any serious problems in irrigation.

b. Total concentration of soluble salts: Salts, when present in excessive

quantities, reduce osmotic activities of the plants and may prevent adequate
aeration causing injuries to plant growth. The effect of salts on plant growth
depends largely upon the total amount of salts in the soil solution. The salinity
concentration of the soil solution (C s ) after the consumptive use (Cu) has been
extracted from the soil is given by
C *Q
Cs=
[
Q − (C u − Peff ) ]
where Q = quantity of water applied
C u = is consumptive use of water i.e. the total amount of water used up
by the plant for its growth.
P eff = useful rainfall
C u - P eff = used up irrigation water
C = concentration of salt in irrigation water
C*Q = the total salt applied to the soil with Q amount of water.

Concentration of salt is measured in PPM (equivalent to mg/l). Concentration of salt

above 2000 PPM is generally harmful for almost all crops. Salt concentration is
measured by determining electrical conductivity.

Low Conductivity (low salinity) 100-250 micromhos/cm

Medium conductivity 250-750 micromhos/cm

9
 High conductivity 750-2250 micromhos/cm
Very high conductivity >2250 micromhos at 250C

Since a high degree of correlation exists between, EC, the total cations and osmotic
pressure of soil water extract , the following relationship may be employed for the
evaluation of salt concentration.

1. Salt concentration , mg/l or ppm = 640 * EC millimhos/cm

2. Total cation concentration , meq/lit = 10* EC millimhos/cm , when EC is
measured up to the range of 5 millimhos/cm at 250C.
3. Osmotic pressure , in atmospheres = 0.36 *EC millmhos/cm , For soils the
saturation extract could be used for this purposes.
4. ppm/Eq.Wt = meq/lit.
5. meq/lit. to ppm = Sum of the product of the meq. of each ion times its equivalent
weight.

C. Proportion of sodium ions to other cations: small quantities of sodium ions

present in most soils relative to other cations. If its percentage increases it has an
influence on the aggregation of soil grains i.e. it breaks down. The soil becomes less
permeable and of poorer tilth. It starts crusting when dry and its pH increases towards
that of an alkaline soil. High sodium soils are therefore, plastic, sticky when wet, and
are prone to form clogs and they crust on drying.

The proportion of sodium ions present in the soil is generally measured by a

factor called sodium-absorption ratio (SAR) and represents the sodium hazards
of water. SAR is defined as:
Na +
SAR =
 Ca + + + Mg + + 
 
 2 

Adj. SAR = SAR [1 + (8.4 − pHc )] ……Ayers &Westcot , 1976

in which the ionic concentrations are expressed in milliequivalents per litre ( meq/l) and
pHc is calculated pH magnitude.

The calculated pHc is given by,

[ ] [ ]
pHc = ( pK d − pK s ) + p Ca 2+ + p HCO3 + p ( ACF ) ……………..(1)
−

K s = (Ca2+) (CO 3 2-) …………………………………..(2)

Kd =
(H )(CO
+
3
2−
) …………………………………….(3)
−
HCO3
and ACF = Activity Coefficient Factor for Ca2+ and HCO 3 -

The terms in brackets are all in moles/L. HCO 3 - is used in equation 1 above instead of
total alkalinity because it is the dominant species. K d and K s are temperature dependent
and an expression applicable to eqn. (1) is:

10
 pK d - pK s = 2.586 – 2.621*10-2 T + 1.01*10-4 T2 …………………………….. (4)
where T = solution temperature , OC

The activity coefficient factor is dependent up on solution concentration and is calculated

by:

P(ACF) = 7.790*10-2 + 2.610*10-2 TDS – 5.477*10-4 TDS2 +5.323*10-6 TDS3 ……..(5)

where, TDS = Total dissolved ion concentration, meq/L

Where the concentration of the ions is expressed in equivalent per million (epm), epm
is obtained by dividing the concentration of salt in mg/l or PPM by its combining weight
(i.e. atomic weight / valence).

When SAR between 0-10 it is low sodium water

10-18 medium ,,
18-26 High ,,
>26 very high ,,
Low sodium water is suitable for irrigation except in crops which are sensitive to sodium
like fruit trees, avocados etc where as medium sodium water is hazardous in fine
textured soils. Very high sodium water is generally not suitable for irrigation. SAR value
can be reduced by adding gypsum (CaSo 4 ).

d. pH :- The pH value of a soil or natural water is a measure of its alkalinity or acidity.

More accurately stated , the pH value is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration in
water. Mathematically this is the logarithm to the base 10 of the reciprocal of the
hydrogen ion concentration of the pure water.

e. Potentially toxic elements: elements like Boron, Selenium, etc may be toxic to
plants.
Concentration of Boron exceeding 0.3 PPM may be toxic to certain plants.
>0.5 PPM dangerous to nuts, citrus fruits.
Dates. Beets, asparagus are quite tolerant. Even for the most tolerant crops its
concentration should not exceed 4 PPM . Boron is present in various soaps. Wastewater
containing soap, etc should be used with great care in irrigation.

Guidelines for the interpretation of water quality for irrigation water (FAO, 1976)

Irrigation problem Degree of problem

No Increasing Severe
problem problem problem
Salinity <0.75 0.75-3.0 >3.0
(affects water uptake)
Ecw (mmhos/cm)
Permeability (affects water
infiltration and availability) Ecw
(mmhos/cm) >0.5 0.5-0.2 <0.2
Adj.SAR
Montmorilonite Hlite-vermiculite <6 6-9 >9
Kaolimite-sesquioxides <8 8-16 >16

11
 <10 16-24 >24
Specific ion toxicity
(affects sensitive crops)
sodium (adj. SAR) <3 3-9 >9
Chloride(meq/1) <4 4-10 >10
Boron (mg/1) 0.75 0.75-2.0 >12
Miscellaneous effects
(affects susceptible crops)
No 3 -Nor NH 4 -N(mg/1) <5 5-30 >30
Hco 3 (meq/1) <1.5 1.5- 8.5 >8.5
PH
(Normal range 6.5- 8.4)

The following guidelines can be used in assessing the water quality for irrigation.

I. Salinity status: ECw and TDS

II. Infiltration capacity: this can be done by estimating SAR and ECw ,
salinity & sodium content.
III. Specific ion Toxicity: Na , Cl, B ,
Other trace elements: Al, As, Be, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu , F ,Fe, Li, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb,
Se, etc
iv. Miscellaneous effect: Nitrogen NO 3 - N , Bicarbonate (HCO 3 ) - for
overhead irrigation

Some literatures provide different guidelines specified by FAO (1976) to interpret the
irrigation water quality parameters.

Table: Laboratory determinations needed to evaluate common Irrigation water

quality parameters

S.No Water Parameter Symbol Unit usual range in irrigation water

1. SALINITY:
1.1 Salt content
Electrical conductivity ECw dS/m 0-3
Total Dissolved Solids TDS mg/l 0-2000
1.2 Cations &Anions
Calcium Ca++ me/l 0-20
Magnesium Mg++ me/l 0-5
Sodium Na+ me/l 0-40
Carbonate CO 3 -- me/l 0-0.1
Bicarbonate HCO 3 - me/l 0-10
Chloride Cl- me/l 0-30
Sulphate SO 4 -- me/l 0-20
2. NUTRIENTS
Nitrate- Nitrogen NO 3 - N mg/l 0-10
Ammonia – Nitrogen NH 4 –N mg/l 0-5
Phosphate Phosphorus PO 4 -P mg/l 0-2
Potassium K+ mg/l 0-2

12
3. MISCELLANEOUS
Boron B mg/l 0-2
Acid /Basicity pH 1-14 6-8.5
Sodium adsorption ratio SAR me/l 0-15
Li , Fe
Source. FAO Irrigation &Drainage manual No. 29 , Page 1-10

Electrical Conductivity -- Electrical conductivity, also called salinity, arises from

weathering of rocks and soils. Saltwater intrusion into water supplies located near
coastal areas also may contribute to electrical conductivity. This usually is expressed in
millimhos per centimeter (mmhos/cm) and may be converted into total dissolved-salt
concentration by multiplying mmhos/cm by 640 or 700. The soluble-salt level should
normally be less than about 1.00 mmhos/cm for most irrigation situations.

Calcium and Magnesium -- These elements are results of rock weathering. Calcium
usually is higher than magnesium in groundwaters, but where there is seawater
contamination, magnesium concentrations may be greater than calcium. These
elements are the main ones causing water hardness and the scale-forming properties of
waters. As these elements increase, the tendency for sodium to be toxic decreases.

Sodium -- Sodium arises from rock and soil weathering, seawater intrusion, and sewage
and irrigation waters. Large amounts of sodium, combined with chloride, give water a
salty taste. If the water is for a sprinkler system, and calcium and magnesium are low,
medium to high levels of sodium can defoliate sensitive plants. When the sodium in
water is high relative to calcium and magnesium levels, and precipitation of Ca and Mg
bicarbonates and carbonates is high, a sodium problem could develop on some soils.

The sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) and residual sodium carbonate (RSC) are useful for
evaluating sodium hazard in water applied directly to the soil. In these calculations, the
potential for precipitation of calcium, magnesium bicarbonates, and carbonates is
considered. If these constituents precipitate out of the water, relative amounts of sodium
will increase in the soil solution.

SAR is calculated using sodium, calcium, and magnesium expressed in milliequivalents

per liter (meq/L) and is written as the following:

Residual Sodium Carbonate (RSC) is calculated using milliequivalents of calcium,

magnesium, carbonates, and bicarbonates:

RSC = (Carbonates + Bicarbonates) - (Calcium + Magnesium)

Once a high buildup of sodium and salt occurs, water in excess of that needed for
irrigation is necessary to leach these salts below the root zone of the crops. If levels of
sodium are elevated, applying high rates of gypsum on alkaline soils or lime on acid soils
(depending on pH) may eliminate some of the sodium problem. Consult your county
agent or Extension soil testing specialist for more specific recommendations. Salt-
tolerant crops, such as bermudagrass, may be useful in soil stabilization and erosion
control. Soils with a high salt content but low levels of exchangeable (clay-fixed) sodium
may require only leaching.

13
Chlorides, ppm: Chlorides arise from dissolved rocks, seawater intrusion, and sewage.
The presence of sodium carbonates is suspected if the ratio of sodium to chloride is
greater than 0.648. This constituent is most harmful in overhead sprinkler systems.
Chloride should not be confused with chlorine (Cl2), which indicates the level of
dissolved gaseous chlorine in water.

Iron, ppm: Iron is dissolved from practically all rocks and soils and also may arise from
plumbing, pumps, and tanks. Iron in groundwater quickly oxidizes to a reddish-brown
product when exposed to air. Iron at greater than one-third part per million can cause
clogging in drip-irrigation systems and could stain foliage in overhead applications.

Bicarbonates and carbonates, ppm: These constituents most often are associated
with calcium, magnesium, and sodium. White residues on plant foliage usually are
because of high bicarbonate content of water. When calcium and magnesium
bicarbonates precipitate out of irrigation water before use, sodium hazard may be
increased.

pH: Low pH in water is caused by acids, acid-generated salts, and dissolved carbon
dioxide. High pH is from carbonates, bicarbonates, hydroxides, phosphates, silicates,
and borates. You should check water samples with less than 5.5 or greater than 8.5 pH
to determine cause of abnormal values. Check water with a pH lower than 6.5 for
corrosion potential on plumbing, pumps, or storage tanks.

Nitrates and Ammonium Nitrogen, ppm: Generally, levels of these constituents

should not be a problem if kept at 5 ppm or lower. Problems can occur at 6 to 30 ppm. At
greater than 30 ppm, severe toxicity is seen in some plants.

1.5 Feasibility studies of irrigation projects

Types of Irrigation projects

Any plan small or large, which ultimately aims at satisfying the paramount need of
adequate water provision for crop production, is an irrigation project.
Based on the scope of the irrigation project, irrigation projects can be classified as:

a) Large scale
b) Medium scale
c) Small scale

Irrigation projects and their development costs

Type of project Command area Development cost*
(ha) U.S dollars/ha
Average cost Range in cost
Large scale >10,000 16,000 5,000-50,000
Medium scale 2,000-10,000 9,000 4,000-15,000
Small scale <2,000 4,000 1,000-6,500

* Source: FAO, 1995.

Note: In Ethiopia, Small scale irrigations are those which have command areas <200 ha,

14
medium scale 200-3000 ha. And large scale >3000 ha.

With this respect, Ethiopia has a total potentially irrigable area of about 3,637,000 ha.
which is 27.55% of the total cultivable area. From which
o For small scale irrigation 165,000-400,000 ha.
o For medium and large scale irrigation 3,300,000 ha.

Stages of investigations in the development of irrigation projects.

♦ Basically, the development of water resources for irrigation requires the

conception, planning, design, construction, and operation of various facilities to
utilize and control water and to maintain water quality.

♦ Investigations of the development of irrigation projects need multi-discipilinary

approach. Specialists of different discipilines , such as, Soil and water specialist,
Engineers (Irrigation and civil), Agronomist, Geologist, and Socio-economist required.

♦ Investigations of water resources development projects are essentially aimed at

collection of basic data and analysis thereof for formulation of an optimum project. The
extent of data to be collected depends on the magnitude of the project and also on the
stage of investigation.

The common procedures adopted in the development of an irrigation project are:

1. Sites are located on the toposheet.

2. The marked sites are inspected (reconnaissance) to decide their feasibility.
3. The feasibility investigations are carried out for one or more of the possible
alternatives and estimates based approximate details are prepared.
4. Detailed investigations are then taken up and technical sanctions are granted.
5. After the technical sanction, agency of execution (i.e., contractor) is fixed and
construction started.

Approaches of data collections:

The following questions should be answered

 What or which data are required?

 How they can be collected?
 Why are they needed?
 Is the cost of their collection worthwhile?

Feasibility studies of irrigation projects

• Necessity for irrigation in the region: Normally Irrigation will be a necessity if

there is inadequacy of rainfall, uneven distribution of rainfall, etc. On the other
hand it will be of a paramount importance to alleviate food shortage due to
population growth.

For instance, in Ethiopia,

15
In 2050 – population is expected to be 170 millions.
 Let 230-kg/person/year food grain is needed.
→ Need of 400 mills. quintal (which = 3x present)
 Let 200 mills. Quintal produced by rain-fed (which = 2x present)

Thus 200 million quintal should be produced by irrigation (which needs 80, 000 ha
increment per year).

 Availability of adequate water supply

 Topography of the area
 Cultural practices of the tract
 Adequacy of existing irrigation system it any
 Possibility of growing cash crops or other voluble crops after provision of
irrigation water
 Facilities regarding accessibility to the site and transportation of
construction materials.
 Economical justification for implementing the irrigation scheme.

When the idea of an irrigation project is conceived (after reconnaissance survey), the
data to be collected at the feasibility study stage are

1. Physical data : Location, size, phsiography (description of land form which includes
only physical
aspects), climate, etc.
2. Hydrological data : Precipitation, Evaporation, transpiration, stream flow, sediment,
water quality etc.
3. Agricultural data : Land classification, crop water requirements, types of crops etc
4. Geological data : Rock & Soil types, ground water, minerals, erosion, etc.
5. Cartographic data :Topographic & other maps of the area.
6. Ecological data : Types of vegetation, fish & wild life.
7. Demographic data : Population statistics, data of people etc.
8. Economic data : Means of transportation, market, land taxes, etc.
9. Legal data : Water rights, land ownership administrative pattern, etc
10. Data in existing project: Types of Location of various projects.
11. Data on public opinion : Opinions of different section of the society
12.Flood control data : Records of past flood, extent of damage caused, drainage
requirements
Information to be collected includes

Land resources

An evaluation of the suitability of land for alternative kinds of use requires a survey to
define and map the land units together with the collection of descriptive data of land
characteristics and resources.

Land suitability is the fitness of a land-mapping unit for a defined use (in this case
irrigation). Land mapping units represent parts of a study area (ex. for irrigation) which
are more or less homogeneous with respect to certain land characteristics i.e. slope,
rainfall, soil texture, soil type, etc).

16
Land evaluation provides information and recommendations for deciding ‘which crops to
grow where’ and related questions. Land evaluation is the selection of suitable land, and
suitable cropping, irrigation and management alternatives that are physically and
financially practicable and economically viable. The main product of land evaluation
investigations is a land classification that indicates the suitability of various kinds of land
for specific land uses, usually depicted on maps with accompanying reports.

The four basic features of land suitability for irrigated agriculture are

• Irrigable terrain (land forms)

• Potentially fertile soil
• A climate in which the crop can thrive (develop well & be healthy)
• A reliable source of water of consistent quality

The classification of the suitability of a particular land – mapping unit depends on the
extent to which its land qualities satisfy the land use requirements. Definite specification
(for land use requirements) is established for an irrigation project area prior to land
classification.

Land suitability classification

Land suitability sub – classes. Examples

S 2 w – land moderately suitable (S 2 ) because of lack of available water (w).

S 2 d – land moderately Suitable (S 2 ) because of drainage deficiency (d).

 Land capability maps are used to delineate arable and non-arable lands.

 Land use and Vegetation maps of the catchments area are used to identify the
present
land use in terms of cover and function.

Soil survey:

17
This includes
• Identification of soil types.
• Field observation of infiltration.
• Field observation of hydraulic conductivity.
• Water table depth and fluctuation.
• Workability of the soil.
• Absence or presence of soil salinity.

Soil survey recognizes the relation between terrain or phyisography and soils.

Examples of: the minimum grade of a number of land qualities and land suitability ratings
for irrigated rice.
Land qualities Land suitability rating
S1 S2
Soil depth (cm) >60 >30
Soil fertility high low-medium
Soil salinity (ECin mmhos/cm) <4 <8
Rock outcrops (% of ground surface) <2 <25
Net field water requirements (mm/day) <20 <20
Slope (%) <2 <4
Field size medium-large small
Land development costs (US $ /ha <200 <600
Flooding nil or slight moderate

 Topographic Survey follows the soil survey and so is restricted mainly to the
areas of irrigable soils that have been delineated. Additional areas are included as
necessary for the location of reservoir, dams, head works, canals, buildings, roads, and
hydraulic structures. etc.

Water resources

Hydrological survey and Hydro-geological are undertaken to asses surface and sub-
surface water resources of the catchments respectively. It may be carried out at: national
level, river basin level, project development level and at farm level.

Data sources

 Surface water supplies from long – term records of stream flows, by stream
gauging and water quality. If such data is not available, rainfall records for the
catchments or stream flow records of the neighboring rivers used.
 If the above two conditions didn’t exist, stream gauging and metrological stations
are set up as soon as possible on the principle that short – term records are
better than none.

 For ground water supplies

Short – term yield is assessed by drilling and testing trial wells.
Long – term yield is estimated by a detailed study of the aquifers
(Mathematical models, numerical models which simulate the non-steady state, two-
dimensional, ground water flows are used for such purposes.)

18
Agricultural and Engineering aspects

 In feasibility study the present state of Agriculture and agricultural society is

assessed and the future state, with irrigation, is predicted. I.e. the ‘with’ and ‘without’
conditions of irrigation.

Present farm practices

… The number of farms of different sizes

… Farming methods in use
… Land areas cultivated and irrigated
… Crop yield per hectare
… Total crop production and costs.
… Labor available for farming operation
… Existing skill in irrigated farming and attitudes to change.
… Assessment on the existing market & transport.
… Presence of noxious weeds

The future state of Agriculture.

This assessment is much more difficult (numerous assumptions inevitably have to be

made)
It should be demonstrated that.

 The soils and the climate are suitable

 The rotation of crops is sound
 The water duties can be provided
 There will be accessible markets capable of absorbing the increased production at economic
prices.
 The advising and training facilities will be adequate, etc.

The Engineering aspect mainly focuses on the development of a source of water for
irrigation and construction of various structures for storage, diversion, conveyance and
application of water.

These includes investigations of

♦ Site selection and Design of a reservoir & a dam

♦ Site selection & Design of diversion head – works at point off takes.
♦ Alignment for canal system (lay outs for canal)
♦ Alignment for field channels.
♦ Study of sub–surface conditions that affect the design and construction of a
proposed structures.
♦ Concentrated on the mechanical properties of the sub soil at foundation levels.
♦ Construction materials including, soil and sand, rock and aggregate, cement, lime
stone steel, etc.
♦ Tests should be carried out on the various construction materials.
♦ Any flood hazard so that provision of flood dyke protection is possible.

19
♦ If there is drainage requirements i.e. layouts of sub – surface drains.
♦ Other factors having bearing effects upon the design of engineering works.

Social and Economical aspects.

The attitude of the people to the introduction of irrigation in that area should be
investigated thoroughly.
The Various items considered in benefit/cost relationships are.

a) Costs
 Capital cost of the project.
 Cost of preliminary and precise survey and investigation.
 Cost of a equitation of land
 Cost of various structures
 Cost of earthwork and lining for canal system. etc.
 Allowance made for foreseen and unforeseen contingencies.
 Interest on Capital
 Depreciation
 Operational and maintenance cost of project

b) Benefits.
 Agricultural production in the project area before and after taking up the project
(irrigation).
 Cost of cultivation before and after irrigation (cost of inputs viz. Seeds, manure,
labor, irrigation machines and implement etc).
Then.
Net annual benefit due to irrigation.
B. C ratio =
Annual Cost of Pr oject.
>1.5 for economically justified project.

Other aspects to be considered

o Organization and management aspects.

o Further expansion potential of the project.
o Environmental Surveys (Environmental Impact Assessment, EIA)

CHAPTER –TWO
2. SOIL-WATER-PLANT RELATIONSHIPS
Soil-Water-Plant Relationships relate the properties of the soil that affect the
movement, retention and use of water. It can be divided & treated as:
Soil-Water relation
Soil-plant relation
Plant- Water relation
2.1 Soil suitability for agricultural practices

20
Definitions
Soil:-A three-dimensional body occupying the upper part of the earth’s crust and
having properties differing from the underlying rock material as a result of
interactions between climate, living organism, parent material and relief and
which is distinguished from other soils in terms of differences in internal
characteristics and/or in terms of the gradient slope-complexity, micro
topography, stoniness, and rockiness of the surface.
Soils are the storehouse of water, nutrients and air which are necessary for plant
growth. Therefore, plants grow on soils that provide them water and nutrients.
The plants need water, the soil stores the water needed by the plants, and the
atmosphere provides the energy needed by the plant to withdraw water from the
soil.
The Soil suitability for agricultural practices may be affected by physical and
chemical soil characteristics.
2.1.1. Physical properties of soils
Effective soil depth
Water holding capacity
Non-capillary porosity
Topography
Texture
Soil structure
Soil consistence
Soil permeability and Hydraulic conductivity
2.1.2 Chemical properties of soils
Salinity (soluble salt content )
Amount of the Exchangeable sodium.
Soil reaction (PH)
In general, in any ecosystem, (a farm, forest.regional watershed etc soils have
five key roles.
 Medium for plant growth
 Regulator of water supplies

21
  Recycler of raw materials
 Habitat for soil organisms
 Engineering medium
2.2. Soil-water relationships
2.2.1. Physical properties of soils
Soil is the natural material that covers the land surface of the earth. Soils have
profiles, constituting of specific kinds and combinations of horizons, as well as
specific surfaces and relief or landscape features. They are formed by a
combination of natural processes under the interrelated influences of climate,
vegetation, relief (including hydrology), parent material, and time. Soil is a three-
phase system constituting solid, liquid and gases. The minerals and organic
matters in soil together constitute the solid phase. The main component of solid
phase is the soil particles, the size and shape of which give rise to pore spaces
of different shape and geometry. These pore spaces are filled with water and air.

