CHAPTER The Digestive System

10
Specific Expectations
In this chapter, you will learn how to . . .
• E1.1 evaluate the importance of various
technologies to our understanding of
internal body systems

• E1.2 assess how societal needs

lead to scientific and technological
developments related to internal
systems

• E2.1 use appropriate terminology related

to animal anatomy

• E3.2 explain the anatomy of the

digestive system and the importance of
digestion in providing nutrients needed
for energy and growth

• E3.4 describe some disorders related to

the digestive system.

In the spring of 2008, Sebastien Sasseville was on top of the world—

literally. On that day, he became the first Canadian with diabetes
to reach the top of Mount Everest. Diabetes is a common disease
that affects the proper functioning of a key organ of the digestive
system, the pancreas. The pancreas releases a chemical called insulin
that enables cells to take in the glucose released from food during
digestion. Cells require glucose for energy. If diabetes is not carefully
monitored and treated, it can cause irreversible organ damage or
even death.
Until the early 1990s, people with diabetes had to monitor
the amount of glucose in their blood constantly and manage their
disease by injecting themselves daily with insulin. Today, thanks to
technological advances, many people like Sebastien can replace daily
injections with a more convenient and reliable insulin pump that
releases the chemical directly into their bloodstream. You will learn
more about this technology as you read this chapter.

400 MHR • Unit 4 Animals: Structure and Function

 Launch Activity

I Can See Right through You

One of the oldest, least expensive, and still most often-used technologies
for peering inside and imaging the body is the X-ray machine. X-ray
technology is a fast and non-invasive tool that enables doctors to view and
diagnose abnormalities in body tissues, organs, teeth and bones, and even
blood flow. Standard X rays do not require any special preparation of the
patient. For X rays of the digestive system, the person is normally given
a barium sulfate solution to drink. Barium sulfate shows up white on
the X-ray image and outlines the digestive tract, showing the shapes of
the esophagus, stomach, and intestines. The barium solution collects
in the abnormal areas, revealing ulcers, tumours, and other abnormalities
such as enlarged organs. In this activity, you will test how many organs
you can identify from an X-ray image.

Procedure
1. Examine the coloured X-ray image. Sketch and label all
the organs and body parts that you can see or recognize.
2. On your sketch, add any other organs and body parts that
you know or can recall.

Questions
1. Compare your sketch with those of others in the class.
Modify your sketch or labels as necessary.
2. Based on memory or personal knowledge, briefly describe the
function of all the organs on your sketch. Write unsure for those
you do not know or recall. Return to your sketch throughout
this unit to assess your understanding and modify your sketch.

Chapter 10 The Digestive System • MHR 401

 SECTION
The Function of Digestion
10.1
Key Terms Macromolecules and Living Systems
Figure 10.1 shows the three main fluid compartments of the body: the cytoplasm inside
macromolecule
the cells, the fluid between the cells (the interstitial fluid), and the fluid in the blood.
metabolism
The fluid in these compartments is mostly water, which makes up more than 60 percent
essential nutrient
of the body. These compartments also contain and are composed of thousands of
monosaccharide
different kinds of molecules and ions. Some of these molecules and ions—such as
disaccharide
water, phosphates, hydrogen ions, and sodium ions—are small and simple. They are
polysaccharide
inorganic (non-living) matter.
glycogen
lipid volume of fluid inside cells volume of fluid outside cells
(intracellular fluid) = 27 L-30 L (extracellular fluid) = 14 L-16.5 L
amino acid
peptide bond
polypeptide cell capillary
hydrolysis membrane wall

enzyme
volume of fluid volume of fluid in
alimentary canal cytoplasm between all cells blood plasma
of the body (liquid portion of
mechanical digestion = 11 L-13 L blood) = 3.0 L-3.5 L
chemical digestion

Figure 10.1 Distribution of body fluids in the adult human. These fluids are mostly water, and
they move freely in and out of the cell in both directions.