Water film

Air space

Soil particles

Figure 2.1: Diagram showing cross

section of soil

22
Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

i. Soil Texture
Soil texture refers to the relative size of soil particles in a given soil. According to their size
soils particles are grouped into sand, silt and clay. The percentage content of soil separates
in a soil is determined by mechanical analysis. Based on the percentage content of sand, silt
and clay present, the textural class of a soil is determined by using the triangular diagram
(Fig. 2.3).

Fig. 2.3: USDA textural triangle

Texture is designated by using the names of the predominant size fractions.

ii. Soil Structure

Soil structure refers to the arrangement and organization of soil particles in the soil and the
tendency of individual soil particles to bind together into aggregates.

The overall quality of the soil structure may be evaluated in terms of its:

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 23

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

• Porosity,
• Aggregation,
• Cohesiveness,
• Permeability for water or air
A soil structure is important in plant growth as it influences the amount and nature of porosity
and regulates water, air and heat regimes in the soil besides affecting mechanical properties.
Hence, it has a pronounced effect on soil properties such as
• Erodibility,
• Porosity,
• Hydraulic conductivity,
• Infiltration, and
• Water holding capacity
iii. Volume and mass relationships
Let us consider the volume and mass relationships among the three constituents of soil
(solids, liquid and air), and define some basic parameters which have useful practical
importance in characterizing the physical condition of a soil.

Volume Mass
Relations Relations

Fig. 2.4: Schematic diagram of the soil as a three-phase

system

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 24

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

Symbols given in Fig. 2.4 are defined as:

Vt =total soil volume

Vs = volume of soil solids

Vw =volume of water

Va =volume of soil air

Vf =total void volume

Mt = total soil mass

Ms =mass of soil solids

Mw =mass of soil water

Ma =mass of soil air which is negligible

Density, porosity and soil water terms are defined with reference to Fig. 2.4.
Vt = Vs + Vw + Va (2.1)

Mt = Ms + Mw + Ma (2.2)

Most often bulk and particle densities are used to characterize densities of soil. They are
described as follows:
Bulk density ( ρ b )

Mass per unit volume of soil comprising the solid and gaseous phase in exclusion of the
liquid phase is called bulk density. That means it describes the soil as it is in the natural state
including pore spaces. In other words, bulk density is the weight of oven dry soil per unit total
volume. It is sometimes referred to as apparent specific gravity. The mass of the soil is then
obtained by weighing the dried soil. The bulk density is then calculated from the weight of the
soil per unit volume of known core sampler which is expressed as

Ms Ms
ρb = = (2.3)
Vt (Vs + Va + Vw )

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 25

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

Particle density ( ρ s )

It denotes the mass of soil solid per unit volume of soil solid and is expressed in gm/cm3. It is
defined as the mass (weight) per unit volume of soil particles (soil solids).
Ms
ρs = (2.4)
Vs
Particle density does not change with tillage or cropping practices.
In most mineral soils the ρ s is about 2.2 – 2.7 gm/cm3.
Total pore space and porosity
Total pore space (E) is the ratio of the volume of pores (voids) to the total volume of soil and
is expressed in %. It is the volume of soil occupied by air and water.
To determine porosity, soil samples are taken with core samplers and placed in a pan of
water until completely saturated. Then after saturation the cores are weighed. Then after, the
saturated samples are oven dried which again weighed. The difference in weight between
saturated and oven dry cores represents a volume of the pore space.

Vf (Va + Vw ) Vt − Vs  Vs 
E= = = = 1 −  (2.5)
Vt Vt Vt  Vt 
The ratio is then multiplied by 100 to obtain the porosity in percent. Total porosity can also be
calculated from the bulk density and particle density using the following relationships,
 ρ 
E = 1 − b  (2.6)
 ρs 
Total porosity is influenced by textural characteristics of soil and ranges from 35 to 50 % in
sandy soils and from 40 to 60 % in clayey soils. It increases with an increase in fineness,
looseness of soils and amount of soil aggregates.

Soil Water Content

Soil water content is expressed on mass basis or volume basis. It is measured using
gravimetric, neutron scattering, gamma ray, capacitance method, time domain reflectrometer.

i. Gravimetric method

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 26

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

A soil sample is weighed, then dried in an oven at 105 0C and weighed again. The difference
in weight is a measure of the initial water content. Samples can be taken on a mass or on a
volume basis. In the first case, we take a disturbed quantity of soil, put it in a plastic bag, and
transport it to the laboratory, where it is weighed, dried, and re-weighed after drying. We
calculate the mass fraction of water with equation 2.7.

Mw
w= (2.7)
Ms
. The volume fraction of water can be calculated as

Vw Vw
θ= =
Vt (Vs + V f ) (2.9)

The relationship between the mass wetness and volume wetness is given by
ρb
θv = w (2.10)
ρw
Types of soil water (Classes of soil Water availability)
Soil water has earlier been classified or exists mainly into three heads:
(i) Hygroscopic water,
(ii) Capillary water, and
(iii) Gravitational water.

Hygroscopic Water: The water that an oven dry soil absorbs when exposed to air saturated
with vapour is called hygroscopic water. Water held tightly to the surface of soil particles by
adsorption forces. It occurs as a very thin film over the surface of soil particles and is at a
tension of 31 atmospheres.
It is unavailable to plants & exerted by cohesion & adhesion forces.
Capillary water: is the water remaining after rapid drainage by gravity. It is available to
plants & exerted by only cohesion forces. The soil water tension is about 0.10 – 0.33 atm.
The capillary water supplies the water needed by plants. Hence, it is also designated as plant
available water.
Gravitational water: is rapidally drained from the soil profile by the force of gravity. When
sufficient water is added to soil, water gradually fills the pore system expelling air completely

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 27

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

from soil. Water moving downwards through soil under gravity is termed as gravitational
water. The water tension at this stage is 0.33 atm or less.

Fig.2.6 Types of soil - water

Soil Moisture constants
The following soil moisture constants are of significance importance in agriculture and are
termed soil moisture constants.
1. Saturation Capacity:-When all micro and micro pore spaces are filled with water, the
soil is said to have reached its Saturation Capacity. At field capacity water is held
loosely and tensions are almost nill.

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 28

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

2. Field Capacity:-is the moisture content after the gravitational water has drained
down. At field capacity, the macro pores are field with air & capillary pores (micro)
pores filled with water. Field capacity is the upper limit of the available soil moisture.
-Large pore spaces filled with air while the smaller ones with water.
-At FC Soil Moisture Tension (SMT) is b/n 1/10-1/3atm.
The volumetric moisture content at Fc is given by
θ fc = ( pb )θ m

3. Permanent Wilting Point:-is the the moisture content beyond which plants can no
longer extract enough moisture and remain witted unless water is added to the soil. At
PWP the plant starts wilting and if no water is given to the plant, and then it will
die.The SMT changes from 7 to 32atm.Hence,15atm is taken as SMT at PWT
The volumetric moisture content at PWP is given by
θ v ( pwp ) = ( pb )θ m ( pwp )

Saturation

Gravitational water

Field capacity

Capillary water
(Plant available
water)

Permanent welting point

Unavailable
water
Hygroscopic coeff.
Hygroscopic Air dry
water
Oven dry

Fig. 2.5: Illustration of soil water constants

Soil moisture ranges

1. Total available water, TAW

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 29

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

The Soil moisture b/n FC and PWP is called available water. This is the water available for
plant use.
2. Management allowed deficit (MAD)
Soil allowed deplete before the next irrigation.
MAD=f.TAW
3. Soil moisture deficit (SMD)
Is the amount of water supplied by irrigation/Rainfall.

2.3. Basic concepts of soil water dynamics

Water status in soils is characterized by both the amount of water present and its energy
state. Soil water is subjected to forces of variable origin and intensity, hereby acquiring
different quantities and forms of energy. The two primary forms of energy recognized are
kinetic and potential. Kinetic energy is acquired by virtue of motion and is proportional to
velocity squared. However, because the movement of water in soils is relatively slow its
kinetic energy is considered negligible. Potential energy, which is defined by the position of
soil water within a soil body and by internal conditions, is largely responsible for determining
soil water status under isothermal conditions. Like all other matter, soil water tends to move
from where the potential energy is higher to where it is lower, in pursuit of equilibrium with its
surroundings.
The magnitude of the driving force behind such spontaneous motion is a difference in
potential energy across a distance between two points of interest. At a macroscopic scale,
we can define potential energy relative to a reference state. The standard state for soil water
is defined as pure and free water (no solutes and no external forces other than gravity) at a
reference pressure, temperature, and elevation, and is arbitrarily given the value of zero.
2.3.1. Components of forces acting on soil water
Soil water is subject to several force fields, the combined effects of which result in a deviation
in potential energy relative to the reference state, called the ‘total
soil water potential which is defined as “the amount of work that an infinitesimal unit quantity
of water at equilibrium is capable of doing work when it moves (isothermally and reversibly)
to a pool of water at similar standard (reference) state, i.e., similar pressure, elevation,
temperature and chemical composition.’’ It should be emphasized that there are alternative

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 30

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

definitions of soil water potential using concepts of chemical potential or specific free energy
of the chemical species water (which is different from the soil solution termed ‘soil water’).
The primary forces acting on soil water held within a rigid soil matrix under isothermal
conditions can be conveniently grouped as:
 matric forces resulting from interactions of the solid phase with the liquid and gaseous
phases;
 osmotic forces owing to differences in chemical composition of soil solution; and
 body forces induced by gravitational and other (e.g., centrifugal) inertial force fields.

i. Matric forces
Matric forces consist of a group of forces such as adsorptive forces and capillary forces. The
primary mechanisms for these effects include:
 capillarity caused by liquid–gas interfaces forming and interacting within the irregular
soil-pore geometry;
 adhesion of water molecules to solid surfaces due to short-range London–van der
Waals forces and extension of these effects by cohesion through hydrogen bonds
formed in the liquid; and
 ion hydration and water participating in diffuse double layers (particularly near clay
surfaces)
iii. Gravitational force
Every body on the earth’s surface is attracted toward the earth’s center by a gravitational
force equal to the weight of the body, that weight being the product of mass of the body and
the gravitational acceleration. To raise a body against this attraction, work must be
expended, and this work is stored by the raised body in the form of gravitational potential
energy. The amount of this energy depends on the body’s position in the gravitational force
field.
As long as the gravity is lesser in magnitude than the matric and osmotic suctions (suction or
tension is used to indicate the negative force) together, there is no downward movement of
water. When the soil gets wet after irrigation or rain, the combined matric and osmotic
suctions decrease greatly and become lower in magnitude than the gravity. Consequently,
there is a downward movement of water.

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 31

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

2.3.2. Soil water potential concept

The effect of a force on soil water may conveniently be described by potential energy of soil
water in a particular force field. The forces governing soil-water flow can be described by the
energy concept. According to this principle, water moves from points with higher energy
status to points with lower energy status. The energy status of water is simply called 'water
potential'. The relationship between the mechanical- force concept and the energy-water-
potential concept is best illustrated for a situation in which the distance between two points
approximates zero. The forces acting on a mass of water in any particular direction are then
defined as
Fs ∂ψ
=− (2.15)
m ∂s
where
F s = total of forces (N)
m = mass of water (kg)
s = distance between points (m)
ψ = water potential on mass base (J/kg)

The negative sign (eq. 2.15) shows that the force works in the direction of decreasing water
potential.
The total soil water potential is the sum of potentials resulting from different force fields. It
may be defined as the amount of work done by a unit quantity of water to transport reversibly
and isothermally an infinitesimal quantity of water from a pool of pure water at a specified
elevation at atmospheric pressure to the point of soil water under consideration. The total soil
water potential can be written as:
ψt =ψm +ψO +ψg (2.16)

ψt =total potential
ψm =matric potential
ψO =osmotic potential
ψg =gravitational potential

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 32

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

In soil physics, water potential can be expressed as energy on a mass basis (ψ m ), on a

volume basis (ψv) or on a weight basis (ψw). As an example, let us take the gravitational
potential, ψ g , with the water-table as reference level. The definition of potential says that the
mechanical work required to raise a mass of water (m = ρ w V) from the water-table to a height
z is equal to mgz or ρ w Vgz. Thus the gravitational potential on mass basis (ψm), on volume
basis (ψv) or, on weight basis (ψw) will be

ρ wV g z
ψg = = gz ( J / kg ) gravitational potential on mass basis
ρw V
ρ wV g z
ψg = = ρgz ( Pa = pressure) gravitational potential on volume basis
V

ρ wV g z
ψg = = z (m = height or in water column)
ρ w Vg
In hydrology, one prefers to use the potential on a weight basis, and potentials are referred to
as 'heads'. In the following, we shall restrict ourselves to water potentials based on weight. In
analogy to Eq. 2.16, we can write

ht = hm + hO + hg (2.17)

with the potentials now called 'heads' and the subscripts having the same meaning as in Eq.
2.16
 The matric head (h m ) in unsaturated soil is negative, because work is needed to
withdraw water against the soil-matric forces. At the groundwater level, atmospheric
pressure exists and therefore h, = 0;
 Changes in total water head in the soil may also be caused by changes in the
pressure of the air adjacent to it. In natural soils, however, such changes are fairly
exceptional, so we can assume that he, = 0;
In soil-water studies, we can very often neglect the influence of the osmotic head.
Taking h 0 = 0, h g = z and denoting h t as H, we can also write

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 33

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

H = hm + z (2.18)

H = hydraulic head (m)

z = elevation head or gravitational head (m)

According to Equation 11.10, differences in head determine the direction and the magnitude
∂H
of soil-water flow. When the soil water is in equilibrium, − = 0 , and there is no flow.
∂z

2.4. Infiltration
2.4.1. Introduction
Definitions
 Infiltration is a process in which water enters the surface strata of the soil mass.
 The infiltrated water first meets the soil moisture deficiency, if any, and thereafter the
excess water moves vertically downwards to reach the groundwater table. This
vertical movement is called percolation.
 Infiltration capacity of the soil is defined as the maximum rate at which it is capable
of absorbing water.

Infiltration rate decreases during rain or irrigation. The rate of decrease is rapid initially and
the infiltration rate tends to approach a constant value. In general infiltration rate is high in the
early stages of infiltration, particularly where the soil is initially dry, but tends to decrease
monotonically and eventually to approach asymptotically a constant rate, which is often
termed the final infiltration capacity but which is preferably called steady-state infiltration.
The decrease of infiltration rate from an initially high rate is the result of decrease in hydraulic
potential gradient (constituting one of the forces drawing water into the soil) which occurs as
infiltration proceeds. If the surface of an initially dry soil is suddenly saturated, as, for
instance, if the surface is ponded, the hydraulic gradient acting in the surface layer is at first
very steep. As the wetting zone deepens, however, this gradient is reduced, and, as the
wetted part of the profile becomes thicker and thicker, the suction gradient tends eventually
to become vanishingly small.

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 34

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

It is influenced by soil properties and also by moisture gradient. Moisture tension may be
zero near the surface of soil shortly after wetting and may be very high a few centimeters
below, thus causing a large downward force (in addition to gravity) pulling the water into the
unsaturated soil. Several hours after wetting, these differences in tension may be very small,
and gravity then becomes the dominant force causing infiltration. The decrease of infiltration
with time after wetting a soil is of importance in rainfall-runoff studies and in irrigation.

2.4.2. Factors affecting infiltration

Major factors governing the rate of infiltration of water are: (i) Conditions and characteristics
of surface soil, (ii) Duration and intensity of irrigation or rainfall, (iii)Vegetation cover, (iv)
Tillage and crop management practices

Condition and characteristics of soil primarily involved in the process are the soil water
content, soil texture, soil structure, soil compaction, soil organic matter content soil surface
sealing, presence of cracks in surface soil, soil depth, depth of water table and the soil
hydraulic conductivity.
 Soil water content and looseness of the soil surface exert a profound influence on the
initial rate and the total amount of infiltration. As the soil water content decreases or
soil gets compact, the rate of infiltration decreases.
 Soil tillage and crop management practices increase the looseness of the soil and by
that increase the infiltration rate.
 Contour ploughing and terracing in agricultural areas have the effect of delaying runoff
resulting thereby in increased infiltration.
 Coarse textured soils have mainly large particles in between which there are large
pores.
 On the other hand, fine textured soils have mainly small particles in between which
there are small pores
 In coarse soils, the rain or irrigation water enters and moves more easily into larger
pores; it takes less time for the water to infiltrate into the soil. In other words, infiltration
rate is higher for coarse textured soils than for fine textured soils

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 35

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

 The water infiltrates faster (higher infiltration rate) when the soil is dry, than when it is
wet. As a consequence, when irrigation water is applied to a field, the water at first
infiltrates easily, but as the soil becomes wet, the infiltration rate decreases.
 Generally speaking, water infiltrates quickly (high infiltration rate) into granular soils
but very slowly (low infiltration rate) into massive and compact soils.
 Because the farmer can influence the soil structure (by means of cultural practices),
he can also change the infiltration rate of his soil.
 A soil surface with vegetative cover favours a greater infiltration than a bare soil as the
vegetative cover encourages slow movement of water over the surface.
 Mulch-cover on bare soil has more or less the effect of vegetation in absorbing the
raindrop impact and maintaining a fairly high rate of infiltration.

The infiltration rate is influenced by the rainfall duration and its intensity.

 The duration of sustained heavy rainfall results in a steady reduction in the infiltration
capacity until the rate of infiltration attains a nearly constant value.

 When the rainfall rate is smaller than the infiltration capacity, there is still a steady
reduction of the infiltration capacity, but the rate of reduction is lower. Under this
condition, all rainfall will be infiltrated as long as rain falls.

 Rainfall intensity affects infiltration in two ways:

i. when rainfall intensity is lesser than infiltration rate

o In this case, all the rainwater will be absorbed by the soil

ii. when rainfall intensity greater than infiltration rate

o In this case infiltration rate decreases due to the following reasons:

 Increment of supply of moisture to the surface layer

 mechanical compaction of soil by raindrops impact

 in-wash of fine soil particles

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 36

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

During heavy rainfall, the top soil is affected by mechanical compaction and by the inwash of
finer materials. This leads to faster decrease in the rate of infiltration than with low intensities
of rainfall.

Measurement of infiltration:

Due to the complexity of the infiltration phenomenon and the fact that many factors affect the
process, the measurements of infiltration rates and volumes should be accomplished under
field conditions. Infiltration can be measured by two methods namely (1) indirect method or
by infiltrations (2) Direct method Hydrograph analysis.

(1) Indirect Method: They involve artificial application of water over sample area. The
mechanism used for this purpose is called infiltration. There are two types of infiltrometers
vize. flooding type and rain simulators

(2) Direct method: It consists of analysis of runoff hydrograph resulting from a natural
rainfall over a basin under consideration

Some common terms related to infiltration:

Infiltration rate, I: The maximum rate at which water will enter the
soil mass through the surface.
Cumulative infiltration, Z :The total quantity of water that enters
the soil at a given time.
Basic infiltration, f o : Rate of infiltration decreases rapidly initially
and tends to approach a constant value, which
is called basic infiltration.

Quantification of infiltration
If i = depth of infiltration, cm
i o = depth of infiltration at t = t o = 0
t = time , min.
i 1 = depth of infiltration at t = t 1
I = rate of infiltration , cm/min.
Then the following characteristics of infiltration which are useful for irrigation can be
analyzed.

di
Instantaneous infiltration rate = = It
dt
Accumulated depth of infiltration at time t = i t
i −i
Average infiltration rate = t o
t − to

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 37

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

The instantaneous and average infiltration rates normally decrease with time in agricultural
soils. (Fig.3.14). Another characteristics of infiltration is the magnitude of infiltration rate
increases with decreasing initial moisture content.(Fig. 3.15).

Fig. Infiltration curves for different soil types

Fig. 3.14 Example of Infiltration rate (Average , instantaneous) , and cumulative

infiltration depth

Time (h)

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 38

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

Fig. 3.15 Infiltration rate as function of moisture content

Generally the following factors limits infiltration rate:

- initial (antecedent) moisture content
- conditions of sub-soil
- hydraulic conductivity of the soil profile
- texture, porosity (changed by cultivation and compaction)
- degree of swelling of soil colloids and organic matter.
- Vegetation cover, duration of rainfall or irrigation.

Infiltration equations
Numerous empirical equations have been developed to represent the infiltration phenomena.
Most of these equations are empirical in nature and have been developed to match observed
data sets. Systems of equations have also been applied to produce numerical simulation
models of the infiltration phenomena. Many of this numerical simulation models have
empirical terms with in them and may therefore be termed quasi numerical models. But here
we focus on application of empirical equations which have proven useful in system design.

a) Kostiakov equation
An early equation to quantify infiltration was that developed by Kostiakov (1932). It is
described by the following equation.

i = ct α

Where i = depth of infiltration , cm

t = time of infiltration , min
c and α empirical constants
The Kostiakov equation has been found to fit field measured infiltration data , especially
over relatively short periods (in the range of a few hours) and is practical in irrigation
system design.

b) Philip equation
A slightly more complex equation , but one which may be derived from the same field
data set as the Kostiakov equation, is that developed by Philip(1957). Philip’s equation
can be derived from theoretical analysis of one dimensional vertical infiltration in to a
uniform soil. It is given as:

i = S p (t)0.5 + A p (t)
where
i = depth of infiltration, cm
t = time of infiltration ,min.
S = sorptivity constant , cm /(min)0.5
A p = conductivity constant , cm /min

The sorptivity term, Sp , is dominant during the early stages of infiltration and the
conductivity term , A p , is dominant during the late stages of infiltration.

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 39

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

It should be noted that both the Kostiakov and Philip equations are normally given with
different constants for different soil types.

c) Soil conservation Service equations

The USSCS has made a large number of field trials to measure and categorize infiltration
rates. The SCS has used a slightly modified form of the Kostiakov equation to represent
the infiltration equation. Application of this method has been aided by the use of intake
family concept. Figure3.16 indicates cumulative depth of infiltration versus time of
infiltration in minutes. By locating the results of a field test on the graph for the soil in
question, the nearest intake family to represent the particular soil type can be chosen.

The governing equation for infiltration using SCS method is given by:

i = at b + c
In which i and t are as defined previously except that i may represent the depth of
infiltration in inches or centimeters, and a & b are given as a function of the intake
family and can be obtained from table 3.3 c is equal to 0.275 for i in inches and c =
0.6985 for i in centimeters.