Other molecules, called organic molecules, contain carbon bonded to hydrogen,

macromolecule a very
large molecule made as well as to other atoms, such as oxygen, sulfur, and nitrogen. Larger, more complex
up of smaller molecules assemblies of organic molecules, called macromolecules, are also known as nutrients.
that are linked together These nutrients are the raw materials that our bodies need to provide energy, to
metabolism the regulate cellular activities, and to build and repair tissues. Regardless of their size or
sum total of all of the complexity, all organisms require nutrients to perform their life functions and to obtain
chemical reactions that
occur in an organism
energy for survival.
Macromolecules are often grouped into four major categories: carbohydrates, lipids
essential nutrient
a nutrient that cannot (such as fats), proteins, and nucleic acids. Energy released from these macromolecules,
be made by the body, and matter supplied by them, is used to maintain the body’s metabolism—all the
and must therefore be chemical processes carried out by cells to maintain life.
obtained from food
Together, the four major categories of macromolecules are known as essential
nutrients. Table 10.1 summarizes the four categories of macromolecules and their
main functions in the body. Read on to learn more about macromolecules and how the
human digestive system breaks down the macromolecules in the food we eat into forms
that our bodies can use.

Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are macromolecules that always contain carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen—and almost always in the same proportion: two atoms of hydrogen and
one atom of oxygen for every atom of carbon. Carbohydrates provide short-term or
long-term energy storage for organisms. There are two main types of carbohydrates:
simple sugars and polysaccharides.

402 MHR • Unit 4 Animals: Structure and Function

Table 10.1 Four Major Categories of Macromolecules
Macromolecule Main Functions Examples
Carbohydrates • provide materials to build cell membranes glucose, fructose, lactose,
• provide quick energy for use by cells maltose, starch, glycogen,
cellulose
Lipids • store energy reserves for later use by cells fats, oils, waxes
• cushion and insulate internal organs
• provide materials to build cell membranes
Proteins • provide structure and support for blood cells, insulin, hemoglobin,
body tissues, and muscles collagen, antibodies,
• aid in muscle movements, such as contraction enzymes
• act as catalysts to speed up chemical reactions
in the cells
• provide immunity against infection and disease
• transport ions in cell membranes
Nucleic acids • contain the organism’s genetic information deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA),
• direct the organism’s growth ribonucleic acid (RNA)

Monosaccharides
Simple sugars, or monosaccharides (mono means one; sacchar means sugar), are
monosaccharide a
carbohydrate molecules with three to seven carbon atoms (and the corresponding simple sugar with three
number of hydrogen and oxygen atoms). Examples of monosaccharides are glucose to seven carbon atoms
(the sugar found in blood) and fructose (the sugar found in fruit). Disaccharides, disaccharide
or double sugars, are made up of two simple sugars (di means two). Some common a sugar made up of
disaccharides are sucrose (table sugar), maltose (the sugar found in germinating grain), two monosaccharide
molecules
and lactose (the sugar found in dairy products).
polysaccharide
Polysaccharides a large molecule made
up of many linked
Complex carbohydrates that consist of many linked simple sugars are called
monosaccharide
polysaccharides (poly means many). Examples are starch, cellulose, and glycogen, molecules
a polysaccharide made up of glucose sub-units. Starch performs the important function glycogen a
of storing energy in plants. Glycogen performs the same function in animals. polysaccharide made
up of glucose units
Lipids
Lipids are a group of macromolecules that have one important property in common:
lipid an organic
they are insoluble in water. The basic structure of lipids is a molecule of glycerol compound that does
(an alcohol) consisting of three carbon atoms, each attached to a fatty acid chain not dissolve in water,
(an acid with a long tail of carbon and hydrogen atoms). Lipids store 2.25 times more such as fat and oil
energy per gram than other biological molecules; therefore, some lipids function as amino acid a building
energy-storage molecules. Other lipids, called phospholipids, form the membrane block of protein
that separates a cell from its external environment. Examples of lipids are fats, such peptide bond a bond
that holds together the
as butter and lard, and oils, such as olive oil and safflower oil.
amino acids in a protein
polypeptide a linear
Proteins chain of several amino
Proteins are assembled from small sub-units that are known as amino acids. Most acids linked by peptide
protein molecules are made up of hundreds of amino acids joined together by peptide bonds
bonds into one or more chains. These chains are called polypeptides. Most enzymes
are proteins, and so are antibodies, which combat disease. Proteins help build and repair
muscles and cell membranes.

Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids direct growth and development of all organisms using a chemical code. The
two types of nucleic acids are ribonucleic acid (RNA) and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).

Chapter 10 The Digestive System • MHR 403

 Breaking Down Macromolecules: Enzymes
Before the body can use carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins, these large macromolecules
hydrolysis a chemical
reaction in which must be chemically broken down into molecules small enough to be absorbed by the cells
water breaks apart lining the small intestine. The process that carries out this chemical breakdown is called
macromolecules into hydrolysis (hydro is Greek for water, and lysis means to loosen). During hydrolysis, a
smaller molecules water molecule is added to the macromolecule (the carbohydrate, protein, or lipid);
enzyme a protein this breaks the chemical bonds that hold together the smaller molecules from which
molecule that helps
speed up important
the macromolecule is made. This breakdown of the chemical bonds involves a special
chemical reactions in class of protein molecules called enzymes, which are secreted by cells in the digestive
the body tract. Enzymes act as catalysts, which are substances that increase the rate of chemical
reactions without being used up in the reactions. There are three main types of digestive
enzymes, each of which breaks down one type of macromolecule, as shown in Table 10.2.
Table 10.2 Types of Digestive Enzymes
Type of Enzyme Macromolecule It Breaks Down Product of Breakdown Example of Enzyme and Where It Functions
Carbohydrase Carbohydrate Simple sugars Amylase: produced in the salivary glands and
functions in the mouth
Lipase Lipid Glycerol (an alcohol) Pancreatic lipase: produced in the pancreas and
and fatty acids functions in the small intestine
Protease Protein Amino acids Pepsin: produced by stomach glands and
functions in the stomach
Nuclease Nucleic acid Nucleotides Pancreatic nuclease: produced in the pancreas
and functions in the small intestine

Digestive enzymes help to speed up the process of hydrolysis, which is shown in

Figure 10.2. You will learn more about enzymes and their roles in digestion later in
this chapter.
Figure 10.2 Large food
Carbohydrate
molecules are split into
smaller molecules by
hydrolysis. Specific enzymes
speed up these reactions. polysaccharide + water Carbohydrase
After hydrolysis, the smaller
molecules can pass through disaccharide + water monosaccharide molecules
cell membranes.
Lipid

Lipase
glycerol fatty acid
lipid + water molecules molecules
Protein

Protease

protein + water amino acid molecules

Nucleic Acid

Nuclease

nucleic acid + water nucleotides

404 MHR • Unit 4 Animals: Structure and Function

The Vital Roles of Minerals and Vitamins
Other substances that are vital to life, in varying amounts, are minerals and vitamins.
Minerals and vitamins are inorganic and organic substances that enable chemical
reactions to occur and aid in tissue development, growth, and immunity. All of these
substances are needed by a healthy, functional human body. Table 10.3 shows some
minerals and vitamins, and their functions in the human body.
Table 10.3 Functions and Possible Sources of Selected Vitamins and Minerals
Key Functions in the Body Possible Sources
Mineral
magnesium: dark,
Calcium • forming bone leafy greens
• conducting nerve signals
• contracting muscle
• clotting blood

Iron • producing hemoglobin

Magnesium • supporting enzyme functions calcium:
• producing protein dairy products
Potassium • conducting nerve signals
• contracting muscle potassium: grains
vitamin B1: beans
Sodium • conducting nerve signals
• balancing body fluid

Vitamin
vitamin D: fish
A (Carotene) • good vision
• healthy skin and bones iron: red meat

B1 (Thiamine) • metabolizing carbohydrates

• growth and muscle tone

C (Ascorbic acid) • healthy bones, teeth, gums, and blood vessels vitamins A, C,
• boosting immune system and E: fruit sodium: salt

D • absorbing calcium
• forming bone

E • strengthening red blood cell membranes

The Many Roles of Water in the Body

Water makes up about two thirds of the body’s mass and is needed
for the proper functioning of all cells and organs. Its many roles include
• transporting dissolved nutrients into the cells that line the small intestine
• flushing toxins from cells
• lubricating tissues and joints
• forming essential body fluids, such as blood and mucus
• regulating body temperature (by sweating)
• eliminating waste materials (in urine and sweat)
Water is vital for maintaining the body’s fluid balance, the condition in which the
amount of fluid lost from the body equals the amount of fluid taken in. A constant
supply of water is needed to replenish the fluids lost to normal, daily bodily functions.
An average adult produces 1.5 litres (6.3 cups) of urine per day and loses about 1 litre
of water through the breath, perspiration, urine, and bowel movements.

Chapter 10 The Digestive System • MHR 405

 Activity 10.1 How Do You Take Your Macromolecules?