The number of the SCS intake family in table 3.3 approximates the level of the long term
intake rate in inches per hour. The long term intake rate is defined as the one on the
Kostiakov type infiltration curve at which the infiltration rate decreases by 5 percent within
a one- hour period. This may be expressed as

 d  di  d i  0.05  di
2
   = 2 =  
 dt  dt  dt  60 min  dt
The time at which the long term intake rate occurs can be calculated using either of the
following two equations.
IF di
= = a (b)(t l ) b −1 or
60 dt

 0.05 IF  d i
2
  = = a (b)(b − 1)(t L ) b − 2
 60  dt
2 2

Where IF = Number of the SCS family

t L = time to long term infiltration rate , min.

Solving either of the two preceding equations for t L , approximates the time at which the
long term intake rate occurs. The intake rate in inches per hour at time t L , is equal to IF ,
the intake family number.

The relationship between the value of the intake family and the long term infiltration rate is
very useful in developing general design parameters for surface or sprinkler systems.

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 40

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

Fig. 3.16 Intake families for the SCS method of Infiltra

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 41

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

3. CROP WATER REQUIREMENTS

3.1 Evapotranspiration Process

3.2 Determination of Reference Crop Evapotranspiration (ETo)
3.3 Duty-Delta Relationship
3.4 Determination of Crop Evapotranspiration (ETc) Under Standard Conditions
3.5 Irrigation Efficiencies
3.6 Irrigation Scheduling

3.1 Evapotranspiration Process

The combination of two separate processes whereby water is lost on the one hand from the soil
surface by evaporation and on the other hand from the crop by transpiration is referred to as
evapotranspiration (ET).

Evaporation

Evaporation is the process whereby liquid water is converted to water vapour (vaporization) and
removed from the evaporating surface (vapour removal). Water evaporates from a variety of surfaces,
such as lakes, rivers, pavements, soils and wet vegetation.

Energy is required to change the state of the molecules of water from liquid to vapour. Direct solar
radiation and, to a lesser extent, the ambient temperature of the air provide this energy. The driving
force to remove water vapour from the evaporating surface is the difference between the water
vapour pressure at the evaporating surface and that of the surrounding atmosphere. As evaporation
proceeds, the surrounding air becomes gradually saturated and the process will slow down and might
stop if the wet air is not transferred to the atmosphere. The replacement of the saturated air with drier
air depends greatly on wind speed. Hence, solar radiation, air temperature, air humidity and wind
speed are climatological parameters to consider when assessing the evaporation process.

FIGURE 1. The partitioning of evapotranspiration into evaporation and transpiration over the growing
period for an annual field crop

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 42

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

Transpiration

Transpiration consists of the vaporization of liquid water contained in plant tissues and the vapour
removal to the atmosphere. Crops predominately lose their water through stomata. These are small
openings on the plant leaf through which gases and water vapour pass. The water, together with
some nutrients, is taken up by the roots and transported through the plant. The vaporization occurs
within the leaf, namely in the intercellular spaces, and the vapour exchange with the atmosphere is
controlled by the stomatal aperture. Nearly all water taken up is lost by transpiration and only a tiny
fraction is used within the plant.

Transpiration, like direct evaporation, depends on the energy supply, vapour pressure gradient and
wind. Hence, radiation, air temperature, air humidity and wind terms should be considered when
assessing transpiration. The soil water content and the ability of the soil to conduct water to the roots
also determine the transpiration rate, as do water logging and soil water salinity. The transpiration
rate is also influenced by crop characteristics, environmental aspects and cultivation practices.

Evapotranspiration (ET)

Evaporation and transpiration occur simultaneously and there is no easy way of distinguishing
between the two processes. Apart from the water availability in the topsoil, the evaporation from a
cropped soil is mainly determined by the fraction of the solar radiation reaching the soil surface. This
fraction decreases over the growing period as the crop develops and the crop canopy shades more
and more of the ground area. When the crop is small, water is predominately lost by soil evaporation,
but once the crop is well developed and completely covers the soil, transpiration becomes the main
process. In Figure 1 the partitioning of evapotranspiration into evaporation and transpiration is plotted
in correspondence to leaf area per unit surface of soil below it. At sowing nearly 100% of ET comes
from evaporation, while at full crop cover more than 90% of ET comes from transpiration.

Factors affecting evapotranspiration

Weather parameters, crop characteristics, management and environmental aspects are factors
affecting evaporation and transpiration. The related ET concepts presented in Figure 2 are discussed
in the section on evapotranspiration concepts.

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 43

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

FIGURE 2. Factors affecting evapotranspiration with reference to related ET concepts

Weather parameters

The principal weather parameters affecting evapotranspiration are radiation, air temperature, humidity
and wind speed. Several procedures have been developed to assess the evaporation rate from these
parameters. The evaporation power of the atmosphere is expressed by the reference crop
evapotranspiration (ET o ). The reference crop evapotranspiration represents the evapotranspiration
from a standardized vegetated surface. The ET o is described in detail later in this Chapter.

Crop factors

The crop type, variety and development stage should be considered when assessing the
evapotranspiration from crops grown in large, well-managed fields. Differences in resistance to
transpiration, crop height, crop roughness, reflection, ground cover and crop rooting characteristics
result in different ET levels in different types of crops under identical environmental conditions. Crop
evapotranspiration under standard conditions (ET c ) refers to the evaporating demand from crops that
are grown in large fields under optimum soil water, excellent management and environmental
conditions, and achieve full production under the given climatic conditions.

Evapotranspiration concepts
Distinctions are made (Figure 3) between reference crop evapotranspiration (ET o ), crop
evapotranspiration under standard conditions (ET c ) and crop evapotranspiration under non-standard
conditions (ET c adj ). ET o is a climatic parameter expressing the evaporation power of the atmosphere.
ET c refers to the evapotranspiration from excellently managed, large, well-watered fields that achieve
full production under the given climatic conditions. Due to sub-optimal crop management and
environmental constraints that affect crop growth and limit evapotranspiration, ET c under non-
standard conditions generally requires a correction.

FIGURE 3. Reference (ET o ), crop evapotranspiration under standard (ET c ) and non-standard
conditions (ET c adj )

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 44

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

3.2 Determination of Reference Crop Evapotranspiration (ETo)

The evapotranspiration rate from a reference surface, not short of water, is called the reference crop
evapotranspiration or reference evapotranspiration and is denoted as ET o . The reference surface is a
hypothetical grass reference crop with specific characteristics. The use of other denominations such
as potential ET is strongly discouraged due to ambiguities in their definitions.

The only factors affecting ET o are climatic parameters. Consequently, ET o is a climatic parameter
and can be computed from weather data. ET o expresses the evaporating power of the atmosphere at
a specific location and time of the year and does not consider the crop characteristics and soil factors.

ET measurement
Evapotranspiration is not easy to measure. Specific devices and accurate measurements of various
physical parameters or the soil water balance in lysimeters are required to determine
evapotranspiration. Although the methods are inappropriate for routine measurements, they remain
important for the evaluation of ET estimates obtained by more indirect methods.
Direct Measurement of ET include:
A) Lysimeter experiment
B) Field experimental plots
C) Soil moisture studies
D) Water balance method

A) Lysimeter experiment:

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 45

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

By isolating the crop root zone from its environment and controlling the processes that are difficult to
measure, the different terms in the soil water balance equation can be determined with greater
accuracy. This is done in lysimeters where the crop grows in isolated tanks filled with either disturbed
or undisturbed soil. In precision weighing lysimeters, where the water loss is directly measured by the
change of mass, evapotranspiration can be obtained with an accuracy of a few hundredths of a
millimeter, and small time periods such as an hour can be considered. In non-weighing lysimeters the
evapotranspiration for a given time period is determined by deducting the drainage water, collected at
the bottom of the lysimeters, from the total water input.
A requirement of lysimeters is that the vegetation both inside and immediately outside of the lysimeter
be perfectly matched (same height and leaf area index). This requirement has historically not been
closely adhered to in a majority of lysimeter studies and has resulted in severely erroneous and
unrepresentative ET c and K c data.

B) Field experimental plots

This is most suitable for determination of seasonal water requirements. Water is added to selected
field plots, yield obtained from different fields are plotted against the total amount of water used. The
yield increases as the water used increases for some limit and then decreases with further increase in
water. The break in the curve indicates the amount of consumptive use of water.

C) Soil moisture studies

In this method soil moisture measurements are done before and after each irrigation application.
Knowing the time gap b/n the two consecutive irrigations, the quantity of water extracted per day can
be computed by dividing the total moisture depletion b/n the two successive irrigations by the interval
of irrigation. Then a curve is drawn by plotting the rate of use of water against the time from this
curve, seasonal water use of crops is determined.

D) Water balance method

Evapotranspiration can also be determined by measuring the various components of the soil water
balance. The method consists of assessing the incoming and outgoing water flux into the crop root
zone over some time period (Figure 4). Irrigation (I) and rainfall (P) add water to the root zone. Part of
I and P might be lost by surface runoff (RO) and by deep percolation (DP) that will eventually
recharge the water table. Water might also be transported upward by capillary rise (CR) from a
shallow water table towards the root zone or even transferred horizontally by subsurface flow in (SF in )
or out of (SF out ) the root zone. In many situations, however, except under conditions with large
slopes, SF in and SF out are minor and can be ignored. Soil evaporation and crop transpiration deplete
water from the root zone. If all fluxes other than evapotranspiration (ET) can be assessed, the
evapotranspiration can be deduced from the change in soil water content (∆ SW) over the time
period:

ET = I + P - RO - DP + CR ± ∆ SF ± ∆ SW (2)

Some fluxes such as subsurface flow, deep percolation and capillary rise from a water table are
difficult to assess and short time periods cannot be considered. The soil water balance method can
usually only give ET estimates over long time periods of the order of week-long or ten-day periods.

FIGURE 4. Soil water balance of the root zone

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 46

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

Climatic Approaches to estimate evapotranspiration

Some empirical and theoretical equations are derived on the basis of regional relationship
between measured ET and climatic factors. The following methods are the combination of
some empirical, analytical and theoretical approaches.

1. FAO Balnney-Criddle Method

2. FAO Radiation Method
3. FAO Penman Method
4. Hargreave's Class A Pan Evaporation Method
5. FAO Pan Evaporation Method
6. FAO Penman-Monteith Method
7. Thornthwaite Method

1. ET 0 = C × P (0.46T + 8)
2. ET 0 = C ×(W⋅R s )
R s = (0.25 + 0.50 n/N) R A
3. ETo = C [W ⋅ Rn + (1 − w) f (u ) (es − ea )]

(Radiation term) (Aerodynamic term)

4. ET 0 = 0.0023 × R a (T + 17.8) × TD0.50
5. ET 0 = kp⋅E pan

0.408 ∆ (Rn − G ) + γ V2 (es − ea )

900
T + 273
6. ET0 =
∆ + γ (1 + 0.34V2 )
a
 10Tm 
7. ETo = 1.62 R f  
 Te 
Where:

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 47

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

C in (1) = adjustment factor which depends on the min relative humidity, sunshine hours and
daytime wind estimates
C in (2) = Adjustment factor which depends on mean humidity and daytime wind condition
C in (3) = Adjustment factor to compensate for the effect of day and night weather conditions
T = Mean daily temperature in oC over the month considered
P = Mean daily percentage of total annual day time hours obtained from the relevant table
for a given month and latitude
Rs = Solar radiation in equivalent evaporation mm/d
W in (2) = the temperature and altitude dependant weighing factor
W in (3) = Temperature related weighing factor for the effect of radiation on PET
(1-w) = a temperature and elevation related weighing factor for the effect of wind and
humidity on PET
Rn = Net radiation in equivalent evaporation mm/d
f (u) = Wind related function
(e s - e a ) = Difference between the saturated and actual vapour pressure, in mbar
Ra = Extraterrestrial radiation in mm/d
TD = Difference in max and min mean temperature in oC
E pa = Pan evaporation in mm/d and presents the mean daily value of the period considered
kp = Pan coefficient
R n in (6) = Net radiation at crop surface (MJ/ m2day)
G = Soil heat flux (MJ/ m2day)
V2 = Wind speed measured at 2m height (m/s)
(e s - e a ) = Vapour pressure deficit (kPa)
∆ = Slope of vapour pressure curve (kPa oC-1)
γ = Psychometric constant (kPa oC-1)
900 = a conversion factor
Rf = reduction factor
a = 0.4923 + 0.01792 Te − 0.0000771 Te2 + 0.000000675 Te3
1.514
 Tm 
In (7) Te =  
 5 
3.2.1 FAO Blaney-Criddle Method

Blaney and Criddle (1962) proposed an empirical relation which is used largely by irrigation
engineers to calculate crop water requirement of various crops. Estimation of potential
evapotranspiration (consumptive use) is carried out by correlating it with sunshine
temperature. Sunshine at a place is dependent on latitude of the place and varies with month
of the year.
Table3.1: Monthly day light hours percentage (P) to be used by Blaney-Criddle Formula
Lat. Jan Feb Mar April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
o
N
0 8.50 7.66 8.49 8.21 8.50 8.22 8.50 8.49 8.21 8.50 8.22 8.50
10 8.13 7.47 8.45 8.37 8.81 8.60 8.86 8.71 8.25 8.34 7.91 8.10
15 7.94 7.36 8.43 8.44 8.98 8.80 9.05 8.83 8.28 8.26 7.75 7.88
20 7.74 7.25 8.41 8.52 9.15 9.00 9.25 8.96 8.30 8.18 7.58 7.66
25 7.53 7.14 8.39 8.61 9.33 9.23 9.45 9.09 8.32 8.09 7.40 7.42
30 7.30 7.03 8.38 8.72 9.53 9.49 9.67 9.22 8.33 7.99 7.19 7.15

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 48

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

35 7.05 6.88 8.35 8.83 9.76 9.77 9.93 9.37 8.36 7.87 6.97 6.86
40 6.76 6.72 8.33 8.95 10.02 10.08 10.22 9.54 8.39 7.75 6.72 6.52 ETo = Σ K .F
42 6.63 6.65 8.31 9.00 10.14 10.22 10.35 9.62 8.40 7.69 6.62 6.37
44 6.49 6.58 8.30 9.06 10.26 10.38 10.49 9.70 8.41 7.63 6.49 6.21
46 6.34 6.50 8.29 9.12 10.39 10.54 10.64 9.79 8.42 7.57 6.36 6.04
48 6.17 6.41 8.27 9.18 10.53 10.71 10.80 9.89 8.44 7.51 6.23 5.86
50 5.98 6.30 8.24 9.24 10.68 10.91 10.99 10.00 8.46 7.45 6.100 5.65

...3.1 1
Where: F = (0.0457Tm + 0.8128) P ...3.2
Here K is the monthly crop coefficient to be determined from experimental data, F the
monthly consumptive use factor, ETo the potential evapotranspiration in cm; T m the mean
monthly temperature in 0C, P is the monthly percentage of hours of bright sunshine in the
year (table-3.1).

Example Problem 3.1: Use Blaney-Criddle method to calculate

consumptive use (PET) for rice crop grown from January to March (Dalua
Rabi crop) in Orissa at a latitude 220 N from the following data taken from
a nearby observatory. Find the net irrigation demand for rice using the
given rainfall during crop period.
Month January February March
0
Mean temperature C 12 16 24
Rainfall (mm) 8 20 16

Solution
For rice crop, monthly crop coefficient K of equation (3.1) may be taken as 1.10. Mean
monthly sunshine hours for latitude of 220N for the months of January, February and March
are obtained form Table-3.1 and tabulated below.

Table: Blaney-Criddle Method of Computation of Consumptive use of Rice Crop for the
example above:

Month Mean Monthly % Monthly K PET Effective Depth of

monthly (P) of day Consumptive (4) x (5) rainfall = irrigation
temp time Use factor 80% * (6) – (7)
(T m ) Hours from (F) TRF (cm)
Table 4.9 (cm) 2
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
January 12 7.62 10.37 1.1 11.40 0.64 10.76
February 16 7.20 11.12 1.1 12.23 1.60 10.63

1
This equation is used to determine the seasonal crop evapotranspiration
2
Effective rainfall=80%(Rainfall given in table)

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 49

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

March 24 8.40 16.04 1.1 17.64 1.28 16.36

F for col. (4) for January = (0.0457 T m + 0.8128) x P

= (0.0457 x 12 + 0.8128) x 7.62 = 10.37 cm
F (February) = (0.0457 x 16 + 0.8128) x 7.2 = 11.12 cm
F (March) = (0.0457 x 24 + 0.8128) x 84 = 16.04 cm
The net irrigation demand = 10.76 + 10.63 + 16.36 = 37.75 cm

For any month considered the ETo can be calculated by the following equation and by the
help of figure- below.
ET 0 = C × P (0.46⋅T + 8) ...3.3
Where the parameters are as defined in previous section.
Figure 3.5 can be used to estimate ETo using calculated values of p(0.46T+8) for
i) three levels of minimum humidity (RH min )
ii) three levels of the ratio of actual to maximum possible sunshine hours (n/N)
and
iii) three ranges of daytime wind conditions at 2m height (U day ).
Note:
Minimum humidity refers to minimum daytime humidity
Wind refers to daytime wind. Generally Uday/Unight =2 and mean 24 hr wind data should be
multiplied by 1.33 to obtain mean daytime wind.
Example Problem 3.2:
Given: Cairo, Egypt,: latitude 300N, altitude 95m, month July.
Calculation:
Tmax = ΣTmax daily values/31 350c.
Tmin = ΣTmin daily values/31 220c.
Tdaily mean = ΣTmean/31 or [(ΣTmax/31) +(ΣTmin/31)]/2 28.50c
P (from table for 300N) 0.31
P(0.46T+8) = 0.31(0.46*28.5 +8) 6.6mm/day
RH min (from climates of Africa) medium
n/N (from climates of Africa) high to medium
U2 day time (from climates of Africa) moderate
ETo Fig. 3.5 8.0 mm/day

Figure 3.5: ETo determination from Blanney Criddle's F factor for different condition of relative
humidity, sunshine duration and day-time wind

3.2.2 Hargrave's Class A Pan Evaporation Method 3

ETo is related to pan evaporation (E P ) by a constant Kc, called consumptive use coefficient.
ETo = Kc * E p ...3.4
Determination of Ep can be by:
(a.)Experiment

3
Refer to "Irrigation: Theory and Practice" by A.M. Michael, pp-533-535 for more detailed example on this
method.

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 50

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

(b.)Christiansen formula
Ep = 0.459R * C t *C w *C h *C s *C e ...3.5
C t = Coefficient for temperature
C t = 0.393 +0.02796Tc+0.0001189Tc2 ...3.6
Tc= mean temperature, 0c
Cw = Coefficient for wind velocity
C w = 0.708+0.0034w-0.0000038w2 ...3.7
w=mean wind velocity at 0.5m above the ground, km/day.
Ch= Coefficient for relative humidity.
C h = 1.250-0.0087H-0.75*104H2 –0.85*10-8H4 ...3.8
H= mean percentage relative humidity at noon
Cs= Coefficient for percent of possible sunshine
C s = 0.542+0.008S-0.78*10-4S2+0.62*10-6S3 ...3.9
S= mean sunshine percentage
Ce= Coefficient of elevation
C e = 0.97+ 0.00984E ...3.10
E= elevation in 100 meters

3.2.3 FAO Pan Evaporation Method

Pans provide a measurement of the integrated effect of radiation, wind, temperature and
humidity on the evaporation from an open water surface. Although the pan responds in a
similar fashion to the same climatic factors affecting crop transpiration, several factors
produce significant differences in loss of water from a water surface and from a cropped
surface.

The pan evaporation is related to the reference evapotranspiration by an empirically derived pan
coefficient:

ET o = K p E pan ... 3.11

where
ET o reference evapotranspiration [mm/day],
K p pan coefficient [-],
E pan pan evaporation [mm/day].

Pan coefficient (K p )
In selecting the appropriate pan coefficient, not only the pan type, but also the ground cover
in the station, its surroundings as well as the general wind and humidity conditions, should be
checked. Two cases are commonly considered: Case A where the pan is sat on a short green
(grass) cover and surrounded by fallow soil; and Case B where the pan is sat on fallow soil and
surrounded by a green crop (Figure 3.6).

FIGURE 3.6. Two cases of evaporation pan sitting and their environment

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 51

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

3.2.4 Penman4 Method

Penman developed a theoretical formula based on the principles of both energy budget and
mass-transfer approaches to calculate potential evapotranspiration. A simple energy budget
neglecting all minor losses can be written as:
(∆ × H + γ × E a )
ET = … 3.12
(∆ + γ )
Where H is the heat budget of an area with crops which is the net radiation in mm of
evaporable water per day, ET the daily evaporation from free water surface in mm/day, γ is a
constant (called psychometric constant whose value is 0.49 mmHg/0C or 0.66 mb/0C, ∆ the
slope of the saturated vapor pressure vs. temperature curve at mean air temperature given
from table 3.4, Ea is the drying power of air which includes wind velocity and saturation
deficit and is estimated form the relation:
E = 0.002187 (160 + u ) (e − e ) … 3.13
a 2 s a
where u 2 is the mean wind speed in km/day measured 2 m above the ground, e s is
saturation vapor pressure at mean air temperature in mm Hg (given in Table 3.4)
Table 3.4 : Saturation vapor pressure of water
Temperature Saturation vapor Slope of
(oC) pressure e s plot
mmHg) mbar between
(1) and (2)
(1) (2) (3) (4)
0.0 4.58 6.11 0.30
5.0 6.54 8.72 0.45
7.5 7.78 10.37 0.54
10.0 9.21 12.28 0.60

4
Is sometimes also called 'Modified' Penman Method

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 52

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

12.5 10.87 14.49 0.71

15.0 12.79 17.05 0.80
17.5 15.00 20.00 0.95
20.0 17.54 23.38 1.05
22.5 20.44 27.95 1.24
25.0 23.76 31.67 1.40
27.5 27.54 36.71 1.61
30.0 31.81 42.42 1.85
32.5 36.68 48.89 2.07
35.0 42.81 57.07 2.35
37.5 48.36 64.46 2.62
40.0 55.32 73.14 2.95
42.5 62.18 84.23 3.25
45.0 71.20 94.91 3.66
e a is actual vapor pressure in the air in mm of mercury and H is the daily net radiation in mm
of evaporable water and is estimated from the energy budget theories using the relation
H = H a (1 − r ) (0.29 cos φ + 0.55n / N ) − σTa4 (0.56 − 0.092 ea ) (0.10 + 0.9n / N ) ...3.14
Where Ha is the extraterrestrial solar radiation received on a horizontal surface in mm of
evaporable water per day (whose value for different latitudes are given in Table 3.5), φ the
latitude of the place where ETo is to be computed, r is the reflection coefficient whose values
for close crops may be taken as 0.15-0.25, for barren land 0.05-0.45 and for water surface
0.05, n is the actual duration of bright sunshine which is a function of latitude and is an
observed data at a place, N is the maximum possible hours of bright sunshine available at
different location ( given in Table 3.1), σ is the Stefan-Boltzman constant = 2.01 x 10-9
mm/day, T a is the mean air temperature in oK = (273 + 0C) and e a is the actual vapor
pressure in mm of Hg. The relation that can reduce the wind speed measured at any other
height z to 2 m height is given by:

0.143
2
u2 = u   … 3.15
z

Equation (3.15) is known as (1/7)th power law. Knowing all other data from the table and
measuring n, e a u 2 , at the place, ETo can easily be calculated from the relation given by
Penman. This method is finding its increasing application for crop water estimation by various
countries.

Table 3.5: Mean daily maximum duration of bright sunshine hour N for different month and
latitudes (Doorenbos & Pruitt, 1977)

N Lat Jan Feb March April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
S Lat July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb March April May June
50 8.5 10.1 11.8 13.6 15.4 16.3 15.9 14.5 12.7 10.8 9.1 8.1
48 8.8 10.2 11.8 13.8 15.2 16.0 15.6 14.3 12.6 10.9 9.3 8.3
46 9.1 10.4 11.9 13.5 14.9 15.7 15.4 14.2 12.6 10.9 9.5 8.7
44 9.3 10.5 11.9 13.4 14.7 15.4 15.2 14.0 12.6 11.0 9.7 8.9
42 9.4 10.6 11.9 13.4 14.6 15.2 14.9 13.9 12.9 11.1 9.8 9.1
40 9.6 10.7 11.9 13.3 14.4 15.0 14.7 13.7 12.5 11.2 10.0 9.3

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 53

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

35 10.1 11.0 11.9 13.1 14.0 14.5 14.3 13.5 12.4 11.3 10.3 9.8
30 10.4 11.1 12.0 12.9 13.6 14.0 13.9 13.2 12.4 11.5 10.6 10.2
25 10.7 11.3 12.0 12.7 13.3 13.7 13.5 13.0 12.3 11.6 10.9 10.6
20 10.0 11.5 12.0 12.6 13.1 13.3 13.2 12.8 12.3 11.7 11.2 10.9
15 11.3 11.6 12.0 12.5 12.8 13.0 12.9 12.6 12.2 11.8 11.4 11.2
10 11.6 11.8 12.0 12.3 12.6 12.7 12.6 12.4 12.1 11.8 11.6 11.5
5 11.8 11.9 12.0 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.3 12.3 12.1 12.0 11.9 11.8
0 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1

Table 3.6: Mean Monthly Solar Radiation Incident on Earth's Outer Space (Extra Terrestrial
Radiation) in mm of Evaporable Water per day.

North Latitude in Degrees

Month 0o 100 200 300 400 500 60o 70o 800 90o
Jan. 14.5 12.8 10.8 8.5 6.0 3.6 1.3 - - -
Feb. 15.0 13.9 12.3 10.5 8.3 5.9 3.5 1.1 - -
Mar. 15.2 14.8 13.9 12.7 11.0 9.1 6.8 4.3 1.8 -
Apr. 14.7 15.2 15.2 14.8 13.9 12.7 11.1 9.1 7.8 7.9
Example May 13.9 15.0 15.7 16.0 15.9 15.4 14.6 13.6 14.6 14.9
problem 3.5: Jun. 13.4 14.8 15.8 16.5 16.7 16.7 16.5 17.0 17.8 18.1
Using Penman’s Jul. 13.5 14.8 15.7 16.2 16.3 16.1 15.7 15.8 16.5 16.8
formula Aug. 14.2 15.0 15.3 15.3 14.8 13.9 12.7 11.4 10.6 11.2
calculate the Sep. 14.9 14.9 14.4 13.5 12.2 10.5 8.5 6.8 4.0 2.6
consumptive Oct. 15.0 14.1 12.9 11.3 9.3 7.1 4.7 2.4 0.2 -
Nov. 14.6 13.1 11.2 9.1 6.7 4.3 1.9 0.1 - -
use of rice for
Dec. 14.3 12.4 10.3 7.9 5.5 3.0 0.9 - - -
the month of
February. Take the following data
Wind velocity measured at 2 m height = 30 km/day
Elevation of the area = 220 m
Relative humidity for February = 50%
Latitude = 220N
Mean monthly temperature = 160C

Solution
From Table 3.4, for temperature of 160C, e s = 13.67 mmHg
Slope of the saturated vapour pressure vs. temp. curve A = 0.86 mm per 0C
From Table 3.6, H a = 11.94 mm of water per day for 22 0N latitude
From Table 3.5, N = 11.42 h for the latitude of 22 0N
Monthly percentage of day time hours = 7.20 h (from Table 3.1)
n 7.2
= = 0.63
N 11.42
vapour pressure in air e a = e s x R H = 13.67 x 0.50 = 6.88 mmHg
Drying power of air E a = 0.002187 (160 + U 2 ) (e s – e a )

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 54

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

= 0.0021817 (160 + 30) (13.67 – 6.88) = 2.84 mm/day

The reflection coefficient for close crop like paddy is 0.20.
α = 0.49, σ = 2.01 x 10 −9 mm / day, Ta = 273 + 16 = 2890 K
Take

H = H a (1 − r ) (0.29 cos φ + 0.55n / N )

∴
− σTa4 (0.56 − 0.0092 ea ) (0.1 + 0.9 n / N

Or H = 11.94 (1-0.2) (0.29 cos 220 + 0.55x 7.2/11.42) - 2.01 x 10-9 x 2894 (0.56 –
0.092√6.88) x (0.1 + 0.9 x 7.2/11.42)
= 11.94 x 0.8 x (0.269 + 0.347) – 14.02 (0.56 – 0.24) (0.1 + 0.568)
= 5.88 – 3.00 = 2.88 mm of water/day
∆H + γ Ea 0386 × 2.88 + 0.49 × 2.84
ETo = = = 2.865 mm / day
∆ +γ 0.86 + 0.49
= 2.865 × 28 × 1/10 cm/month = 8.03 cm for February Consumptive use of rice for February
is 8.03 cm = 80.3 mm of water.

3.2.5 Thornthwaite Method

Thornthwaite (1948) developed an exponential relationship between mean monthly

temperature and mean monthly consumptive, given as
a
 10Tm 
ETo =1.62 R f   ... 3.16
 Te 
Where R f is the reduction factor (See Table 2.5), T m the mean monthly temperature in 0C, a
is a constant which can be computed from the relation
… 3.17
a = 0.4923 + 0.01792 Te − 0.0000771
2 3
Te + 0.000000675 Te
Where T e is the annual temperature efficiency index given by
12 1.514
 Tm 
Te = ∑
j =l
 
 5 
…3.18

For one period, say for one month, T e is calculated as

1.514
T 
Te =  m  …3.19
 5 

The above calculations are made for a month of 30 days and for each day 12 h of
evapotranspiration is considered. Since the two factors vary from 28 to 31 days and with
latitude, the values of 12 h a day is not constant, it can be multiplied with factors from Table
3.7 depending on the month and latitude of the place.
Table 3.7: Reduction Factor R f for ETo to be used in Thornthwiate's equation.

Month

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 55

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

Latitude J F M A M J J A S O N D
00N 1.04 0.94 1.04 1.01 1.04 1.01 1.04 1.04 1.01 1.04 1.01 1.04
100N 1.00 0.91 1.03 1.03 1.08 1.06 1.08 1.07 1.02 1.02 0.98 0.99
200N 0.95 0.90 1.03 1.05 1.13 1.11 1.14 1.11 1.02 1.00 0.93 0.94
300N 0.90 0.87 1.03 1.08 1.18 1.17 1.20 1.14 1.03 0.98 0.89 0.88
400N 0.84 0.83 1.03 1.11 1.24 1.25 1.27 1.18 1.04 0.96 0.83 0.81
500N 0.74 0.78 1.02 1.15 1.33 1.36 1.37 1.25 1.00 0.92 0.76 0.70

Example problem 3.6: Using Thornthwaite equation, calculate the consumptive use of
paddy for the month of February. Take data from Example 3.5 above.

Solution
Since ETo is required to be calculated for February only, the following equation is used.
1.514 1.514
T   16 
Te =  m  =  = 5.818
 5   5
a = 0.4923 + 0.01792 x 5.818 – 0.0000771 x 5.8182 + …
= 0.4923 + 0.1043 – 0.0026 = 0.594

Reduction factor for February at latitude of 220N is 0.895 (from Table 3.7)
Proceeding in the same way, ETo for other months can be calculated and added up. If a crop
is grown from 15th February then the value of ETo is to be reduced by (13/28) to arrive at the
value for the month.

3.2.6 Penman Monteith 5 Method

From the original Penman-Monteith equation and the equations of the aerodynamic and
canopy resistance, the FAO Penman-Monteith equation has been given by:

...3.20

where all parameters are as defined in previous sections

The FAO Penman method was found to frequently overestimate ET o while the other FAO
recommended equations, namely the radiation, the Blaney-Criddle, and the pan evaporation
methods, showed variable adherence to the grass reference crop evapotranspiration. As a
result, the FAO Penman-Monteith method is recommended as the sole method for
determining reference evapotranspiration. The method has been selected because it closely
approximates grass ETo at the location evaluated, is physically based, and explicitly

5
Procedural steps for calculating ETo by this method are given in detail in FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper-
56 (New Version of FAO-24)

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 56

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

incorporates both physiological and aerodynamic parameters. Moreover, procedures have

been developed for estimating missing climatic parameters.

3.3 Duty-Delta Relationship

☻ Crop period and Base period

The time period that elapses from the instant of its sowing to the instant of its harvesting is
called the crop period. The time between the first watering of a crop at the time of its sowing
to its last watering before harvesting is called the base period. Crop period is slightly more
than the base period, but for all practical purposes, they are taken as one and the same thing
and both are expressed in days.

☻ Duty and Delta of Crops

Duty (D): is defined as the area of the land which can be irrigated if one cumec (m3/sec) of
water was applied to the land continuously for the entire base period of the crop.

It is expressed in hectares / cumecs.

Delta ( ): is the total depth of water required by a crop during the entire base period. If the
entire quantity of applied water were spread uniformly on the land surface, the depth of water
would have been equal to delta. Thus the delta (in m) of any crop can be determined by
dividing the total quantity of water (in ha-m) required by the crop by the area of the land (in
ha)

Total − quantity − of − water (ha − m)

Delta(∆ ) =
Total − area − of − land (ha )

The relation between duty, base period and delta, can be obtained as follows:-
Considering the area of land of D-hectares, if Duty is expressed in ha/cumecs the total
quantity of water used in the base period of B days is equal to that obtained by a continuous
flow of 1 cumec for B days.

Quantity of water= 1*B*24*60*60*, m3 3.21

If Delta ( ∆ ) is the total depth of water in meters supplied to the land of D- hectares, the
quantity of water is also given by:

Quantity of water = ( D *104)* , m3 3.22

Equating the volumes of water given in egn_s 3.1 and 3.2:

1*B*24*60*60* = (D*104)* ∆
8.64 B
 D=
∆

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 57

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

8.64 B
∆= 3.23b
D

Where D = in ha/cumec
∆ = in m
B = in days

☻ Different forms of Duty

1. Flow duty: the duty of water in hectares /cumec is convenient in the case of flow
irrigation from canals and duty and the area of land to be irrigated are known, the
required discharge in the canal can be determined.
 Area(ha ) 
Disch arg e, m3 / s =   …3.24
 Duty (ha / cumec) 
2. Quantity of Duty
- For Tank /pond irrigation, the duty is usually expressed as the total area of land which
can be irrigated per million m3 of water stored in the tank. If the duty and the area to
be irrigated are known, the volume of water to be stored in the tank can be
determined.
Area(ha)
Volume of water (Mm3) = … 3.25
Duty (ha / Mm 3 )
3. Duty in the form of total depth ( or Delta ):
-It can be expressed in terms of the total depth (i.e. delta) of water required for a crop.
It is another form of the quantity duty because the total depth is equal to the volume
divided by the area of land.

Volume(ha − m)
Delta = ,m … 3.26
Area(ha )
Delta is the quantity of water actually supplied to the crop. Delta included not only
consumptive use of water for a crop but also the water lost by evapotranspiration and
seepage from canals, and deep percolation in the field.
Duty of water varies from head regulator to the canal out let because of various losses.
The duty of water goes on increasing as the water flows from the head to the tail of the
canal system. Thus, in order to specify duty two things must be stated clearly: Base of duty
and position of measurement of duty.

☻ Factors affecting Duty

- Duty of water depends up on different factors. In general, the smaller the losses, the greater
is duty because one cumec of water will be able to irrigate larger area.
 Type of soil
 Type of crop and base period
 structure of soil
 Slop of ground
 Climatic condition

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 58

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

 Method of application of water

 Salt content of soil
- Duty of water may be improved by counter – acting all the factors that decrease it (by
decreasing various losses).
Example problem 3.7: A discharge of 15 cumecs is released at the head of the canal. If the
duty at the field is 1800 ha/cumecs, and the losses in the transit are 30%, determine the
area that can be irrigated.

Solution:
o Discharge at field= 0.7*15=10.5 cumecs
o Irrigated area=1800 * 10.5= 18,900ha

EXAMPLE PROBLEM 3.8 The base period, duty of water and area under irrigation for
various crops under a canal system are given in the table below. If the losses in the reservoir
and canals are respectively 15%, 25%, determine the reservoir capacity.

Crop Wheat Sugar cane Cotton Rice V. table

Base period B (days) 120 320 180 120 120

Duty , D (ha/cumec) 1800 1600 1500 800 700
Area irrigated (ha) 15000 10,000 5000 7500 5000 Solu
tion: Calculation is done on table:
Crop Wheat Sugarcane cotton Rice Vegetable Sum
8.64 B 0.576 1.725 0.972 1.296 1.481 -
∆= ,m
D
Volume of water = 8640 17280 4860 9720 7410 47910
V = ∆ * A irr , (ha-m) ha-m

Total volume of water 47,910 ha-m

47910
Volume at head of canal = = 63,880 ha-m
0.75
63880
Volume of reservoir = = 75,150 ha-m
0.85

3.4 Determination of Crop Evapotranspiration (ETc) Under Standard

Condition

This part examines crop evapotranspiration under standard conditions (ET c ). This is the
evapotranspiration from disease-free, well-fertilized crops, grown in large fields, under
optimum soil water conditions and achieving full production under the given climatic
conditions.

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 59

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

The effects of various weather conditions on evapotranspiration are incorporated into ET o .

The effects of characteristics that distinguish the cropped surface from the reference surface
are integrated into the crop coefficient. Multiplying ET o by the crop coefficient, ET c is
determined.

Two calculation approaches are outlined: the single and the dual crop coefficient approach.
In the single crop coefficient approach, the difference in evapotranspiration between the
cropped and reference grass is combined into one single coefficient. In the dual crop
coefficient approach, the crop coefficient is split into two factors describing separately the
differences in evaporation and transpiration between the crop and reference surface.

The single crop coefficient approach is used for most applications related to irrigation
planning, design, and management.
The crop evapotranspiration differs distinctly from the reference evapotranspiration (ETo) as
the ground cover, canopy properties and aerodynamic resistance of the crop are different
from grass.

The effects of characteristics that distinguish field crops from grass are integrated into the
crop coefficient (Kc). In the crop coefficient approach, crop evapotranspiration is calculated
by multiplying ETo by Kc.
Calculation procedure by the crop coefficient approach:
In the crop coefficient approach the crop evapotranspiration, ETc, is calculated by multiplying
the reference crop evapotranspiration, ETo, by a crop coefficient, Kc:

ETc = Kc * ET o … 3.27
Where:
ET c crop evapotranspiration [mm d-1],
K c crop coefficient [dimensionless],
ET o reference crop evapotranspiration [mm d-1]

Most of the effects of the various weather conditions are incorporated into the ETo estimate.
Therefore, as ETo represents an index of climatic demand, Kc varies predominately with the
specific crop characteristics and only to a limited extent with climate.
The crop coefficient, Kc, is basically the ratio of the crop ETc to the reference ETo, and it
represents an integration of the effects of four primary characteristics that distinguish the
crop from reference grass. These characteristics are:
Crop height
Albedo (reflectance) of the crop-soil surface
Canopy resistance
Evaporation from soil

Factors determining the crop coefficient:

Crop type
The crop coefficient integrates the effect of characteristics that distinguish a typical field crop
from the grass reference, which has a constant appearance and a complete ground cover.
Consequently, different crops will have different Kc coefficients. The changing characteristics

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 60

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

of the crop over the growing season also affect the Kc coefficient. Finally, as evaporation is
an integrated part of crop evapotranspiration, conditions affecting soil evaporation will also
have an effect on Kc.
Figure 3.7: Typical Kc for different types of full grown crops

Climate
The effect of the difference in aerodynamic properties between the grass reference surface
and agricultural crops is not only crop specific. It also varies with the climatic conditions and
crop height. Because aerodynamic properties are greater for many agricultural crops as
compared to the grass reference, the ratio of ETc to ETo (i.e., Kc) for many crops increases
as wind speed increases and as relative humidity decreases. More arid climates and
conditions of greater wind speed will have higher values for Kc. More humid climates and
conditions of lower wind speed will have lower values for Kc.

Soil evaporation
Differences in soil evaporation and crop transpiration between field crops and the reference
surface are integrated within the crop coefficient. The Kc coefficient for full-cover crops
primarily reflects differences in transpiration as the contribution of soil evaporation is
relatively small. After rainfall or irrigation, the effect of evaporation is predominant when the
crop is small and scarcely shades the ground. For such low-cover conditions, the Kc
coefficient is determined largely by the frequency with which the soil surface is wetted.
Where the soil is wet for most of the time from irrigation or rain, the evaporation from the soil
surface will be considerable and Kc may exceed 1. On the other hand, where the soil surface
is dry, evaporation is restricted and Kc will be small and might even drop to as low as 0.1
(figure 3.8)

FIGURE 3.8. The effect of evaporation on Kc. The horizontal line represents Kc when the soil surface
is kept continuously wet. The curved line corresponds to Kc when the soil surface is kept dry but the
crop receives sufficient water to sustain full transpiration.

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 61

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

Crop growth stages

As the crop develops, the ground cover, crop height and the leaf area change. Due to
differences in evapotranspiration during the various growth stages, the Kc for a given crop
will vary over the growing period. The growing period can be divided into four distinct growth
stages: initial, crop development, mid-season and late season. Figure 3.9 illustrates the
general sequence and proportion of these stages for different types of crops.

Figure-3.9 crop Growth stages.

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 62

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

Initial stage
The initial stage runs from planting date to approximately 10% ground cover.
Crop development stage
The crop development stage runs from 10% ground cover to effective full cover. Effective full
cover for many crops occurs at the initiation of flowering.
Mid-season stage
The mid-season stage runs from effective full cover to the start of maturity. The start of
maturity is often indicated by the beginning of the ageing,
Late season stage
The late season stage runs from the start of maturity to harvest or full senescence.

Figure 3-10: Typical ranges expected in Kc for the four growth stages.

Crop evapotranspiration (ET c )

Crop evapotranspiration is calculated by multiplying ET o by K c , a coefficient expressing the
difference in evapotranspiration between the cropped and reference grass surface.

Crop coefficient curve

From the determination of the lengths for the crop growth stages and the corresponding crop
coefficients, a crop coefficient curve can be constructed. The curve represents the changes
in the crop coefficient over the length of the growing season.
FIGURE 3.11: Generalized crop coefficient curve

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 63

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

The calculation procedure for crop evapotranspiration, ETc, consists of:

1. Identifying the crop growth stages, determining their lengths, and selecting the
corresponding K c coefficients;
2. Adjusting the selected K c coefficients for frequency of wetting or climatic conditions during
the stage;
3. Constructing the crop coefficient curve (allowing one to determine K c values for any period
during the growing period); and
4. Calculating ET c as the product of ET o and K c .

Length of growth stages

FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 24 provides general lengths for the four distinct
growth stages and the total growing period for various types of climates and locations.

Kc Values
Typical values for Kc ini , Kc mid and Kc end for various agricultural crops are found in tabulated
form.

STEPS for Constructing the crop coefficient curve:

1. Divide the growing period into four general growth stages that describe crop phonology or
development (initial, crop development, mid-season, and late season stage), and identify the
three K c values that correspond to K c ini , K c mid and K c end from Table.
2. Adjust the K c values to the frequency of wetting and/or climatic conditions of the growth
stages.
3. Construct a curve by connecting straight line segments through each of the four growth
stage.

FIGURE 3.12: crop coefficient curve

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 64

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

The Kc coefficient for any period of the growing season can be derived by considering that
during the initial and mid-season stages Kc is constant and equal to the Kc value of the
growth stage under consideration. During the crop development and late season stage, Kc
varies linearly between the Kc at the end of the previous stage (Kc prev) and the Kc at the
beginning of the next stage (Kc next), which is Kc end in the case of the late season stage:

3.28
Where:
i day number within the growing season [1.. length of the growing season],
Kc i crop coefficient on day i,
L stage length of the stage under consideration [days],
∑ (Lprev) sum of the lengths of all previous stages [days]
Example Problem 3.9:
Determine K c at day 20, 40, 70 and 95 for the dry bean
crop.
Crop Length Kc
growth (days)
stage
initial 25 K c ini = 0.15
crop 25 -
development
mid-season 30 K c mid = 1.19
late season 20 K c end = 0.35

At i = 20: initial stage, K c = K c ini = 0.15 -

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 65
Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

At i = 40 Crop development stage,

For: Σ (L prev ) = L ini = 25 days
and: L stage = L dev = 25 days
From Eq. K c = 0.15 + [(40 - 25)/25](1.19 - 0.77 -
66: 0.15) =
At i = 70: mid-season stage, K c = K c mid = 1.19 -
At i = 95 late season stage,
For: Σ(L prev ) = L ini + L dev + L mid = (25 80 days
+ 25 + 30) =
and: L stage = L late = 20 days
From Eq. K c = 1.19 + [(95-80)/20](0.35- 0.56 -
66: 1.19) =
The crop coefficients at day 20, 40, 70 and 95 for the dry bean crop are 0.15, 0.77, 1.19
and 0.56 respectively.
Solution:

Irrigation requirement of Crops

The irrigation water requirement of crops is defined as the part of water requirement of crops
that should be fulfilled by irrigation. In other words, it is the water requirement of crops
excluding effective rain fall, carry over soil moisture and ground water contributions.
WR=IR + Peff + S + GW
IR= WR-(Peff + S+ GW) … 3.29

Effective Rainfall (Peff)

Effective rainfall can be defined as the rainfall that is stored in the root zone and can be
utilized by crops. All the rainfall that falls is not useful or effective. As the total amount of
rainfall varies, so does the amount of useful or effective rainfall. Some of the seasonal
rainfall that falls will be lost as unnecessary deep percolation; surface runoff and some water
may remain in the soil after the crop is harvested. From the water requirement of crops point
of view, this water, which is lost, is ineffective.
There are four methods for calculating the effective rainfall from entered monthly total
rainfall data.
1 Fixed Percentage Effective Rainfall
The effective rainfall is taken as a fixed percentage of the monthly rainfall;
Effective Rainfall = % of Total Rainfall … 3.30

2 Dependable Rain
An empirical formula developed by FAO/AGLW based on analysis for different arid and sub-
humid climates. This formula is as follows:
Effective Rainfall = 0.6 * Total Rainfall - 10 ... (Total Rainfall < 70 mm)
… 3.31a&b
Effective Rainfall = 0.8 * Total Rainfall - 24 ... (Total Rainfall > 70 mm)

3 Empirical Formula for Effective Rainfall

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 66

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

This formula is similar to FAO/AGLW formula (see Dependable Rain method above) with
some parameters left to the user to define. The formula is as follows:
Effective Rainfall = a * Total Rainfall - b ... (Total Rainfall < z mm)
… 3.32a&b
Effective Rainfall = c * Total Rainfall - d ... (Total Rainfall > z mm)
Where a, b, c, and z are the variables to be defined by the user.