There are two main reasons why food spoils: the growth Procedure
of microorganisms (mostly bacteria and fungi) and the 1. Choose one example each of a food that is mostly
breakdown of fats, which makes foods rancid. Bacteria carbohydrate, fat, or protein that you have on hand
need water to grow in, and the earliest food preservation at home.
technologies involved drying and smoking foods to remove
the water and kill any potential bacteria or parasites. 2. Examine the items, their ingredient lists, and the
A variety of techniques to preserve foods are used today. packaging for clues to how each has been preserved for
Some are improvements on old technologies, some are best long-term storage.
suited to particular types of foods, and a combination of
techniques is often used. Most techniques simply prolong Questions
the “shelf life” of the food. No technique is perfect, but some 1. Create a table and list each of the foods and the
are better than others at preserving the nutrients in food. technologies used to preserve them.
Salt, one of the earliest food preservatives, is still in use and
2. Choose one of the foods and use library resources or the
is currently being targeted by physicians as a cause of high
Internet to research the method behind the technology
blood pressure. A more modern technology—the use of
or combination of technologies used to preserve the
trans fats—was thought to solve the problem of food going
food, and why the technique works.
rancid, but it is being re-evaluated amid charges that it
causes heart disease. 3. Describe the advantages of this technology.
Other techniques fall into broad categories of lowering
4. Describe the disadvantages of this technology.
the pH, raising the temperature, lowering the temperature,
using preservative spices or chemicals as additives, and 5. Identify any chemical preservatives in the foods you have
sealing the food from air. One of the newer and more examined, and use the Internet to research the role of
controversial techniques is known as irradiation and the preservatives and any possible side effects.
involves treating the food with ionizing radiation.

Materials
• reference books
• computer with Internet access

Learning Check

1. What is the primary function of carbohydrates in 4. If an athlete runs for 15 minutes, which
the human body? macromolecules are likely to break down first in
2. What is the difference between a monosaccharide the athlete’s body?
and a disaccharide? Give an example of each. 5. Which macromolecules would provide the greatest
3. Explain how macromolecules are broken down for benefit as a long-term energy storage molecule to
use in the body, as shown in Figure 10.2. a bird that migrates long distances?
6. Name three of the functions of proteins in the
human body.

406 MHR • Unit 4 Animals: Structure and Function

How Animals Obtain Their Food
As discussed in Chapter 1, some organisms, known as autotrophs, obtain energy
by making their own food, usually using sunlight. Other organisms, known as
heterotrophs, must consume other organisms to obtain energy-yielding food. Animals
cannot produce their own food, so they use a wide variety of processes and behaviours
to search for, obtain, and take in their food. Despite their many shapes, sizes, and food
preferences, all animals obtain their food through one of four means, called feeding
mechanisms. These feeding mechanisms include filter feeding, substrate feeding, fluid
feeding, or (as humans do) bulk feeding. The four types of feeding mechanisms are
shown in Table 10.4. By observing the mouth or other feeding device of an organism, it
is usually possible to tell what type of feeder it is.
Table 10.4 Animal Feeding Mechanisms
Description Example
Filter feeders are aquatic animals that use a body tube sponge
structure similar to a filter basket to gather organisms,
such as protists, bacteria, and the larvae of many
aquatic animals, suspended in the surrounding water.
The filter feeder siphons water into its mouth and
then filters it to obtain small organisms to digest. The
tube sponge is a filter feeder. Other examples include
flamingoes, tube worms, clams, barnacles, and baleen
whales.

Substrate feeders live in or on their food source and caterpillar

eat their way through it. Examples of substrate feeders
include caterpillars and earthworms. Caterpillars
eat their way through the green tissues of leaves.
Earthworms eat their way through the soil, ingesting
soil particles containing partially decayed organic
material as they go.

Fluid feeders obtain food by sucking or licking butterfly

nutrient-rich fluids from live plants or animals. Fluid
feeders have mouth parts that are adapted to pierce or
rip skin or leaf tissue. The same or other mouth parts
are used to suck or lick the blood or sap that is their
food. Examples of fluid feeders include mosquitoes,
ticks, aphids, spiders, bees, butterflies, vampire bats,
and hummingbirds.