4 Method of USDA Soil Conservation Service (default)

The effective rainfall is calculated according to the formula developed by the USDA Soil
Conservation Service which is as follows:

Effective Rainfall = Total Rainfall / 125 * (125 - 0.2 * Total Rainfall)

...(Total Rainfall < 250 mm)
Effective Rainfall = 125 + 0.1 * Total Rainfall …3.33
... (Total Rainfall > 250 mm)

Ground water contribution (Gw):

Some times there is a contribution from the groundwater reservoir for water requirement of
crops. The actual contribution from the groundwater table is dependent on the depth of
ground water table below the root zone & capillary characteristics of soil. For clayey soils the
rate of movement is low and distance of upward movement is high while for light textured
soils the rate is high and the distance of movement is low. For practical purposes the GW
contribution when the ground water table is below 3m is assumed to be nil.

Carry over soil moisture(S):

This is the moisture retained in the crop root zone b/n cropping seasons or before the crop is
planted. The source of this moisture is either from the rainfall that man occurs before sowing
or it may be the moisture that remained in the soil from past irrigation. This moisture also
contributes to the consumptive use of water and should be deducted from the water
requirement of crops in determining irrigation requirements.

EXAMPLE PROBLEM 3.10

Maize crop planted on March 1. The total duration of the growing season of the crop is 4.5
months. The evapotranspiration of the crop have been determined using one of the methods.
The Kc values and effective rainfall during each decade have been determined. If there is
appreciable contribution from the ground water and carry over soil moisture can also be
include. For this particular example, the above two mentioned contributions except effective
rainfall have been assumed to be nil.

Solution:

Month Dec Stage Kc ET 0 ETcrop ET crop Peff NIR NIR

mm/dec Kc.*ETo mm/dec mm/dec mm/dec mm/day
March 1 Ini 0.30 4.00 1.20 12.00 0 12.00 1.20
,, 2 Ini 0.30 4.20 1.26 12.60 0 12.60 1.26
,, 3 Ini 0.30 3.90 1.17 11.70 0 11.70 1.17

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 67

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

April 1 Dev 0.50 3.80 1.90 19.00 4 15.00 1.50

,, 2 Dev 0.80 4.20 3.36 33.60 4 29.60 2.96
,, 3 Dev 1.00 4.10 4.10 41.00 4 37.00 3.70
May 1 Dev/mid 1.00 3.90 3.90 39.00 2.5 36.50 3.65
,, 2 mid 1.00 3.80 3.80 38.00 2.5 35.50 3.55
,, 3 mid 1.00 4.00 4.00 40.00 2.5 37.50 3.75
June 1 mid 1.00 4.30 4.30 43.00 5.5 37.50 3.75
,, 2 Late 0.80 4.50 3.60 36.00 5.5 30.50 3.05
,, 3 Late 0.65 3.70 2.405 24.05 5.5 18.55 1.855
July 1 Late 0.50 3.60 1.80 18.00 8.00 10.00 1.00

3.5 Irrigation Efficiencies

1. Water Conveyance efficiency (Ec)

This term is used to measure the efficiency of water conveyance system associated with the canal
network, water courses and field channels. It is also applicable where the water is conveyed in
channels from the well to the individual fields. It is expressed as follows:
Wf
* 100
W
Ec = d
Where Ec = water conveyance efficiency , %
Wf = Water delivered to the irrigated plot ( At the field supply channel)
Wd = Water diverted from the source.

2. Water application Efficiency ( Ea)

After the water reaches the field supply Channel , it is important to apply the water as efficiently as
possible. A measure of how efficiently this is done is the water application efficiency.
Ws
* 100
Wf
Ea =
Where Ea = application efficiency , %
Ws = water stored in the rot zone of the plants.
Wf = Water delivered to the irrigated plot ( At the field supply channel)
Water application efficiency below 100 percent are due to seepage looses from the field
distribution channels, deep percolation below the crop root zone and runoff loses from the tail end
of borders and furrows ( in very long fields).

3. Water storage efficiency (Es)

Small irrigation may lead to high water application efficiencies, yet the irrigation practice may be
poor. The concept of water storage efficiency is useful in evaluating this problem. This concept
relates how completely the water needed prior to irrigation has been stored in the root zone during
irrigation.

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 68

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

Ws
Es = * 100
Wn
where Es = Water storage efficiency , %
Ws= water stored in the rot zone of the plants.
Wn = Water needed in the root zone prior to irrigation
Water storage efficiency becomes important when water supplies are limited or when excessive
time is required to secure adequate penetration of water in to the soil. Also, when salt problems
exist, the water storage efficiency should be kept high to maintain favorable salt balance.

4. Field Canal Efficiency (E b )

This ratio between water received at the field inlet and that received at the inlet of the block of fields.
Wp
Eb = *100 where E f = Field canal efficiency
Wf
W p = water received at the field inlet
W f = water delivered to the field channel

5. Water Distribution Efficiency (E d )

This shows how uniformly water is applied to the field along the irrigation run. In sandy soils there
is generally over irrigation at upper reaches of the run when as in clayey soils, there is over-
irrigation at the lower reaches of the run.

 y
E d = 1 −  x 100 Where E d = water distribution efficiency , %
 d
d = average depth of water penetration.
y = average deviation from d.

6. Water Use Efficiency

This shows the yield of the crop per unit volume of water used. It may be expressed in Kg/ha.cm
or q/ha.cm

A. Crop Water Use Efficiency: is the ratio of the crop yield (Y) to the amount of water
consumptively used by the crop.

Y
Ew =
CU
B. Field Water Use Efficiency: is the ratio of the crop yield (y) to the total water requirement of
crops including Cu losses and other needs.

Y
Et =
WR

7. Project Efficiency (Ep)

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 69

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

This shows how efficiently the water source used in crop production. It shows the percentage of the
total water that is stored in the soil and available for consumptive requirements of the crop. It
indicates the overall efficiency of the systems from the head work to the final use by plants for Cu.
The Overall project efficiency must be considered in order to fix the amount of water required at the
Diversion head work.

EXAMPLE PROBLEM 3.12

A stream size of 150 lit /sec was released from the diversion headwork to irrigate a land of
area 1.8 hectares. The stream size when measured at the delivery to the field channels is
120lit/sec. The stream continued for some hours. The effective root zone depth is 1.80m. The
application losses in the field are estimated to be 440m3.
The depth of water penetration was 1.80m and 1.20m at the head and tail of the run
respectively. The available water holding capacity of the soil is 21cm/m and irrigation was
done at 60% depletion of AM. Find Ec, Ef, Ea, Es and Ed. The stream size delivered to the
plot was 100 lit/sec.

Solution:

Wf 120 lit / sec

Ec = x100 = x100 = 80%
Wd 150 lit / sec
Wp 100 lit / sec
Ef = x100 = x100 = 83.3%
Wf 120 lit / sec
100 x 60 x 60 x8
= 2880m3
Water delivered to the plot = 1000

Water stored in the root zone =2880m3 – Application losses

= 2880m3 - 440m3 = 2440m3
Ws 2440m3
Ea = x100 = x100 = 84.7%
Wp 2880m3
Total A.M = 21cm/m x 1.80m = 37.80 cm
60
RAM = 100 x 37.80 cm = 22.68 cm

3
22.68
In volume, RAM = x1.8 x10 4 = 4082.4m
100

Ws 2440m3
Es = x 100 = = 59.8% ≈ 60%
Wn 4082.4m3

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 70

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

1.8 + 1.20
Average water penetration d = = 1.50m
2
Numerical deviation at upper end =1.80 –1.50=0.30m
At lower end = 1.50 – 1.20 =0.30m
2 x 0,30
Average numerical deviation = 0,30m
2
 y  0,30 
Ed 100 x 1 −  = 100 x 1 −  = 80%
 d  1.50 

Gross irrigation requirement (GIR)

Usually more amount of water than the NIR is applied during irrigation to compensate for the
unavoidable losses. The total water applied to satisfy ET and losses is known as Gross irrigation
requirement (GIR)
NIR
GIR =
Ep
Where Ep = project Efficiency

3.6 Irrigation Scheduling

Scheduling of irrigation application is very important for successive plant growth and maturity.
Water is not applied randomly at any time and in any quantity. Irrigation scheduling is the
schedule in which water is applied to the field. It is an important aspect of an efficient
operation of an irrigation system. The scheduling of irrigation can be field irrigation
scheduling and field irrigation supply schedules.
Field irrigation Scheduling
This scheduling of irrigation is done at field level. The two scheduling parameters of field
irrigation scheduling are the depth of irrigation and interval of irrigation.
Depth of irrigation (d):
This is the depth of irrigation water that is to be applied at one irrigation. It is the depth of
water that can be retained in the crop root zone b/n the field capacity and the given depletion
of the available moisture content. All the water retained in the soil b/n FC and PWP is not
readily available to crops. The readily available moisture is only some percentage of the total
available moisture. Thus, depth of irrigation is the readily available portion of the soil
moisture. In other words, it is the depth of irrigation water required to replenish the soil
moisture to field capacity.
The depth of irrigation (d) is given by :
d (net) = As *D *(FC – PWP)*P, m ... 3.46
Where As = Apparent specific gravity of soil
D = Effective root zone depth in m
FC = water content of soil at FC

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 71

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

PWP = Water content of soil at PWP

P = depletion factor
Because of application losses such as deep percolation and runoff losses, the total depth of
water to be applied will be greater than the net depth of water.
d (gross) = As*D(FC-PWP)*P ,m ...3.47
Ea
Where E a = Field application efficiency and other parameters as defined above

Interval of irrigation (i):

The interval of irrigation is the time gap in days between two successive irrigation
applications. It depends on the type of the crop, soil type and climate conditions. Thus
interval of irrigation depends on the consumptive use rate of the crop and the amount of
readily available moisture (RAM) in the crop root zone. The consumptive use rate of the crop
varies from crop to crop and also during different stages of the crop. The RAM moisture also
varies from soil to soil depending on soil water constants.

The interval (frequency) of irrigation is given by:

A .D(FC − PWP ) . P
i (days) = s , ... 3.48
ETcrop ( peak )
Where: ET crop (peak) is the peak rate of crop evapotranspiration in m/day.
For the same crop and soil type the ET crop (peak) goes on increasing from the initial stage to
the development and mid season stage the interval of irrigation will go on decreasing and
increasing during late season stage.

Field Irrigation Supply Schedules (Irrigation Scheduling in a Command Area)

This is the schedule of water supply to individual fields or command area. This is a schedule
of the total volume of water to be applied to the soil during irrigation. It depends on crop and
soil characteristics.
It is expressed as: -
q.t =
10
( AS .D ( Fc − pwp ).P. A , m3 ...3.49
Ea
Where: q= Stream size (application rate) lit/sec
t = Application time in sec
Ea = Application efficiency
As = Apparent specific gravity
D = Effective root zone depth, m
P = Depletion factor
A = Area of the command (field) in ha
From the above equation, if either of the application time or the stream size fixed, one of
them can be determined.

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 72

 Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

In the above equation q.t indicates the total volume of water applied to the field during
irrigation at the head of the field. But the total volume of water diverted at the headwork will
obviously be greater than this value, because there is loss of water during conveyance and
distribution canals. The total volume of water to be diverted is given by:
As .D. (FC − PwP ), p. A.
10
Q.t = , m3 ...3.50
Ep
Where: Q = flow rate at the head work, lit/sec.
E p = project efficiency and others as defined above.

EXAMPLE PROBLEM 3.13

For the data below, determine depth & interval of irrigation during different stages.
Depth of the root zone = 1 m, FC = 20 %, PwP = 8 %
Dry density of soil = 1.6 gm/cm3 and density of water = 1 gm/cm3. The rates of consumptive
uses during different stages are as follows. A depletion of 50% during initial period, 60 %
during development and mid – season stage and 70 % during late season stage is allowable.
Solution:
Month June July August September
Dec 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
Stage ini ini In/dev dev dev dev mid mid mid Late Late Late
ET crop/ mm/day 3.5 3.5 5.0 5.2 5.8 6.50 6.6 6.6 6.6 6.2 6.0 5.80
Root depth(m) 0.30 0.30 0.4 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80
Depletion 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.70 0.70 0.70
Fraction (p)
Depth of 28.8 28.80 38.4 57.60 69.12 80.64 92.16 92.16 92.16 107. 107. 107.
irrigation (mm) 0 52 52 52
Interval of 8 8 7 11 11 12 13 13 3 17 17 18
irrigation
(days)
Irrigation 7 11 13 17
interval (days)

EXAMPLE PROBLEM 3.14

A crop has effective root zone of 120 cm (1.20 m) prior to irrigation; soil samples were taken
from different depths to determine the moisture status of the soil.

Depth of root zone (m) Weight soil sample (gm) Weight of oven dry soil
(gm)

0 – 0.30 m 98.80 94.60

0.30 – 0.60 m 96.60 92.10
0.60 – 0.90 m 95.00 90.60
0.90 – 1.20 m 94.00 89.40

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 73

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

The water holding capacity of the soil at field capacity is 19.60 cm/meter. The apparent
specific gravity of the soil is 1.60. Determine, the moisture content in the root zone at
different depths, total depth of water available in the root zone at different depths, total depth
of water available in the root zone and the soil moisture deficit.

Solution:
For depth from 0 − 0.30 m
Mass of water = 98.80 gm − 94.60 gm = 4.20 gm

4.20 gm
Moisture content , W = * 100 = 4.44 %
94.60 gm

In depth of water, d = As . D .p =1.6*0.3*0.0444=0.0213m=2.13cm

For depth 0.3-0.6m
Mass of water=96.60-92.10=4.50gm.
W=4.50/92.10 *100= 4.88%
In depth, d = A s . D.P = 1.60 * 0.30* 0.0488 = 0.0234 = 2.34 cm

For depth 0.60 − 0.90 m

Mass of water = 95.00 − 90.60 = 4.40 gm

4.40
⇒W = * 100 = 4.86 %
90.60

⇒ In depth of water , d = A s .D.P = 1.60 x 0.30* 0.0486 = 0.0233 = 2.33 cm

For depth 0.90 − 1.20 m

Mass of water = 94 .00 gm − 89 .40 gm = 4.60 gm

4.60
⇒W = * 100 = 5.14 %
89 .40
In depth, d = A s .D.P = 1.60 x 0.30 * 0.0514 = 0.0247 m = 2.47 cm

The total depth of water in the root zone is the total of all the water retained at different
depths.

⇒ Total depth = 2.13 cm + 2.34 cm + 2.33 cm + 2.47 cm = 9.27 cm

Water retained at field capacity = 19.60 cm/m

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 74

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

Water in the root zone = 19.60 * 1.20 m = 23.52 cm

The soil moisture deficit prior to irrigation is therefore,
FC – depth of water during sampling
= 23.52 cm – 9.27 cm = 14.25 cm
This deficit is the amount of water which should be added to the soil to bring the soil
moisture content to field capacity. Thus, it represents the depth of irrigation. Assuming that
the peak rate of consumptive use during the stage of the plant is 8mm/day
depth 142.50 mm
Interval, i= = = 17.8 = 17 days
peakET 8 mm / day
The next watering will be done after 17 days. The interval should not be made 18 days,
because the plant may suffer shortage of water for one day.

4. SURFACE IRRIGATION METHODS

4.1- INTRODUCTION

The term 'surface irrigation' refers to a broad class of irrigation methods in which water is
distributed over the field by overland flow. A flow is introduced at one edge of the field
and covers the field gradually. The rate of coverage (advance) is dependent almost
entirely on the differences between the discharge onto the field and the accumulating
infiltration into the soil. Secondary factors include field slope, surface roughness, and the
geometry or shape of the flow cross-section.

Surface irrigation offers a number of important advantages at both the farm and project
level. Because it is so widely utilized, local irrigators generally have at least minimal
understanding of how to operate and maintain the system. In addition, surface systems
are often more acceptable to agriculturalists who appreciate the effects of water
shortage on crop yields since it appears easier to apply the depths required to refill the
root zone. The second advantage of surface irrigation is that these systems can be
developed at the farm level with minimal capital investment. Also they are less affected
by climatic and water quality characteristics.

Although they need not be, surface irrigation systems are typically less efficient in
applying water than either sprinkler or trickle systems. Many are situated on lower lands
with heavier soils and, therefore, tend to be more affected by water-logging and soil
salinity if adequate drainage is not provided. The need to use the field surface as a
conveyance and distribution facility requires that fields be well graded if possible. Land
levelling costs can be high so the surface irrigation practice tends to be limited to land
already having small, even slopes.

Irrigation systems generally consist of four components;

1) Physical systems ( Land & Water)

2) Social and organizational systems ( soft components)

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 75

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

3) Cropping system ( agricultural aspect)

4) Economic systems ( financial aspect)

This chapter deals in depth about the design of the physical system in general and the
water use sub-system in particular. The primary purpose of the physical system is to
supply water to an area for crop production. The Physical systems of Surface irrigation
systems as a whole consist of four subsystems.

These are:

1) The water supply subsystem

2) The water delivery subsystem
3) The water use subsystem
4) The water removal subsystem

i) Water supply Sub- System

This is the source of irrigation water either surface or under groundwater through
possible extraction mechanism so that maintaining proper full supply level to the delivery
channels.
ii) Water delivery system
The function of water delivery sub- system is to convey water from the source to field
through main canal, distributaries, minors and field channels, at constant and regulated
rate, maintaining proper elevation. Moreover, the seepage should be controlled, erosion
or sedimentation should be minimized and proper water quality and quantity should be
maintained in the system.

iii) Water use sub- system

The water use sub- system receives water from the application sub –system.
Functions: -
- To supply the water requirement of the crop.
- To maintain acceptable level of soil salinity.
- To ensure adequate nutrients.
- To provide soil conditions for supporting plants, preventing soil crusting
facilitating tillage etc

iv) Water removal sub –system

This sub –system is used for removal and disposal of surface and sub- surface waters
from land to improve agriculture operations.
Functions: -
- To provide proper root aeration by lowering ground water table.
- To maintain appropriate salinity levels with in the soil profile.
- To dispose (remove) excess irrigation or rain water from the field.

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 76

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

Fig. 1. The four subsystems of Physical system

Advantages and disadvantages of surface irrigation

Surface irrigation offers a number of advantages at both the farm and project level.
 It is more acceptable to agriculturalists that appreciate the effect of water
shortage on crop yield since it appears easier to apply the depth of required to fill the
root zone.
 It can be developed at the farm level with minimal capita investment.
o The major capital expense of the surface irrigation system is generally
associated with land grading.
 Energy requirements for surface irrigation systems come from gravity.
 Surface irrigations are less affected by climatic and water quality characteristics.
 Generally the gravity flow is system is highly flexible, relatively easily-managed
method of irrigation.

There is one disadvantage of surface irrigation that confronts every designer and irrigator.
 It is very difficult to define the primary design variables, discharge and time of
application, due to the highly spatial and temporal variability of the soil.
Besides the system experiences low efficiency, water logging/salinity problems in most
cases.

4.2 Surface Irrigation Processes and Methods

Surface Irrigation Processes (hydraulic phases)

In surface irrigation, water is applied directly to the soil surface from a channel located at the
upper reach of the field. Gravity provides the major driving force to spread water over the

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 77

 Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

irrigated field. Once distributed over the surface of the field and after it has entered the soil,
water is often redistributed by forces other than gravity.

Generally, in a surface irrigation event has four distinct hydraulic phases can be discerned:

(1) Advance phase: the time interval between the start of irrigation and arrival of the
advancing (wetting) front at the lower end of the field.

(2) Ponding (wetting storage or continuing) phase: the irrigation time extending
between the end of advance and inflow cut-off. The term “Wetting” phase is usually
used for furrow and border where tail water runoff can occur, where as ponding is the
preferred term for basin irrigation (no tail water runoff)
.
(3) Depletion (vertical recession) phase: the time interval between supply cut-off and
the time that water dries up at the inlet boundary.

(4) Recession (horizontal recession) phase: the time required for the water to recede
from all points in the channel, starting from the end of the depletion phase. The time
difference at each measuring station between the clock time or cumulative time for
advance and recession is the opportunity time, T, infiltration to occur.

Recession Curve Recession Phase

Depletion Phase

Infiltration Storage Phase

Time opportunity time

Advance Phase
Advance Curve

Distance down field

Fig. Phases of graded free draining border and furrow irrigation diagram

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 78

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

Recession Phase
TCO

Ponding Phase

Intake opportunity time

Time

Advance Phase
Advance Curve
0
0 Distance down field

Fig. Phases of Basin irrigation System

Surface Irrigation Methods

Application of surface irrigation water can be accomplished by: wild flooding, basins, borders
and furrows.

1) Wild flooding
In this method, ditches are excavated in the field, and they may be either on the contour or
up and down the slope. Water from these ditches, flows across the field. Since the movement
of water is not restricted, it is called wild flooding. Although the initial costs of land
preparation is low, labor requirement are usually high and application efficiency is also low.
Wild flooding is most suitable to close growing crops, pastures, etc. Contour ditches called
laterals or subsidiary ditches are generally spaced at about 20 to 50 meters apart depending
upon the slope, soil texture, crops to be grown etc. This method may be used on lands that
have irregular topography, where borders, basins and furrows are not feasible.

2) Basin irrigation
Basin irrigation uses generally a level area surrounded by ridges (bounds, dikes) to guide
water as it flows from one end to the other to prevent from leaving the field. A basin is
typically square in shape but exists in all sorts of irregular and rectangular (small or large)
configurations. The flow rate must be large enough to cover the entire basin approximately
60 to 75 percent of the time required for the soil to absorb the desired amount of water.

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 79

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

Basin irrigation can be used to apply prescribed application depths at design efficiencies of
more than 90%. However, studies on basin irrigation systems in various countries have
documented both extensive over and under-irrigation as the norm, which has resulted in
overall low irrigation efficiencies.

Basin irrigation is suited to different crops , such as, rice, cotton, groundnuts etc. and to soils
of moderate to low intake rate (50 mm/h or less) having smooth, gentle and uniform land
slopes. The method is especially adapted to irrigation of grain and fodder crops in heavy soils
where water is absorbed very slowly and is required to stand for a relatively long time to
ensure adequate irrigation.

3) Border irrigation

Border irrigation makes use of parallel earth ridges to guide a sheet of flowing water across a
field. The land between two levees is called a border strip, simply called a border. Border
strips, like basins, can be described as rectangular channels (narrow or wide) in which the
width of flow plays a dominant role in affecting the geometric elements of the channel. The
border strip may vary from 3 to 30 meters in width and from 100 to 800 meters in length.
Border irrigation is a more controlled version of wild flooding with additional field ditches that
serve as supply sources for applying water to the field.

Fig. 4 Isometric view of border strips

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 80

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

Border irrigation is generally well suited to soils with moderately high intake rates and to
slopes less than 0.5 percent. The method can be classified as straight or contour borders
depending on weather the borders are running along or across the main slope.

Borders can be grouped into three major categories depending on the management strategy
adopted:
(1) Fixed flow: a system in which the inlet flow rate remains constant throughout the
duration of irrigation, the method is simple and less expensive but generally of
low efficiency.
(2) Cutback: this is a system in which irrigation begins with a maximum or near maximum
non erosive inlet flow rate, which continues for a part of the irrigation period and then
reduced to a level just above what is needed to wet the entire length of the border.
(3) Tail water reuse: this is a system in which excess surface runoff from the
downstream end is collected in a sump and then pumped back into the same field to
open up more borders or used to irrigate another field.

Field application efficiency is good to excellent if the border strips are designed and installed
properly and good water management practices are followed. Design water application
efficiencies of the order 70 -75 % can be attained for slopes of 0.001 to 0.002 m/m on soils of
silty clay to clay with depth of application of 75 - 100 mm. For high efficiencies, the stream
size and the resulting rate of advance must be controlled to match the recession conditions
to provide approximately equal infiltration opportunity time at both the upper and lower ends.

4) Furrow irrigation

Furrow irrigation refers to water that is discharged into and runs down small sloping channels
(called furrows or corrugations) which are cut or pressed into the soil. The two most common
furrow irrigation systems are the straight furrow irrigation and graded furrow irrigation. Water
infiltrates from the bottom and sides of furrows moving laterally downward to wet the soil and
to move soluble salts, fertilizers and herbicides carried in the water.

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 81

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

Fig. 9 Typical furrow cross-section

When properly designed and operated, furrow irrigation systems may result in a good
performance. The wide variations in furrow cross-section types as well as the two
dimensional nature of the infiltration process under furrow irrigation complicates
mathematical analysis and field measurement needed to quantify irrigation parameters
compared to other two methods.

Efforts to achieve high application efficiencies for furrow-irrigated systems are limited by very
large spatial and temporal variation in infiltration characteristics. Thus, while efficiencies of 85
to 90 % are periodically reported from studies incorporating careful soil moisture monitoring
and automation, efficiencies in the order of 50 to 70 % are more common. Moreover, designs
could be acceptable if the water application efficiency is greater than 70 percent, with less
than 10 percent deep percolation and 20 percent runoff losses, while storage efficiency is
greater than 85 to 90 percent.

Most crops would be irrigated by the furrow method and is best suited to medium to
moderately fine textured soils with relatively high water holding capacity and conductivity
which allow significant water movement in both the horizontal and vertical directions. Like
border irrigation, furrow irrigation systems, can be grouped into fixed flow, cutback flow and
tail-water reuse system depending on the management strategy adopted.
Note: Aside from the difference in channel geometry and boundary conditions, the basic
water flow characteristics are much the same in all of the surface irrigation methods.

4.3 Criteria for the selection of surface irrigation methods.

The choice of irrigation system is frequently determined by certain limiting conditions that
preclude one or another of the possibilities and may leave no alternative. The important
factors that should be taken into account when determining which surface irrigation method is
most suitable: basin, border or furrow irrigation are natural circumstances (slope, soil type),
type of crop, required depth of application, level of technology, previous experiences with
irrigation, required labor input. Moreover the irrigation system for a field must be compatible
with the existing farming operations, such as land preparation, cultivation, and harvesting
practices.

Natural circumstances

Flat lands, with a slope of 0.1 % or less, are best suited for basin irrigation: little land leveling
will be required. Furrow irrigation can be used on flat lands (short, near horizontal furrows),

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 82

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

and on mildly sloping land with a slope of maximum 0.5 %. A minimum slope of 0.05 % is
recommended to assist drainage.

Border irrigation can be used on sloping land up to 2 % on sandy soil and 5 % on clay soil. A
minimum slope of 0.05 % is recommended to ensure drainage. Generally, surface irrigation
may be difficult to use irregular slopes, as considerable land leveling may be required to
achieve the required land gradients.

Type of crop

Paddy rice is always grown in basins. Those crops that cannot stand a very wet soil for more
than 12-24 hours should not be grown in basins. Furrow irrigation is best suited for irrigating
row crops such as maize, vegetables and trees. Border irrigation is particularly suitable for
close growing crops such as small grains (sesame) and forage crops (alfalfa), but border
irrigation can be used for row crops and trees.

Required depth of irrigation application

When the irrigation schedule has been determined, it is known how much water has to be
given per irrigation application. It must be checked that this amount can be indeed be given,
with the irrigation method under consideration. Field experience has shown that most water
can be applied per irrigation application when using basin irrigation, less with border irrigation
and least with furrow irrigation. In practice in small-scale irrigation projects, usually 40 –70
mm of water are applied in basin irrigation, 30 – 60 mm in border irrigation and 20 – 50 mm
in furrow irrigation. If, on the other hand, a large amount of irrigation water is to be applied
per application, e.g. on clay soil and with a deep rooting crop, border or basin irrigation would
be more appropriate.

Level of technology

Basin irrigation is the simplest of the surface irrigation methods. Especially if the basins are
small, they can be constructed by hand or animal traction. Their operation and maintenance
is simple. Furrow irrigation with the possible exception of short, level furrows requires
accurate grading. Machines often do this. The maintenance ploughing and furrowing is often
done by machines. This requires skill, organization and frequently the use of foreign currency
for fuel, equipments and spare parts. Borders require the highest level of sophistication. They
are constructed and maintained by machines. The grading needs to be accurate. Machine
operation requires a high level of skill, organization and usually foreign currency.

Required labor inputs

The required labor inputs for construction and maintenance depend heavily on the extent to
which machinery is used. In general it can be stated that to operate the system, basin
irrigation requires the least labor and least skill. For the operation of furrow and border
irrigation systems more labor is required combined with more skill.

Table 4.1 Differences and similarities of the three primary surface irrigation systems.

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 83

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

Item Basin Border Furrow

Main slope Usually zero slope or Up to 2-5 % <1%
nearly zero attained (min. 0.05%) (min. 0.05%)
Soils medium to fine moderately low to best suited to soils with
textured soils moderately high moderate to low intake
intake rate soils rates.
Infiltration one dimensional and same as basin two dimensional
vertically downward
Field size all size large large
Geometry shape all shape regular regular
of farm
Sediment load not problematic not problematic not problematic
Biological quality not problematic not problematic not problematic
Salinity not problematic slightly problematic problem if very high salt
Crops variety all crops but best for best for close growing best for row crops
ponded water crops crops
Farming machinery difficult to use easy to apply adapted to mechanized
farming
Labor input least labor compared high High
to other surface
irrigation systems
Application 65 –80 % 60- 70 % 60- 70%
efficiency
Level of technology simplest highest lower than border
requirements
Initial cost higher lower low to medium

4.4 Design of Surface Irrigation Systems

The design of a surface irrigation system first involves assessing the general topographic
conditions, soils, crops, farming practices anticipated and farm operator’s desires and finance
for the field or farm in question. Moreover, the first priorities in agriculture today is the
development of irrigation design that are more efficient in the use of both water and energy
resources for the varieties of crops and farming practices.

One of the purposes of design of surface irrigation systems is to facilitate operational

practices so that the system can be managed and operated according to the plan and the
desired goal can be achieved.

Surface irrigation systems are designed and operated to supply the individual irrigation
requirements of each field on the farm while controlling deep percolation, runoff, evaporation
and operational losses. Beside this, the objective of any water application is to uniformly
replenish the root zone moisture with enough percolation for the effective leaching of harmful
salts.

Properly designed and operated surface irrigation systems can enhance crop yields. Often,
however, inadequate design and management result in excessive water losses through deep

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 84

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

percolation and/or tail water runoff. It can be also stated that high efficiencies are not
generally attained with surface methods unless design, operation and management are of a
higher standard and distribution. Despite the fact that surface irrigation is the most widely
practiced method of irrigation and feasible under many circumstances, its low energy
requirements and simplicity of operation, it is not only a major consumer of water but also
one of the most inefficient users of water.

For example, the annual project efficiencies of some selected 16 countries (world wide, by
FAO, 1998) ranges from 13 % (Saldana in Colombia) to 99 % (Tadla in Morocco). Similarly,
the over all efficiency of state farms in the Middle Awash was about 40 % (1986). Generally,
FAO (1995) pointed out that only 40% to 60% of the water is effectively used by the crop, the
reminder of the water is lost in the system, in the farm and on the field, either through
evaporation, through run-off or by percolation into the ground water.

Design can be viewed as the process of making decisions concerning the values of flow rate
(Q o ), length of channel (L), and time of cutoff (t co ), prior to the onset of every irrigation
season and during the project development phase. The available stream size, and the length
and grade of the land units must be combined to achieve acceptable results without
excessive labour, waste of water, erosion and inconvenience to other farming operations.

Since the performance of a surface irrigation system is dependent on three sets of variables;
design, management, and field variables (system parameters), which are shown in the
following functional relationship, it has of a paramount importance to discuss each one of
them in detail.

P = f ( I, S o , n, Z r , G, q o , L, t co )

where P = performance of surface irrigation

I = symbolizes the infiltration parameters
S o = channel bed slope
n = hydraulic resistance
G = symbolizes geometry parameters
Z r = required amount of application
q o = unit flow rate at the head end of the channel
t co = time of cut off
L = furrow length

A) Surface irrigation Design inputs (System Parameters and System Variables)

Generally there are two types of design data inputs in surface irrigation: field parameters and
field decision variables. The designer can manipulate decision variables. They include flow
rate, the field dimensions and cut-off time. On the other hand, however, the designer cannot
influence Field parameters; they are measured or assumed properties of the given situation.
They primarily consist of the soil infiltration characteristics, the flow resistance, the required
net application depth, and the field slopes (for borders and furrows).

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 85

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

A description (explanation) of each design input parameter as related to its influence,

dimensions and the procedures followed to determine each parameter would be presented in
the subsequent sections.

System Parameters

1. Required amount of application (Zr) This parameter represents the amount of water
that needs to be stored in the crop root zone reservoir during every irrigations, in order
to sustain normal crop growth. The crop type, stage of growth, presence or absence of
shallow water table, and limiting soil horizons (such as hard pans), among other
things, determine the effective crop root depth. Soil type is the factor that determines
how much water can be stored per unit depth of soil. These factors, along with the
climatic conditions of an area should be considered to determine the required amount
of application (Zr). For basins and borders the characteristics width is unit width, i.e.
1m, whereas for furrows it is the furrow spacing.
Note: Zr is the same as MAD, and is determined as:
Zr = MAD = TAW * f
2. Maximum allowable flow velocity (V max ) This is used in estimating the non-erosive
flow rate, Q max , which can be turned on into a furrow or a border or a basin without
causing soil erosion. The value of V max is generally dependent on soil type, and may
vary within the range of 8 m/min for erodiable silt to 13 m/min for more stable clay and
sandy soils

3. Manning’s roughness coefficient (n). A parameter in Manning’s equation, known as

the Manning’s n, is used as a measure of the resistance effects that flow might
encounter as it moves down the furrow, border or basin, which is in fact a
representation, in lumped form, of the effect of the roughness of the physical
boundaries of the flow and cultivation practices. Most of the time, the values for
Manning’s n used for furrow, border and basin irrigation are based on the
recommendation of the SCS and are given in the following table.

Table 4.2 Commonly used values of Manning’s, n in surface irrigation.

Field condition Manning’s n values
Smooth bare soil surface non-cultivated, oil-mulched citrus 0.04
Small grain, drill rows parallel to direction of irrigation 0.10
Alfalfa, mint, broadcast small grain, and similar crops 0.15
Dense sod crops, small grain with drill rows across the border 0.25
strip
Source: USDA, 1979

4. Channel bed slope (So). The bed slope of a furrow or a border or a basin needs to be
known in order to estimate maximum non-erosive flow rates as well as flow cross-
sectional area or depth of flow at any given channel section using, say, Manning’s
equation. Bed slope is the average slope in the direction of irrigation and is an easy
parameter to measure. For borders and furrows bed slope should not be too high to

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 86

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

cause scouring and must not too low as to result a very slow advance with the end
outcome being inefficient irrigation. Usually the values recommended by USDA, which
depend on soil (type and profile depth), crop combination (for borders) and size of
individual furrows, are used.
5. Infiltration parameter (I). Knowledge of the infiltration characteristics of the soil is
critically important for evaluation, design or management of a surface irrigation
system, without which it is very difficult to accurately judge system performance,
application efficiency and uniformity. Therefore, infiltration parameter, k, a, and fo
should be determined prior to the actual design stage (refer to chapter 2).

6. Channel geometry The geometry of a channel cross-section has a significant effect on

the surface hydraulics as well as infiltration. Generally, basins and borders can be
considered as wide rectangular channels, where the depth of flow is by far less than
their width. Furrows, on the other hand, can have parabolic, triangular or trapezoidal
cross-sections. It is therefore important to take account of channel geometry in
modeling of furrow irrigation processes.

For reasons of simplicity and practical considerations, such as accounting for

irregularities in channel cross-sections, it is customary to assume that a power
relationship holds between the following important channel geometry elements of a
furrow.

A =σ 1 yσ2

Wp = τ1 yτ2 Where A = flow area

Wp = wetted perimeter
σ 1 , σ 2 , τ 1 and τ 2 are regression model parameters

Similarly, furrow spacing depends upon the type of crop, equipment availability and
soil type. Many crops are planted in single rows 75 to 105 cm apart.

Table 4.3 Area and hydraulic radius calculations for the three channel types
Channel type Area Hydraulic radius
Trapezoidal (b + my)y (b + 2 y ) y
b + 2 y (1 + m 2 )
Triangular 2
my my/(2 1+ m 2 )
Semi-circular (parabolic) 2
Πr /2 r/2

System Variables
1. Channel length (l). The length of a basin or border or a furrow should be determined

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 87

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

considering the soil type, method of irrigation and from previous studies to estimate
advance and recession over the length of the channel, the resulting distribution of
infiltrated water, volume of runoff and the performance indices. There always exist a
certain optimal channel length that would minimize irrigation water losses yet results in
acceptable levels of adequacy and uniformity. If the above data is not available the
following Tables can be used as guides.

Table 4.4 Typical border slopes, length and width for different soils
Soil type Slope Length Width
ranges ranges ranges
(%) (M) (M)
Sandy to sandy 0.25-0.6 60-120 15-20
loams
Medium loam 0.2-0.4 100-180 20-25
Clay to clay loam 0.05-0.2 150-300 25-35

Table 4.5 Maximum furrows lengths for given slopes, depth of water application and soils.
Furrow Average depth of water applied (mm)
Slope 75 150 225 50 100 150 50 75 100
Clays Loams Sands
Percent ………………………………….Meters………………………………………
0.1 340 440 470 180 340 440 90 120 190
0.3 400 500 620 280 400 500 150 220 280
0.5 400 500 560 280 370 470 120 190 250
2.0 220 270 340 180 250 300 60 90 150

2. Unit inlet flow rate (Qo). This is the discharge diverted into a furrow, or a unit width
border or a basin. Inlet flow rate is one of the key variables in influencing the outcome
of an irrigation event; it affects, the rate of advance to a significant degree and also
recession to a lesser but appreciable extent. Thereby having a significant effect on
uniformity, efficiency and adequacy of irrigation. It should not be too high as to cause
scouring and should not be too small as otherwise the water will not advance to the
down stream end.

3. Cutoff time (t co ). Cutoff time is the time at which the supply is turned off, measured
from the onset of irrigation. The ideal time of cutoff occurs when the infiltrated depth in
the least-watered portion of the field is equal to the irrigation requirement. The most
important effect of cutoff is reflected on the amount of losses, deep percolation and
surface runoff, and hence efficiency and adequacy of irrigation. In general for any
given factor level of combination the selection of an appropriate value of t co is made
on the basis of the target application depth and acceptable level of deficit.

B) Surface irrigation system performance

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 88

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

Ideally the best surface irrigation scenario (event) is one that can apply the right amount of
water over the entire subject area without loss, and a situation which requires that equal
amount of water be applied over the entire reach of the channel. In practice however there
exist no surface irrigation system or operation scenario that can apply water without loss and
with perfect uniformity. In any case making uneven application of water over the length of run
of a channel is unavoidable. The inevitable consequence of this is that in order to apply a
certain target amount of water at a point, say down stream end of the subject area, a larger
amount must be applied at another point. What all these indicate is that in real life systems
uneven and excess application of irrigation water are the “twins facts of life’ that engineers
and irrigators ought to live with. We cannot do without them but we ought to strive to
minimize them. That is what system design and management is all about. The merit of an
irrigation scenario (event) is judged in terms of indices that “measure how close an irrigation
scenario is to the ideal one”. These indices are collectively referred to as performance
indices. The performance of a surface irrigation event can be evaluated from three distinct
but complementary perspectives.

(1) Excess application of irrigation water, though unavoidable in real life situation must be
minimized (minimum loss). Application efficiency (E a ), is the index which is used as a
measure of how effective an irrigation is in minimizing unavoidable losses.

(2) Adequacy of irrigation, evaluated in terms of a perceived requirement is necessary to

sustain normal crop growth and result in satisfactory yield. Water storage efficiency (E s ) uses
how close the applied amount is to the perceived requirement (right amount).

(3) Uniform (even) application of irrigated water over the entire subject area not only
enhances productive use of available water by spreading deficit, if any, over the subject area
but also helps minimize losses. Distribution uniformity (DU) and Christiansen`s uniformity
coefficient (UC) are the most commonly used indices in surface irrigation application.
Moreover, deep percolation and run-off losses are vital in constraining as well as guiding
operational decision making processes.

N.B : Water application efficiency, Water storage efficiency, Deep percolation

fraction and Run-off fraction are covered previously

Irrigation uniformity
Uniformity of infiltration under surface irrigation depends on the spatial and temporal
variability of surface and sub-surface hydraulic characteristics such as field slope, furrow
geometry, surface roughness, field length, flow rate and soil pore size distribution.

Two parameters are used to evaluate distribution uniformity.

a) The first parameter is distribution uniformity coefficient DU, and is defined as
the
ratio of the minimum infiltrated amount expressed as percentage of the average
infiltrated amount over the subject area.
Z
A general expression for DU is: DU = min 100 .
Zav

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 89

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

Where Z min = minimum infiltrated amount over the length of the run of the
subject area (m3. m-1).
Z av = average infiltrated amount over the length of the run of the subject
area (m3. m-1) and
Lov
∫ Zdx
Z av is expressed as , Zav = o
L
b) The second parameter is Christansen `s uniformity coefficient, (UCC), defined
as the ratio of the difference between the average amount applied and the average
deviation from the average amount applied to the average amount applied.

It is given by the equation:

 ∑ N
Z − Zav 
UCC = 1 − i = 1 i  × 100
 Zav N 
 

Where Z i = infiltrated amount at point i ( m3. m-1)

N = number of points used in the computation of UCC

Design Procedures

The specific procedures followed during the design of furrow, border and basin irrigation
systems are below.

Hydraulic Design of Surface Irrigation Systems

1. Design of furrow irrigation System

Non erosive stream size

To maintain proper furrow shape and reduce sediment loss from the head of the field and
deposition at the tail of the field or adjacent water way, it is desirable to operate the furrow at
a velocity that is non erosive.

The empirical relation developed by USDA-SCS for the maximum non-erosive stream size is
C
Q max = ……………………………………………….(1)
S
Where S = ground slope down the furrow in %
C = empirical constant (= 0.6  )
s
- This relationship doesn’t account for soil type and therefore limited in accuracy.

Table: 4.6 Relation of maximum non erosive flow rates to critical slopes of furrows (after
Booher, 1974)

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 90

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

Furrow slope Maximum flow rate,

S (%) 
Q max ,
s
0.1 6.0
0.3 2.0
0.5 1.2
2.0 0.3

Table 4.7 intake family and advance coefficients for depth of infiltration in mm, time in
minutes and length in meters.

Intake family a b c f g

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 91

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

0.05 0.5334 0.618 7.0 7.16 1.088*10-4

0.10 0.6198 0.661 7.0 7.25 1.251*10-4
0.15 0.7110 0.683 7.0 7.34 1.414*10-4
0.20 0.7772 0.699 7.0 7.43 1.578*10-4
0.25 0.8534 0.711 7.0 7.52 1.741*10-4
0.30 0.9246 0.720 7.0 7.61 1.904*10-4
0.35 0.9957 0.729 7.0 7.70 2.067*10-4
0.40 1.064 0.736 7.0 7.79 2.230*10-4
0.45 1.130 0.742 7.0 7.88 2.393*10-4
0.50 1.196 0.748 7.0 7.97 2.556*10-4
0.60 1.321 0.757 7.0 8.15 2.883*10-4
0.70 1.443 0.766 7.0 8.33 3.209*10-4
0.80 1.560 0.773 7.0 8.50 3.535*10-4
0.90 1.674 0.779 7.0 8.68 3.862*10-4
1.00 1.786 0.785 7.0 8.86 4.188*10-4
1.50 2.284 0.799 7.0 9.76 5.819*10-4
2.00 2.753 0.808 7.0 10.65 7.451*10-4

The average intake over the length of the furrow is given by

1
I= (V in - V 0ut – V s ) ---------------------------------------------------- (2)
LP
Where i = equivalent depth infiltrated over wetted surface area of field, mm
L= distance between inflow and outflow measurements, m
P = adjusted wetted perimeter, m
V = volume of water (inflow, outflow, storage) in liter.
The adjusted wetted perimeter in given by the following equation
0.425
 Qn 
P = 0.265  0.5  + 0.227 --------------------------------------------- (3)
S 
Where Q= volumetric inflow rate, 
s
N =Manning’s roughness coefficient
S = furrow slope or hydraulic gradient, m
m
In most cases, after the flow has stabilized and gets uniform, the hydraulic gradient is equal
to the furrow slope. A roughness coefficient of 0.04 is normally used for design of furrow
irrigation system.
The volume of channel storage is given by
L  
0.735
 Qn 
Vs =  2 . 947  0.5  − 0.0217  ------------------------------------------- (4)
0.305  S  
The required depth of infiltration for a furrow system must be expressed as an equivalent
depth over the total field area. Infiltration depth is given by:
[
i = at b + C ] p
w
-------------------------------------------------------------- (5)
Where a, b, c are intake family coefficients

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 92

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

t = time, min
W = furrow spacing, m
p = adjusted wetted perimeter, m
The advance time for stream of water moving down the furrow is given by
x  gx 
T t = exp  0.5  ------------------------------------------------------ (6)
f  QS 
Where T t = advance time, min
X = distance down the furrow, m
F = advance coefficient (Table 6.6)
g= advance coefficient
Q= volumetric inflow rate, 
s
S = furrow slope, m
m
The infiltration opportunity time is equal to the time of water application minus the advance
time plus the recession time.
T o = T co – T t + T r , min -------------------------------------- (7)

The cut-off time, T co , reflects an irrigation management decision made by the farmer and
designer. It should be an adequate length of time to infiltrate a satisfactory depth of water
over the length of the furrow with out causing excessive deep percolation. T co is normally set
equal to the time to advance to the end of the furrow plus the required net infiltration time
less recession time. Letting in equal the desired net depth of infiltration, the net infiltration
time is determined by
1
  w  b
 i n   − C 
 p
Tn =   -------------------------------------- (8)
 a 
 
 
The recession time is assumed Zero for open- ended gradient furrows (i.e for furrows whose
slope is not equal to zero) with out loss of accuracy.
For gradient furrows, T o = T co – T t --------------------------------------------- (9)
but Tco = T t + T n

Where Tt = advance time required to reach end of the field at distance L, min.
gx
Let β =
QS 0.5
The average infiltration opportunity time over distance x down the furrow is given by:
T o-x = T co -
0.0929
[(β − 1) exp(β ) + 1] ---------------------------(10)
β
2
 0 . 305 
f ( x)  
 x 
The average infiltration time for the full furrow length, T o-L , is obtained by substituting L, in to
egn (10) for x. the average depth of infiltration for the entire furrow length, i avg , is therefore
determined by substituting T o-L in to egn (5) for t.