Bulk feeders include many animals and most

vertebrates (including humans). Bulk feeders ingest
fairly large pieces of food and some, like the great blue
heron, swallow their food whole. Other bulk feeders
use tentacles, pincers, claws, fangs, or jaws and teeth
to kill prey, to tear off pieces of meat or vegetation, or
to take in mouthfuls of animal or plant food.

great blue heron

Chapter 10 The Digestive System • MHR 407

 The Four Stages of Food Processing
After an animal has obtained its food, the nutrients in the food must get into the
individual cells of the animal’s body in a usable form. The essential function of an
animal’s digestive system is to break food down into small, soluble units that can
pass through cell membranes. The digestive system breaks down food into useful
substances that can be absorbed into the circulatory system. The circulatory system
(to be discussed in detail in Chapter 12) transports these substances to the individual
cells of the body.
Whatever an animal’s source of food, type of food, or feeding method, digestion
alimentary canal
the tube through which of food occurs in four stages:
food is processed, 1. ingestion—the taking in or eating of food
beginning at the mouth
and ending at the anus; 2. digestion—the breakdown of food by mechanical and chemical processes into
also known as the molecules small enough for cells of the body to absorb
digestive tract
3. absorption—the transport of the products of digestion from the digestive system
mechanical digestion into the circulatory system, which distributes them to the rest of the body
the physical breakdown
of large pieces of food 4. elimination—the removal of undigested solid waste matter from the body
into smaller pieces in
the mouth by the action Digestion and the Alimentary Canal
of teeth, beak, or other
To digest their food, most animals have a digestive tract that consists of a long open
similar structures, and
by contractions and tube. This tube, called the alimentary canal, has a mouth at one end to ingest food
churning motions in the and an anus at the other end to eliminate waste. As food moves along this tube,
stomach different organs of the digestive system process the food in different ways—rather like
chemical digestion a production line in a factory.
the chemical breakdown
of nutrient molecules One example of an open tube structure is the alimentary canal of the earthworm.
into smaller molecules In the earthworm, shown in Figure 10.3, food enters the mouth and passes into the
by enzyme action pharynx, or throat. The esophagus then channels the food into the crop, a pouch-like
organ in which food is softened and stored. The muscular gizzard churns and grinds
the food, and the food is further digested in the intestine.
crop
intestine

pharynx

gizzard

mouth anus
esophagus

Figure 10.3 The earthworm has a simple digestive tract. Decaying plant and animal matter in
the soil provides the earthworm with nutrients. Undigested materials pass through the tract and
are eliminated through the anus as worm castings.

In more complex animals, food enters the mouth and is physically broken apart
into smaller pieces by the teeth. The food is further broken apart as it moves along the
digestive tract by the muscular contractions of the tube itself. This process of physical
breakdown of the food into smaller bits is called mechanical digestion.
At the same time, various fluid-releasing glands in the mouth and further along
the digestive tract add liquid and enzymes that help to break down the macromolecules
of food into smaller molecules. This breakdown of macromolecules by enzymes is
the process known as chemical digestion. Figure 10.4 shows a simple overview of the
digestive process in a typical mammal.

408 MHR • Unit 4 Animals: Structure and Function

 Nutrient molecules
absorbed by cells Undigested
Breakdown into solid waster
smaller molecules
Figure 10.4 The four main stages
Pieces Chemical of food processing in animals are:
of food digestion
(1) ingestion, the intake of food; (2)
digestion, the breakdown of food into
small molecules; (3) absorption, the
Mechanical
digestion transport of nutrient molecules across
cell membranes; and (4) elimination,
the expulsion of undigested waste.

The Length of the Digestive Tract

Although the function of the digestive system is the same in all animals, the length
of the digestive tract varies according to the feeding habits of the species. Herbivores
and omnivores (including humans) usually have longer digestive tracts, relative to
their body size, than carnivores. For example, compare the digestive tracts of a rabbit
(a herbivore) and a fox (a carnivore) in Figure 10.5. Because the cellulose walls in plant
tissues are more difficult to digest than animal tissues, most herbivores have relatively
longer digestive tracts, which allows the extra time needed for digestion. In Section 10.2,
you will focus on the structure and function of the human digestive tract.

Herbivore Carnivore

fox
rabbit

esophagus

stomach

Herbivores
have longer small
intestines. Carnivores
have shorter
small intestines.
cecum

large intestine

anus

Figure 10.5 The digestive tract of a small herbivore, such as a rabbit, is longer than that of a small carnivore,
such as a fox. In both digestive tracts you can see the cecum, a pouch at the beginning of the large intestine
that receives waste material from the small intestine.
Infer What might account for the relative difference in the size of the cecum between these two animals?