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 93

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

The gross depth of water application, ig, is defined as the required net depth of irrigation, i n ,
divided by the product of the application and distribution pattern efficiencies.
In
Ig = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------(11)
Ea Ed
If evaporation is neglected, E a is assumed to be equal to 100%

in
Ig = ------------------------------------------------------------------------- (12)
Ed
The equivalent gross depth of application as a function of inflow rate and field geometry, is
60(Q )(Tco )
Ig = ----------------------------------------------------------(13)
WL
I g = gross depth of application in mm
Q = inflow rate, 
s
W = furrow spacing, m
The equivalent depth of deep percolation, d dp
D dp = i avg – i n ------------------------------------------------------------------- (15)

Example: Given the following information,

Intake family, IF = 0.3
Furrow length, L = 275m
Furrow slope, s = 0.004 m/m
Roughness coefficient, n = 0.04
Net irrigation depth, i n = 75mm
Inflow rate, Q = 0.6 
s
Compute the desired time to cut – off, T co , the equivalent depths of surface run off and deep
percolation, d ro , d dp , and the distribution pattern efficiency.
Soln:

For Intake family IF = 0.3, a = 0.9246, b = 0.720, c = 7.0, f = 7.61

g =1.904*10-4

- Advance time T t
x  gx  275m  (1.904 * 10 −4 ) * 275 
T t = exp  0.5  = exp   = 144 min
 0.6(0.004 )
0.5
f  QS  7.61 
- Adjusted wetted perimeter, P
0.423
 Qn 
0.425
 0.6 * 0.04 
P = 0.265  0.5  + 0.227 = 0.265 
0.5 
+ 0.227 = 0.40m
S   (0 . 004 ) 
- Net Infiltration time , T n

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 94

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

1
  w  b
1

  −   0.75m   0.720
 n 
i C   75mm   − 7 .0 
 p  0.4 
Tn =   =   = 999 min
 a   0.925 
   
   
- Design cut-off time , T co
T co = T t + T n = 144 + 999 = 1143 min.
- Gross application depth , I g

Ig =
60(Q )(Tco )
=
( s
)
60 0.6 l (1143 min )
= 200mm
WL 0.75m * 275m
- Average infiltration Time , T O-L
T o-L = T co -
0.0929
[(β − 1) exp(β ) + 1] where β =
gx
 0.305β  QS 0.5
2

f ( x)  
 x 
Substituting for all the variables

T o-L = 1143 – 47.6 = 1095 min.

- Average infiltration , i avg

= [(0.925)(1095) + 7.0]
p 0.40
i avg = (aTO − L + c) = 80mm
b

W 0.75

- Surface runoff depth , d ro

d ro = i g – i avg = 200mm – 80mm = 120mm

- Deep percolation depth , d dp

d dp = i avg – i n = 80mm-75mm = 5mm

- Distribution pattern efficiency , e d,

i 75mm
e d = n * 100 = * 100% = 37.5%
ig 200mm

The following modifications are necessary to solve the hydraulic equation for the cut – back
conditions. The adjusted wetted perimeter under the cut – back conditions is computed by
substituting Q 2 in to egn (3). The required net infiltration time at length L is solved for by
substituting P 2 in to egn (8). The average opportunity time for infiltration during the advance
period is given by the absolute value of the second term on the right hand side of equation
(10) with X set equal to L.
T avg =
0.0929
[(β − 1) exp(β ) + 1]
 0.305β 
2

f (L ) 
 L 
The average infiltration under the cut – back condition is

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 95

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

[
I avg = a (Tco − Tavg ) + C
b
] Pw + [a(T )
2
avg
b
+c ] P −w P
1 2
……………….. (17)
The gross depth of application is given by
Ig =
60
[Qt (Tt ) + Q2 (Tn )] ………………………………………….. (18)
WL

Example: Given the same condition as example problem above, compute the same
information required for that problem, if a cut back system is used and Q is reduced by one-
half.
Soln

- Time of cut-back , T cb , is the time of advance at full flow , T t , and is equal to that calculated
in the previous example.
T cb = T t = 144 min.
- Adjusted wetted perimeter during advance is is P as calculated in previous example.
P = 0.40m
- Adjusted wetted perimeter during reduced flow is calculated with flow Q 2
0.425 0.425
Q n  0.3 * 0.04 
P2 = 0.265 *  02.5  + 0.227 = 0.265 *  0.5 
+ 0.227 = 0.36m
S   0.004 

- Net application time is the time water must remain on the surface at the end of the field and
equal to T n under reduced flow condition.

1
  w  b
1

    0.75m   0.720
 n 
i − C   75mm 0.36  − 7.0 
Tn =   p2   =     = 1165 min
 a   0.925 
   
   
- Time of cut-off is the sum of T t and T n
T co = 144 +1165 = 1309 min.
- Average infiltration time during the advance period is the absolute value of the second term
of equation (10) and was calculated in the previous example as part of T O-L

T avg = 47.6 min.

- Average infiltration, i avg

[
I avg = a (Tco − Tavg ) + C
b
] Pw + [a(T ) + c] P −w P
2
avg
b 1 2

[
I avg = 0.925(1309 − 47.6 )
0.720
+ 7.0 ]00..36
75
+ [0.925(47.6 )
0.720
+ 7.0 ]0.400−.750.36
= 79 +1.2 = 80mm

- Gross application depth

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 96

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

Ig =
60
[0.6(144) + 0.3(1165)] = 127 mm.
0.75 * 275

- Surface runoff depth , d ro

d ro = i g – i avg = 127mm – 80mm = 47mm

- Deep percolation depth , d dp

d dp = i avg – i n = 80mm-75mm = 5mm

- Distribution pattern efficiency , e d,

i 75mm
e d = n * 100 = * 100% = 59 %
ig 127 mm

Level Basin System Design

Fields to be irrigated by a level basin system are divided in to level rectangles of limited
extent by ridges of adequate height to retain the depth of flow. The entire field is flooded and
the water is allowed to infiltrate in to the root zone after ponding on the soil surface.
Level basin systems are designed on the basis of water application rate, soil intake family,
and field dimensions.

As with furrow systems, empirical relations have been developed for the design of level basin
systems based on reasonably successful designs in field situations. These relationships are
a compromise between available stream sizes, soil intake family, basin size and irrigation
efficiency.

Table 6.8: suggested basin area for different soil types and rates of water flow (
taken from Booher ,1974)
Area in hectares
Soil type
Flow rate sand Sandy loam Clay loam clay
l/s m3/h
30 108 0.02 0.06 0.12 0.2
60 216 0.04 0.12 0.24 0.4
90 324 0.06 0.18 0.36 0.6
120 432 0.08 0.24 0.48 0.8
150 540 0.10 0.30 0.60 1.0
180 648 0.12 0.36 0.72 1.2
210 756 0.14 0.42 0.84 1.4
240 864 0.16 0.48 0.96 1.6
270 972 0.18 0.54 1.08 1.8
300 1080 0.20 0.60 1.20 2.0

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 97

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

Hydraulic relationships

The hydraulic relationships described in this section are based on design procedures
developed by the soil conservation service and will use the intake family concept the
equations in this section can be derived by application of the continuity, infiltration and
Manning’s equations with limited depth of flow.

The net time of infiltration, T n , in a level basin system is computed using equation
1
i − C  b
Tn =  n  …………………… (19)
 a 
The required advance time, T t , is determined by multiplying the net infiltration time by the
T
fractional advance ratio, t , which is a function of distribution pattern efficiency.
Tn

Table 4.8 Ratio of T t to T n for various distribution efficiency values.

Ratio T t to T n  t 
Distribution pattern Efficiency (Ed) T
%  Tn 
95 0.16
90 0.28
85 0.40
80 0.58
75 0.80
70 1.08
65 1.45
60 1.90
55 2.45
50 3.20
0.5
T 
Ed = 105.81 – 32.676  t 
 Tn 

Table 4.9 Values of the roughness coefficients used in level basin and graded
border systems.

Smooth, bare soil surfaces non cultivated, citrus 0.04

Small grain, rows parallel to border strip 0.10
Alfalfa, broad east small grains, and similar crops 0.15
Dense sod crops, small grains with rows across the border 0.25
strip

The relationship between the advance time, basin length, and inflow rate will apply the unit
inflow rate concept.

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 98

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

6 * 104 (Qu )Tt

L= …………………………(20)
a(Tt )
b
+ c + 1798n (Qu ) 16 (Tt ) 16
3 9 3
8
1+ b
Q
Where Q u = , W = basin width
W
The time to cut-off, T co , is the time required to put the gross depth of irrigation, i g on to the
basin is given by
in L
T co = ………………… (21)
600Qu ed
Where: T co = time to cut-off, min
i n = net depth of irrigation, mm
e d = distribution pattern efficiency, percent.

The maximum depth of flow in the basin, d max , is an important parameter in basin design in
that it governs the minimum ridge height. The ridge height should be equal to 1.25 times the
maximum depth of flow and the ridge should have a maximum side slope ratio of 2.5:1
d max = 2250 n3/8 Q u 9/16 T co 3/16
Where d max = maximum flow depth, mm

Example: Given the following information

Intake family I f = 0.5
Targated distribution pattern efficiency e d = 80%
Unit flow rate Q u = 0.005 m2/s
Net irrigation depth i n = 100mm
Roughness coefficient n = 0.15
Assuming 100 percent application efficiency, compute the net infiltration time, basin length,
time – to – cut off, and maximum depth of flow.

Soln

Graded Border System Design

Graded border systems are similar in concept to level basin systems except that there is
a slope down the border and there may be limited cross slope. Graded border systems
may be more conveniently applied to soils of limited depth than level basin systems
because of reduced leveling requirements.

Graded border systems are most applicable to soils with moderately low to moderately
high in take rates. This method is best suited to lands with slopes less than 0.5%. It can
be used on lands of slopes up to 2% for non grassy crops and up to approximately 4%for
sod crops.

Hydraulic Relationships

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 99

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

The hydraulic relationships applied are complicated Relative to level basins in that the water
applied is contenuously moving down slope. The hydraulic relationships are derived by
consideration of the continuity relationship, manning equation and the assumption that the
amount of water infiltrated in to the soil may be approximated by the volume of a section with
a triangular cross-sectional shape as the recession curve moves down the field.

Graded border systems are designed on the principle that any point in the field should have
water applied to it for a time equal to that required to infiltrate the net depth of irrigation.
Recession lag time: The time between cut- off of water at the head of the filed and the
disappearance of water at the head of the field.
Time to cut- off, T co = T n - T rl
The term high gradient borders is used to denote borders with a surface slope greater then
approximately 0.004m/m.In such borders, the water surface slope is assumed equal to the field
slope and the normal flow depth, that is, the depth of flow under conditions of uniform flow is
assumed equal to the depth of flow at the head of the border. Under such conditions, the
recession lag time is given by:
0 .2
Q n1.2
Trl = u 1.6
120S

where T rl = recession lag time, min

Q u = unit flow rate, m2/s
n = Manning’s roughness coeff.

S = surface slope, m/m

- For low gradient borders with surface slopes less than 0.004m/m
0.2
Qu n1.2
T rl =
0.175 1.6
 0.0094nQu 
120  S + 0.88 
 Tn S 0.5 
Where T n = net infiltration time, min.

-The inflow rate per unit width of border strip is given by

0.00167in L
Qu= where:
(Tn − Trl )ed
i n = net depth of irrigation
L = border length, m
e d = distn efficiency , %

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 100

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

The maximum depth of flow in the In the border strip is determined by the border ridge
height. The border ridge height is normally established at 1.25 times the maximum flow
depth. Maximum flow depths of less than 150 mm are generally acceptable. In erosion
resistant soil, flow depths in the range of 200mm may be acceptable.

Normal depth for uniform flow, (mm)

0.6
1000Qu n 0.6
dh = ------------------for high gradient border.
S 0.3
d h = 2454 (T rl )0.1875 Q u 0.5625 n 0.1875 -------for low gradient border

The maximum flow rate criterion has been established to have a non – erosive stream size.

1.765 * 10−4
Q umax = ……. For alfalfa and small grains
S 0.75

3.53 * 10−4
Q umax = ………For well established dense sod crops, pasture &
S 0.75
grasses
A minimum depth of flow criterion is required to ensure that the water stream is large
enough to spread over the entire border.
5.95 * 10−6 LS 0.5
Q umin =
n
The theoretical relationship for maximum slope is given by

2
 n in 
S max =  * 
 0.0117ed Tn − Trl 

The theoretical relationship for maximum length is given by

Q ed (Tn − Tre )
L max = unax , Ed in %
0.00167in

5. LAND LEVELING AND FIELD LAYOUT

5.1 Introduction to Land Levelling

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 101

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

Land grading is reshaping of the field surface to a planned grade. It is necessary in making a
suitable field surface to control the flow of water, to check soil erosion and provide surface
drainage.
When uneven land is irrigated, the high spots are watered too little and the low spots too
much. This results in uneven crop growth, yield reduction, and loss of water. A properly
graded land surface ensures unobstructed smooth flow of water into the land, without eroding
the soil and ensuring uniform distribution of water throughout the filed.
Land leveling operations may be grouped into three phases:
o Rough grading
o Land leveling
o Land smoothing

Rough grading
Is the removal of abrupt irregularities such as mounds, dunes and rings, and filling of pits,
depressions and gullies.

Land leveling
= land grading = land forming = land shaping

It requires moving large quantities of earth over considerable distance

Land smoothing
Leveling operations leaves irregular surfaces due to dumping the loads. These irregularities
are removed and a plane surface obtained by land smoothing which is the final operation in
land leveling.

Criteria for land leveling

Land leveling is influenced by
o the characteristics of the soil profile,
o prevailing land slope,
o rainfall characteristics,
o cropping pattern,
o methods of irrigation,
other specific features of the site including the preference of the farmer
Land clearing

Prior to making the land grading survey, it is important to remove heavy vegetative growth
from the land. Land clearing consists of removing of some or all the trees, bushes,
vegetations, trash and boulders from the area specified for land grading.

Layout of fields and irrigation and drainage systems

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 102

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

Prior to leveling design, the land development program must be planned so that the location
of the filed boundaries, irrigation water supply system, drains and the farm roads are known.
The leveling plan for individual fields must provide for furnishing field material or absorbing
the excavated earth from those adjacent features. It must also provide fro the proper ratio
between excavation and embankment.

5.2 Land Grading Survey and Design

With the field boundaries considered and established, the next step is to survey the area for
land leveling design. The general practice is to establish a grid system over the field and set
stakes at the grid points (Fig 5.1).
Figure 5.1: Grid pattern used for staking a field which is to be graded (A.M. Michael)

The usual grid space is 25m in each direction. Other spacing such as 30 * 30m, 20 * 20m,
and 15 * 15m are also sometimes used, depending on the nature of the surface relief of the
area and the precision required in leveling. Each grid point is at the center of the grid square
and represents nearly equal area. For convenience in identification, the row lines are lettered
and the column lines numbered.

In locating the grid points, the usual practice is to establish two or more base lines in each
directions and then to sight in the rest of the stakes.
Thus, in Fig. 5.2, line B might first be established by measurements at a distance of one and
a half times the grid interval (37.5m), parallel to the south boundary of the field.

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 103

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

Figure 5.2: Grid point elevation of the field marked in Fig. 1. Note the contour lines drawn at 10
cm interval on the basis of the grid point elevation

Line 4
and 5
are

likewise located at right angle to line B. Line C should also be located by measurement.
The stakes are usually of size 1cm by 4cm by 1 m. They should be sharpened and driven
into the ground far enough to ensure that they will withstand strong winds.
After all the points have been staked, level are run to determine the ground elevation at each
stake.
The elevations are determined with a dumpy level and a level rod, adopting the usual survey
procedures. The first rod reading is made on a bench mark (BM) of known or assumed
elevation. Any permanent point on or near the farm may be taken as the bench mark.

In case of surveys involving large areas, it is desirable to establish the elevation of the bench
mark with reference to mean sea level (MSL) by running a line of differential levels from a
point of known elevation, like a near by railway platform or other points.

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 104

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

When only a single field is to be surveyed, the first grid point may be taken as the bench
mark. Based on the rod readings, the reduced level (RL) of the grid points is computed. The
values of RL may be entered in a tabular form or may be indicated directly on the base map
at the respective grid points (Figure 5.2).

To make the survey information more readily understood and studied, contour lines are
drawn at suitable intervals. The contour intervals are usually based on the average land
slope. The recommended contour intervals for different ranges of land slopes are as follows:

Land slope range (%) Contour interval (cm)

0–1 6 – 15
1–2 15 – 30
2–5 30 – 60
5 – 10 60 – 150

The contour lines clearly indicate:

o the direction and degree of slope,
o ridges,
o depressions and
o other topographical features.
With the help of contour map the land is divided into fields that can be graded and irrigated
individually to the best advantage.

5.3 Land leveling design methods

The basic methods of land leveling design are:

1. plane method
2. profile method
3. plan-inspection method and
4. contour adjustment method
This chapter deals with the plane method in more detail and other methods can be referred
from literatures.

Plane Method
The plane method is the most commonly used method of land leveling design. Its use, however, is
restricted to those fields where it is feasible to grade the field to a true plane. The following is the
procedure for land leveling design.
a. Determining the centroid of the filed
o The centroid of a rectangular field is located at the point of intersection of its diagonals.
o The centroid of a triangular field is located at the intersection of the lines drawn form its
corners to the mid-points of the opposite sides.
o To determine the centroids of irregular field, the area is divided into rectangles and right
angled triangles. The centroid is located by computing moments about two reference lines
at right angles to each other.

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 105

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

o The distance of the centroid of the field from any line of reference is equal to the sum of
the products obtained by multiplying the area of each part times the distance from the line
of reference to its centroid, divided by the area of the entire field.
o By computing the distance to the centriod from two lines of reference perpendicular to
each other, the exact point of the centriod can be determined.
The centriod can be located with sufficient accuracy by assuming that each stake in the field
represents the same area. The procedure is illustrated in Figure 5.3.
Figure 5.3: Location of the centroid of the field shown in Fig.2

Referring to
Figure 5.3, let
one of the lines
of reference be 12.5m to the south of the line A and coincide with the southern boundary of
the field. The computation process is as follows:

Line Distance No Stakes Product

A 12.5 9 112.5
B 37.5 9 337.5
C 62.5 9 562.5
D 87.5 9 787.5
E 112.5 9 1012.5
F 137.5 7 962.5
G 162.5 6 975.0
Total 58 4750.0

The distance of the centriod from the reference line is then obtained by dividing the sum of
the products by the total number of stakes, or

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 106

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

4750
Dis tan ce of centroid from the reference line = = 81.896 m
58
o Another line of reference may be assumed at 12.5m to the left of the line 1 and the
location of the centroid in the east-west direction is computed as 105.603m from the
reference line in the same way.
o With the two dimensions, the centroid point is located at (105.603, 81.896).
o It may be noted that the centroid point on the x-axis is
105.603 – 87.503 = 18.103m from point D4.

o On the y-axis it is 81.896 – 62.500 = 19.396m from point C5 (Fig. 5.3).

b. Determining the average elevation of the field

This is obtained by adding the elevations of all grid points in the field and dividing the sum by
the number of points. Thus, in Fig. 5.3,
o the total of the 58 elevations on the grid corners is 98.78m

98.78
The average elevation = = 1.703 m
58

Any plane passing through the centroid at this elevation will produce equal volumes of cut
and fill. With the elevation of the centroid known and the downfield grade and cross slope
selected, the elevation required at each grid point can be calculated. The desired cut or fill
may be computed from the comparison of the original and the proposed elevations.

Example Problem 5.1: The topographic survey of a field gave the following elevations (m) at
grid points
1 2 3 4 5
A 10.65 10.43 10.07 9.68 9.67
B 10.47 10.42 9.95 9.84 9.75
C 10.32 10.08 9.92 9.65 9.48
D 9.89 9.48 9.67 9.41 9.13

o Calculate the elevation of the centriod of the field. Stakes are to guide the leveling of
this field into a play ground.
o Calculate the cut and fill at the grid points.
o Compare the quantities of earthwork in cutting and filling

Solutions:
Total number of stations = 4 * 5 = 20
Total elevations of 20 stations = 197.96
sum of the elevations of the grid po int s 197.96
Elevation of centroid = = = 9.898 m
Number of grid po int s 20

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 107

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

o Since the field is to be used as a playground, it is to be leveled without any slope in

any direction.

o The cuts and fills at various grid points are obtained by subtracting the elevation of the
corresponding grid point from the elevation of the centroid.

o Thus, the cut/fill at grid point A1 is 9.898 – 10.65 = -0.752m. The –sign indicates the
cut, while +sign indicates fill. The cuts and fills (in m) at the different grid points are
computed which are tabulated below:

1 2 3 4 5
A -0.752 -0.532 -0.172 +0.218 +0.228
B -0.572 -0.522 -0.052 +0.058 +0.148
C -0.422 -0.182 -0.022 +0.248 +0.418
D +0.008 +0.418 +0.228 +0.488 +0.768

Check: ∑ cut = ∑ fill = 3.228 m

Example Problem 5.2:
A topographic survey of a rectangular field was done for planning a land leveling program.
Grid points were set at intervals of 25m. The elevation of the points are given below:
Elevation (m)
Line 1 Line 2 Line 3 Line 4 Line 5
A 8.26 8.75 9.30 9.52 10.44
B 7.94 8.12 8.90 8.80 9.62
C 7.12 7.86 8.35 8.60 8.42
D 6.74 7.28 7.94 8.16 7.80

o Determine the elevation of the centroid pf the field

o The field is to have a downfield slope of 0.2%. Determine the formation levels at the
grid points and also the amount of cut or fill at each grid point.

Solution
Total number of stations = 20
Sum of the elevations of the 20 stations = 167.92m

sum of the elevations of the grid po int s 167.92

Elevation of centroid = = = 8.396 m
Number of grid po int s 20
The formation levels at the grid points are computed at each grid point with reference to the
elevation of the centroid.
For example,
o Station A1 is 50m from the north-south line passing through the centroid.
o At 0.2% slope, the elevation of this point should be 0.1m below the centroid, or
98.296m.

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 108

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

o Similarly, the formation level at each grid point is computed. The results are tabulated
below:
1 2 3 4 5
A 8.296 8.346 8.396 8.446 8.496
B 8.296 8.346 8.396 8.446 8.496
C 8.296 8.346 8.396 8.446 8.496
D 8.296 8.346 8.396 8.446 8.496

The cut/fill is computed by subtracting the original elevation of the point from the formation
level at the grid point.
o Thus, at station A1, the cut/fill is 8.296 – 8.260 = +0.036m. The results are tabulated
below:
1 2 3 4 5
A +0.036 -0.404 +0.096 -1.074 -1.944
B +0.356 +0.226 -0.504 -0.354 -1.124
C +1.176 +0.486 +0.046 -0.154 +0.076
D +1.556 +0.066 +0.456 +0.286 +0.696
Check: ∑ cut = ∑ fill = 5.58 m

c. Compute the slope of the plane of best fit

The slope any line in the x or y direction on the plane which fits the natural ground surface,
can be determined by the least squares method. The plane equation can be written as:

E ( X , Y ) = AX + BY + C ...5.1
Where:
E = elevation of the X,Y coordinate
A,B = regression coefficients
C = elevation of the origin or reference point from the calculations of field
topography using Eq. 5.1
The slope of the best fit line through the average X-direction elevation (E j ) is A and is found
by:

N  N  N 
∑X j E j −  ∑ X j  ∑ E j  / N
A =  j =1  j =1 
...5.2
2
N  N 
∑X −  ∑ X j  / N
2
j
j =1  j =1 
For the best fit slope in the Y-direction, the slope, B, is

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 109

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

N
 N  N 
∑ Y E
i i −  ∑ Yi  ∑ Ei  / N
B=
i =1  i =1  i =1  ...5.3
2
N
 N 
∑ Yi −  ∑ Yi  / N
2

i =1  i =1 

Finally, the average field elevation, E F , can be found by summing either E i or E j and dividing
by the appropriate number of grid rows. This elevation corresponds to the elevation of the
field centroid (X,Y). Thus, equation 5.1 can be solved for C as follows:
C = E F − AX − BY ...5.4
The differences are the necessary cuts and or fills.

The slope of the plane can be determined on both x and y axes, and the elevation of any
point calculated from the elevation of the centroid.

The grades determined by equation (2 & 3) must be checked to see if they fall within the safe
limits selected for cross slope and downfield grade. If they exceed these values, it will be
necessary to use the nearest values that satisfy the criteria. Example 3 illustrates the
computation procedure for determining the plane of best fit.

Example Problem 5.3:

Determine the plane of best fit for the field shown in Fig. 4.

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 110

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

Figure 5.4: Determination of formation levels cuts and fills for land leveling design of the filed
shown in Fig. 5.2, adopting the plane method. Note that each grid point the middle figure shows the
original ground elevation, the top figure the cut/fill and the bottom figure the formation level.
Solution
o Assuming the southern boundary of the field as the x-axis, the slope of the best fit
plane in the y-direction is determined by applying equation 5.3
o The distance of the stations from the x-axis on the different lines and the number of
stations on the line are given below:
Line Distance from border, D (m) No. of stations
A 12.50 9
B 37.50 9
C 62.50 9
D 87.50 9
E 112.50 9
F 137.50 7

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 111

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

G 162.50 6
Values of E, the elevation of each station are indicated on Fig. 4. Each factor in equation
(5.3) is computed as follows:
∑ YA Ei = 12.5 (2.22 + 2.02 +1.93 +1.80 +1.73 +1.59 +1.47 +1.33 +1.28 ) =192.125
∑ Y E = 37.5 (2.26 + 2.06 +1.96 +1.81 +1.71 +1.56 +1.44 +1.32 +1.19 ) = 574.125
B i

∑ Y E = 62.5 (2.29 + 2.18 +1.97 +1.80 +1.70 +1.55 +1.41 +1.26 +1.13 ) = 955.625
C i

∑ Y E = 87.5 (2.30 + 2.21 + 1.99 + 1.79 + 1.67 + 1.54 + 1.36 + 1.21 + 1.10 ) =1327.375
D i

∑ Y E = 112.5 (2.22 + 2.02 +1.93 +1.78 +1.65 +1.52 +1.32 +1.19 +1.08 ) =1654.875
E i

∑ Y E = 137.5 (2.16 + 2.02 + 1.90 + 1.73 + 1.63 + 1.45 + 1.28 ) =1673.375

F i

∑ Y E = 162.5 (2.08 +1.97 +1.88 +1.70 +1.61 +1.42 ) =1732.25

G i

⇒ ∑ (Y E ) = 8109.75 i i

∑ Y =12.5 × 9 + 37.5 × 9 + 62.5× 9 + 87.5× 9 + 112.5× 9 + 137.5× 7 + 162.5× 6 = 4750

i

∑ E = (2.22 + 2.02 +1.93 + ..... +1.61 +1.42 ) = 98.68

i

(∑ Y )(∑ E ) 4750 × 98.68

⇒ = = 8081.60
i i

N 58

∑ (Y ) = (4750) = 22562500
2 2

(∑ Y ) 22562500 2

= = 389779
i

N 58

∑ (Y ) = (12.5) 2 × 9 + (37.5) 2 × 9 + (62.5) 2 × 9 + (87.5) 2 × 9 + (112.5) 2 × 9 + (137.5) 2 × 7 + (162.5) 2 × 6 = 522813

2
i

N
 N  N 
∑ Yi Ei −  ∑ Yi  ∑ Ei  / N
8109.75 − 8081.60
B=
i =1  i =1  i =1  = = 0.0002116 = 0.0212%
N
 N

2
522813 − 389779
∑ Yi −  ∑ Yi  / N
2

i =1  i =1 

From similar calculations and taking the western boundary of the field as the reference line
on the y-axis,
S x = − 0.007 = − 0.7 %
It is seen that S x is negative. This means that the plane reaches a lower elevation as the
distance from the y-axis increases. Since S y is positive, the plane of the best fit rises towards
north.

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 112

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

The values of S x and S y reveal that the slope of the best fit plane in the y direction is
negligible and can be tolerated as the cross slope while that in the x direction is substantial.
The recommended safe limits of land slope presented in the table below show that the slope
of the best fit plane along the x-direction exceeds the safe value in all the three soil types
indicated in the table. Assuming that the soil is loamy, the maximum permissible land slope is
0.4%. Hence the value of S x is to be limited to – 0.4%.

Table: Recommended safe limits of land slope for efficient irrigation

Type of soil Longitudinal slope (%)
Heavy (clay) soils 0.05 – 0.25
Medium (loamy) soils 0.20 – 0.40
Light (sandy) soils 0.25 – 0.65

d. . Compute the formation levels, cuts and fills

With the elevation of the centriod determined, the formation level of nay point (the elevation
which the point should attain after land grading operation) may be determined, using the
computed or assumed values of S x and S y. For convenience in computation, a grid point
close to the centroid is selected and its elevation computed with reference to centriod
elevation, using the vales of S x and S y.

For example in figure 5.4 the grid point C4 may be selected as the reference station. The
distance of C4 from the centroid is 18.103m in the x direction and 19.396m in the y direction.
Since the plane of the best fit must pass through the centroid, the elevation of any point on
the x-direction should increase at the rate of S x to the left of the centroid and reduce by an
equal amount to the right of the centroid. But since S y is positive, the elevation of the y-
direction increases at the rate of S y from the centroid towards the north while it decreases at
the same rate towards the south.

In figure 5.4, the elevation of a point on the x-axis, 18.1m to the left of the centroid is,
18.103 × 0.4
1.703 + = 1.775
100

Similarly, the decrease in elevation of a point on the y-axis 19.396m from the centroid,
towards the south, is

19.396 × 0.02
= 0.0039m
100

Hence the elevation of the grid point C4 = 1.755 – 0.0039 = 1.7711m.

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 113

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

0.4 × 25
The elevations of all other points on line C can be determined by adding = 0.1 m to
100
each grid points to the left of C4.

For example, the elevation of the point C3 is 1.771 + 0.1 = 1.871 and that of C5 = 1.771 – 0.1
= 1.671 and so on.

The elevations of the points on line 4 can be obtained by progressively adding

25
0.02 × = 0.005 m to the elevations of grid points in the north direction and
100

subtracting the same amount from the elevations of the preceding grid points in the south
direction from C4. Thus, the elevation of

B4 = 1.771 – 0.005 = 1.766 m, and that of

D4 = 1.771 + 0.005 = 1.776
E4 = 1.776 + 0.005 = 1.781 m and so on

Similarly all the design elevations are determined and are shown in figure 5.4.
e. Determine the cut-fill ratio
Experience in land grading with modern earthmoving equipment has shown that the cut-fill
ratio should be greater than one. This means that a greater volume of cut than fill must be
allowed. Compaction from equipment in the cut area which reduces the volume and also the
compaction in the fill area which increases the fill volume needed, are the principal reasons
for this effect. Another reason for the need to have additional fill martial results from
imperfections in the leveling operation. An argument usually put forth is that on level ground
between stakes, the operator has an optical illusion of a dip in the middle, and therefore in
filling, crowning often occurs, which requires additional fill material than what is estimated.

It is rarely possible to estimate exactly the cu-fill ratio. It usually varies from 1.2 to 1.6. In
extreme cases of heavy or light textured soils and deep or shallow excavation, the ration may
be as low as. 1.1 and as much as 2.0. In case the soil is composed principally of organic
material such as peat or muck, the ration must be about 2.0. The type of soil, quantity of
earth- work involved and the type of equipment to be used should be considered in deciding
the cut-fill ratio.
With the plane method of computing cuts and fills, a settlement correction for the whole field
is more convenient to apply. The settlement allowance or amount of lowering of elevation
may range from 0.3 to 1cm for compact soils and 1.5 to 4.5 cm for loose soils. It may be
noted that a small change in elevation will cause a considerable change in the cut-fill ratio.

Since precise estimates on the additional cut volume cannot be made in advance, it may
often be necessary to first set the grades tentatively. After the work has made substantial
progress, the levels are checked again and the stakes reset to obtain the desired grade as
closely as possible.

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 114

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

In instances where borrow is to be taken from the field fro construction works such as roads,
irrigation channels and filling of p its, the plane surface can be lowered by the amount of
earthwork required. Similarly, if the earth excavated from drainage channels or other sources
is to be utilized in making land leveling fills, the elevation of the plane surface should be
raised by the quantity of earth available. These can be done by dividing the volume of the
borrow or excavation by the area of the field. The adjustment of the elevation of the plane
can be made at the centroid by subtracting the value of the borrow taken from the field and
adding the value of the excavated earth brought to the field. The elevations of other points
are then computed, and the amount of cut or fill at each point determined. The cuts and fills
are marked to the nearest cm since construction tolerances do not warrant a higher degree
of precision.

Example Problem 5.4: The field shown in Fig. 5.5 is to be leveled to a downfield gradient of
0.4 per cent and a cross slope of 0.02 per cent. The following additional provisions may be
made while designing the land leveling work:
1. A farm road is to be constructed along the boundary ab. The dimensions of the
road are: bottom width 4.2m, top width 3.5m, and average height of embankment 30cm. the
entire earth fill for the farm road is to be taken from the field.
2. A drainage canal is to be dug outside the field along the side cd. The canal is 1.5m deep,
1m wide at the bottom and has side slopes 1.5:1. The excavation from the canal is to be
spread in the field.
3. An allowance of 1cm may be provided to account for the shrinkage of the cut and fill
areas.
Determine the design elevation of each grid point. Compute the cut and fill at each grid
point and the cut/fill ratio.

Figure 5.5: Plane of field in example 4 with grid point elevations marked
Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 115
Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

SOLUTION
1) Weighted average elevation of the grid points
ΣE
= = (2.50 + 2.48... + 1.43) / 28 = 1.973m.
N
2) The location of the centroid is determined by taking moments about the reference lines
ox and oy. (Note that the reference line ox is drawn parallel to the field boundary ab and
is spaced 15 m away from the field boundary line ab. The line ox is laid at right angles to
oy and is 15m from the field boundary line ae. It is usually advantageous to locate the
reference lines outside the field boundary, and space at least one of it at half grid spacing
from one of the field boundary lines. This is especially important in the land grading
design of fields with irregular boundaries).
Referring to Fig.5.5, the location of the centroid on the plane on the x-axis is
(60 × 30 + 6 × 60 + 6 × 90 + 6 ×12 0 + 4 ×150) = 85.71 m from the line oy or 105.0- 5= 90m from line
28
ae.

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 116

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

Fig. 5.6: Determination of design elevations, cuts and fills of the field shown in Fig. 5,5
adopting the plane method

3) The slopes of the best fit planes on the x and y-axis are determined by using
equation (2 & 3).

Σ( X j E j ) − (ΣX j )(ΣE j ) / N
A=
Σ(X j ) − (ΣX j ) / N
(a) 2 2

Σ (X j E j ) = 15 (2.50 + 2.48 + ... + 2.09 ) + 45 (2.30 + 2.21 + ... + 1.97 )

= 4663.050

ΣX j = 4 × 15 + 5 × 45 + 5 × 75 + ... + 4 × 165 = 2520.00

(ΣX )(ΣE )/ N = 2520 × 55.25

j j = 4972.500
28

Σ(X j ) = 4 × 15 2 + 5 × 45 2 + ... + 4 × 165 2 = 294300.000

2

(ΣDx )2 / n = (2520)
2
= 226800.00
28

4663.050 − 4972.500 − 309.450

∴ A= = = −0.00458 = −0.458 %
294300 − 226800 67500

Σ(Yi Ei ) − (ΣYi )(ΣEi ) / N

b) B =
Σ(Yi ) − (ΣY i ) / N
2 2

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 117

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

Σ(Yi Ei ) = 15 (2.50 + 2.30 + ... + 1.80 ) + 45 (2.48 + 2.21 + ... + 1.71)

+ ... + 135 (1.97 + 1.85 + ... + 1.51) = 3754.350

ΣYi = 6 × 5 + 6 × 45 + ... + 4 × 135 = 1980

1980 × 55.25
(ΣYi )(ΣEi ) / N = = 3906.964
28

Σ(Yi ) = 6 × 15 2 + 6 × 45 2.. + 4 × 135 2 = 186300

2

(ΣYi )2 / N = (1980)
2
=140014.286
28

3754.350 − 3906.961 − 152.614

B= = = −0.003297 = − 0.3297 %
186300 − 140014.286 46285.714

Since Slope in X direction is greater than in Y direction, the downfield slope is taken in the x-
direction and the cross slope in the y-direction.

4. Net area of the field which is to be graded is determined

a. Gross area of field

=
(130 ×152) × 99 + (152 + 123) × 85 = 13959 + 1168.5 = 25646.5m 2
2 2

(b) Area of the drainage canal = top width * length = 5.5 * 90 = 495 m2

(c) Area of farm road = bottom width * length = 4.2 * 184 = 772.8 m2

(d) Net area of the field to be graded = Gross area – (area of canal +area of
road) = 25646.5 – (495.00+772.8) = 24378.7m2

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 118

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

5. Earthwork for road fill and for the excavation of the canal are determined as
follows:

b. Volume of earth required for road fill = Cross-sectional area of road fill x
length of road
=
(4.2 + 3.5) × 0.30 × 184 = 212.52m 2
2

Depth of cut required from the entire area of field for the required borrow

volume of earthwork 212.52

= = m = 0.0087 m
Net area of field 24378.7

c. Volume of excavated earth from drainage canal

= cross- sectional area x length

=
(5.5 + 1) × 1.5 × 90 = 438.75m 2
2
Height of earth fills resulting from the spreading of the excavated earth in the net area of field
Volume of excavation 438.75
= = = 0.018 m
Net area of field 24378.7

6. Design elevation of centroid

= Average elevation of field – depth of shrinkage – depth of

Borrow + height of excavated earth

= 1.973-0.010-0.0087+0.018 = 1.972m

7. With the design elevation of the centroid, the elevation of the grid points and
computed so as to obtain a downfield gradient of 0.4 percent and cross slope of 0.02
percent.

The grid point B3 may be taken as the reference point.

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 119

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

0.4(150 − 90 ) 0.02(85.71 − 60 )
Elevation of B3 = 1.972 + +
100 100

0.4 × 15 0.02 × 25.71

= 1.972 + +
100 100

= 1.972 + 0.060 + 0.005 = 2.037 m

The elevation of all grid points on line B, to the left of B3 is obtained by progressively
0.4
adding × 30 = 0.12m to each succeeding point. Thus, the design elevation of
100

B2 = 2.037+0.12=2.157 and of B1=2.157+0.12=2.277m.

The elevations of all points to the right of B3 are obtained by subtracting progressively
0.12m from each grid point from the elevation of the previous point on the left. Thus, the
design elevation of

B4=2.037-0.12=1.917m, of B5=1.917-0.12=1.797m and so on.

0.02
The design elevations of points on line A can be determined by adding × 30 = 0.006m to
100
the elevation of the corresponding point on line B. similarly, the design elevation of all points
on line C can be determined by subtracting 0.006m from the elevations of the corresponding
points on line B. The elevations of points on line C are obtained by subtracting 0.006m from
the corresponding elevations on line D and so on. The design elevations, thus obtained, are
shown on Fig. 5.6.

8) The cut or fill at each grid point is determined by a comparison of the original and
design elevations.
The values are entered at the entered at the corresponding grid point (Fig. 5.5). The total
cuts and fills fro each column are shown below the corresponding columns. Referring to
Fig.5.5

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 120

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

ΣCut = 1.646
ΣFill = 1.608
1.646
Cut − fill ratio =
1.608
= 1.024
(Note: If a higher value of the cut-fill ratio is desired, a larger value of shrinkage depth may be
assumed and the problem solved again).

LASER LAND LEVELING

The advent of the laser-controlled land leveling equipment has marked one of the most
significant advances in surface irrigation technology. One such system is shown in Figure
below. It has four essential elements: (1) the laser emitter; (2) the laser sensor; (3) the
electronic and hydraulic control system; and (4) the tractor and grading implement.

Figure 5.7 Laser Land Levelling equipment

The laser emission device, like that pictured in Figure above, involves a battery operated
laser beam generator which rotates at relatively high speed on an axis normal to the field
plane. This rotating beam thereby effectively creates a plane of laser light above the field
which can be used as the levelling reference rather than the elevation survey at discrete grid
points in conventional land levelling techniques. Various beam generators are equipped with

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 121

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

self-adjustment mechanisms that allow the plane of the beam to be aligned in any
longitudinal or latitudinal slope desired. This reference plane of laser light is an extremely
advantageous factor in the levelling operation because it is not affected by the earth
movement, does not require a field survey to establish the high and low spots, and does not
require the operator to judge the magnitude of cuts and fills. The distance between the laser
beam and the earth surface is defined such that deviations from this distance become the
cuts and fills. With laser systems, there is little or no need for the exhaustive engineering
calculations of the conventional approach. The cost of levelling is usually contracted on the
basis of money per equipment hour. The laser emitter is generally located on a tripod or
other tower-like structure on or near the field and at an elevation such that the laser beam
rotates above any obstructions on the field as well as the levelling equipment itself. The
beam is targeted and received by a light sensor mounted on a mast attached to the land
grading implement. The sensor is actually a series of detectors situated vertically so that as
the grading implement moves up or down, the light is detected above or below the centre
detector. This information is transmitted to the control system which actuates the hydraulic
system to raise or lower the implement until the light again strikes the centre detector. It is in
this manner that the sensor on the mast is continually aligned with the plane on the laser
beam and thereby references the moving equipment with the beam. It is important to note
that the sensitivity of the laser sensor system is at least 10 to 50 times more precise than the
visual judgement and manual hydraulic control of an operator on the tractor. Consequently,
the land levelling operation is correspondingly more accurate. The skill of the operator is
substantially less critical to the levelling which allows farmers and other personnel access to
the land grading equipment.

The electronic and hydraulic control systems generally have two operating modes. In the
first, or observation mode, the mast itself moves up or down according to the undulations in
the field as the operator drives the equipment over the field in a grid-like fashion. The monitor
in the tractor yields elevation data from which the operator can determine average field
elevations and slopes. In other words, the system operates as a self-contained surveying
system. In this mode, the blade of the grading implement is fixed in place and only the sensor
mast moves. In the second mode, or planning mode, the mast position is fixed relative to the
implement blade which is then raised or lowered in response to the land topography. The
beam plane is located the appropriate distance above the field centroid and at the desired
slopes. By adjusting the height of the mast sensor relative to this plane and the centroid, the
cutting and filling is accomplished simply by driving the tractor over the field. However, in
many cases, the depth of cuts will exceed the depth which can be cut with the power of the
tractor and the operator must override the automatic controls in order to keep the equipment
operating.

The fourth element of the levelling system is the tractor - grading implement combination.
This equipment is generally standard agricultural tractors and land graders in which the
hydraulic and control systems have been modified to operate under the supervision of the
electronic controller supplied with the laser emitter and sensor devices. The tractor needs to
be carefully selected so that it is not under-powered and its hydraulic system is strong
enough to work with the laser-imposed frequency of movements and adjustments. The
grading implement can be as simple as a land plane which scrapes the earth and moves only

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 122

Surface Irrigation ( IE 431 ) Chapter 1: Introduction

as much as can be pushed in front of the blade or a complex piece of equipment which loads
and carries earth. The former is used primarily for small levelling jobs, smoothing and repeat
grading. The latter is usually better for initial levelling where cuts are larger and in the
preparation of level basins where the cuts are also larger than in bordered or furrowed fields.

As a final note on levelling in general and laser levelling is particular, it is probable that the
importance of accurate field grading has been under estimated. The precision improves
irrigation uniformity and efficiency and as a result the productivity of water and land. On large
fields, the improved productivity has been shown to pay economic dividends that easily
exceed the cost of the levelling. However, the equipment is expensive and quite beyond all
but the largest of farmers. In the developing countries, laser-guided equipment is being
demonstrated and tested. There remains the solution as to how such equipment can be
made useful for the small farmer.

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho October 2008 123