Chapter 10 The Digestive System • MHR 409

 Section 10.1 RE V IE W

Section Summary
• There are four major categories of macromolecules that • Water helps transport materials around the body,
contain the essential nutrients needed to maintain life: lubricate joints, form vital fluids such as blood, and
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. regulate body temperature.
• Macromolecules are chemically broken down by • To digest their food, most animals have a digestive tract
hydrolysis, a process that uses certain enzymes that consists of a tube known as the alimentary canal.
as catalysts. • The four stages of food processing in animals are
ingestion, digestion (mechanical and chemical),
absorption, and elimination.

Review Questions
1. K/U What are the four major macromolecules that 11. A Use the information in Table 10.3 to answer the
are needed by the body, and why are they important? following questions.
2. K/U Summarize the functions of lipids in the body. a. Which vitamin is involved in the absorption of
calcium from foods?
3. C Use Tables 10.1 and 10.2 to create a graphic
organizer, such as a spider map, to show the four major b. Identify a vitamin that would be useful to take for
macromolecules. For each grouping, include a list of night blindness.
the characteristics that define the grouping, including c. What vitamin deficiency could lead to bone
structure, function, examples, and the digestive malformations?
enzymes that make them usable by the body. 12. T/I To prevent cramping during a soccer match,

4. C Use what you have learned so far in this chapter an athlete is advised to eat a banana and drink a glass
to make a Venn diagram that compares and contrasts of milk before the game. Explain why these foods
monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. might be helpful in preventing cramps.
5. C Create an analogy to explain to another student 13. A Classify the following organisms as filter feeders,
why a polysaccharide is considered a long-term source fluid feeders, substrate feeders, or bulk feeders.
of energy, while a monosaccharide is considered a a. An animal that feeds on plant sap has a long,
short-term source of energy. beak-like mouthpart that can pierce plant tissues.
6. T/I A dessert topping for ice cream contains b. An animal eats its way through the upper surface of
maltose, soybean oil, and salt. Identify the kinds of a leaf.
macromolecules and minerals that are in this topping. c. An animal captures its prey with its teeth and tears
off pieces of meat.
7. T/I Why must macromolecules be broken down
d. An aquatic animal has gills in which mucus traps
into smaller molecules during digestion?
food.
8. K/U In your own words, describe the structure of
14. T/I A biologist studying the alimentary canal in
a protein.
animals notices that herbivores such as deer have an
9. T/I Explain why humans cannot survive for more
enlarged cecum, whereas carnivores like foxes have a
than a few days without drinking water. small cecum or none at all. The researcher also finds
10. C Copy the table below into your notebook and that the cecum hosts a high concentration of bacteria.
complete it. Refer to Figure 10.4 to help you. Give your How might the concentration of bacteria be related to
table a title. the size of the cecum in herbivores?
Part of digestive 15. C Use a graphic organizer, such as a flowchart,
tract where
Process Definition process occurs to show clearly how the words digestion, elimination,
absorption, and ingestion are related.
Chemical
digestion 16. A Using your knowledge of evolution from Unit 3,
Mechanical explain why so there is so much diversity in feeding
digestion mechanisms in animals.

410 MHR • Unit 4 Animals: Structure and Function

 SECTION
The Human Digestive System
10.2
The human digestive system, like other body systems, is made up of a group of organs Key Terms
working together. The digestive tract and the organs associated with it are shown
salivary glands
in Figure 10.6. In this section, you will learn about the structure and function of the
saliva
digestive system, and how each part of this system plays a role in transforming food into
the energy and materials the body needs to survive. esophagus
peristalsis
Accessory Organs The Digestive Tract gastric juice
(structures that (organs that
chyme
aid digestion) contain food)
pepsin
salivary glands
duodenum
mouth
villi
liver jejunum
esophagus
ileum
bile
gall bladder stomach

pancreas small intestine

large intestine

rectum

anus

parotid gland

accessory parotid gland

parotid duct
sublingual gland

submandibular gland

Figure 10.6 The digestive tract and associated organs Figure 10.7 Each parotid gland and submandibular
take up a significant portion of the space in a human body. gland release saliva into the mouth through the parotid
The small intestine is over 6 m long and 2.5 cm in diameter. duct and the submandibular duct. The sublingual glands
The large intestine is about 1.5 m long and 5 cm in diameter. release saliva into the mouth through many smaller ducts.

Parts of the Human Digestive System

The specialized organs in the human digestive tract start with the first point of
salivary glands glands
contact—the mouth. Even before you take your first bite of food, the smell or sight of in the mouth that
food can trigger the salivary glands, shown in Figure 10.7, to secrete a watery fluid produce saliva to begin
called saliva into the mouth. There are three pairs of salivary glands in the mouth. the chemical digestion
Chemical digestion begins with saliva. Saliva contains an enzyme called amylase of food
that starts to break down the starches in food into simpler sugars. Saliva dissolves saliva a watery
secretion in the mouth
water-soluble food particles. It stimulates the taste buds, making it possible to taste the that begins the digestive
flavours of the food. It also lubricates the food to make it easier to swallow. Mechanical process
digestion also begins in the mouth as your teeth bite, tear, and grind food into smaller
pieces. This mechanical action also exposes more of the surface area of the food to the
saliva, making it more accessible for chemical digestion.

Chapter 10 The Digestive System • MHR 411

 The Esophagus
As you chew your food, your tongue helps mould and smooth it into a soft mass, called
esophagus the
muscular tube through a bolus, that the tongue then pushes to the back of your mouth. When you swallow, the
which food passes bolus enters the top of the esophagus to begin its passage to your stomach. The opening
from the mouth to the of the esophagus lies next to the opening of your windpipe, or trachea, which carries
stomach air to and from your lungs. To prevent food from going down the wrong tube and
peristalsis a wave-like choking you when you swallow, the opening of the trachea is closed by a valve called
series of muscular
contractions in the
the epiglottis when you swallow.
esophagus The esophagus is a hollow muscular tube that transports each bolus of food to
the stomach in a series of wave-like muscular contractions called peristalsis, shown
in Figure 10.8. Glands in the lining of the esophagus produce mucus, which keeps the
passage moist and aids in swallowing. The entrance to the stomach is controlled by
a ring of muscle called the esophageal sphincter. This sphincter is normally closed to
prevent the acidic contents of the stomach from backing up into the esophagus, but it
relaxes to allow each bolus of food to enter the stomach.
A C

to stomach

longitudinal muscle circular muscle Contraction of longitudinal

muscles ahead of food mass
contraction
raa
B D

Contraction of circular muscles Contraction in circular muscle

behind food mass layer forces food mass forward

Figure 10.8 Peristalsis moves food through the esophagus by means of muscular contractions.
When you vomit, or “throw up” your stomach contents, the contractions of the esophagus are
reversed. Similarly, small amounts of acidic liquid can escape from the stomach and move up
the esophagus into your throat. This is experienced as a burning sensation in the throat or chest,
commonly called heartburn or acid reflux.

Activity 10.2 Modelling Peristalsis

In this activity, you will design and construct a working model 3. As a group, discuss the possible ways you might use the
to demonstrate how the esophagus uses muscular action materials to construct your model.
to move food along from the throat to the stomach. Could
4. Construct your model and use it to demonstrate the
someone swallow a mouthful of juice while upside down?
process of peristalsis.
Safety Precautions 5. When you are finished your demonstration, clean the
materials and leave them out to dry.

• Inform your teacher if you have any allergies to soaps or Questions

detergents. 1. How are the textile fibres in the stocking analogous to
the muscle fibres in the esophagus? Hint: Refer to
Materials Figure 10.8 to help you with your answer.
• knee-high nylon stocking • liquid soap or detergent
• tennis ball • hand lens 2. What was the function of the water and soap in this
• water • scissors model? What two secretions serve the same function in
the esophagus?
Procedure 3. As an optional extension to this activity, create a flipbook
1. Examine the materials provided by your teacher. to illustrate peristalsis so that a younger student could
2. Review the section on the esophagus, and refer to understand this process.
Figure 10.8 to help you with this activity.

412 MHR • Unit 4 Animals: Structure and Function

The Stomach
The stomach is a muscular, J-shaped organ in which food is temporarily stored while
gastric juice a mixture
further chemical and mechanical digestion takes place. This organ lies on the left side of hydrochloric acid,
of the abdominal cavity, just below the diaphragm [DIH-uh-fram], which is the sheet salts, enzymes, water,
of muscle that separates the heart, lungs, and ribs from the abdominal cavity. The walls and mucus that is
of the stomach are folded like an accordion, allowing the stomach to expand after a produced by glands in
the stomach to help
meal, as shown in Figure 10.9. The stomach is lined with millions of gastric glands that digest food
secrete gastric juice when stimulated by the presence of food. Gastric juice is made up
of hydrochloric acid, salts, enzymes, water, and mucus. The mucus coats the walls of
the stomach, protecting it from attack by the strongly acidic gastric juice. The rest of the
gastric juice continues the chemical digestion of the food.
food stored in this area

esophageal
sphincter

three muscle
layers (churn
and mix food)
pyloric sphincter (controls flow
of chyme into the small intestine)

food mixed and

beginning part of churned in this area
small intestine
folds inside stomach (enable stomach to
stretch and contract)

Figure 10.9 Folds in the stomach wall allow it to expand and contract as it fills with food and
then empties its contents into the small intestine.

The stomach has three layers of muscle fibres that contract and then relax to churn chyme a thick liquid
and mechanically break up pieces of food and mix them with the gastric juice. The produced in the
result of this churning and mixing is a thick liquid called chyme [kihm]. At the lower stomach and made of
end of the stomach is a muscular valve called the pyloric sphincter. When closed, this digested food combined
with gastric juice
valve keeps food in the stomach.
The stomach usually does not digest the proteins that make up its own cells, pepsin an enzyme in
gastric juice that helps
because it has three methods of protection. First, the stomach secretes little gastric juice break down proteins
until food is present. Second, some stomach cells secrete mucus, which prevents gastric into polypeptides
juice from harming the cells of the stomach lining. Third, the stomach produces its
protein-digesting enzyme, pepsin, in a form that remains inactive until hydrochloric
acid is present. Once active, pepsin hydrolyzes proteins to yield polypeptides—a first
step in protein digestion in the digestive tract.
The stomach is surrounded by a network of nerves that help regulate the activities of SuggestedInvestigation
the digestive system. These nerves initiate the stomach contractions that release partially
ThoughtLab Investigation
digested food into the small intestine. When the small intestine is full and still digesting
10-A, An Accident and an
food, the stomach temporarily stores the chyme. When processed food has moved out of Opportunity
the small intestine into the large intestine, the pyloric sphincter opens and the stomach
pushes chyme into the first part of the small intestine—the duodenum.

Chapter 10 The Digestive System • MHR 413

 Learning Check

7. Describe where the digestion of carbohydrates 10. If a person has the mumps, their submandibular
begins in the body, the major glands involved, and glands are swollen. Analyze Figure 10.7, and decide
the digestive secretions produced. which part of the body a doctor would examine to
8. Using Figure 10.8, explain how peristalsis works in help diagnose the mumps.
the esophagus and its function in digestion. 11. A doctor orders a pH test of the esophagus for a
9. Analyze whether the epiglottis is closed and patient who is complaining about having heartburn
covering the trachea or open in the following and a burning sensation in the chest. What do you
situations, and explain why: expect the doctor to find and why? Use Figure 10.9
a. when the person is talking to identify the source of this problem.
b. when the person is swallowing 12. Using your knowledge of basic chemistry from
c. when the person is coughing previous studies, how do over-the-counter antacids,
d. when the person is chewing such as calcium carbonate, help an individual with a
gastroesophageal discomfort, such as stomach pain?

The Small Intestine

The small intestine is the part of the alimentary canal in which digestion is completed—
duodenum a short,
wide U-shaped section that is, the nutrient macromolecules are finally broken down into their component
of the small intestine molecules. The nutrients are then absorbed through the membranes of the cells that
into which food passes line the small intestine, and they pass from the digestive system into the circulatory
from the stomach system. The circulatory system carries the nutrients to cells and tissues throughout the
villi finger-like rest of the body.
projections lining the
surface of the small
intestine that increase The Duodenum
the surface area to The small intestine looks like a long, folded tube divided into three main regions. The
improve the absorption first region after the stomach is the U-shaped duodenum. To speed up the process of
of nutrients absorption, the walls of the small intestine are lined by folds that greatly increase the
surface area through which nutrients can be absorbed. The folds are covered by tiny,
finger-like projections called villi (singular villus). Each villus, in turn, is covered with
many fine brush-like microvilli, as shown in Figure 10.10. As food passes through the
duodenum, it receives secretions from two organs that support the function of the
digestive system: the pancreas and the gall bladder.

Figure 10.10 The lining of small intestine villi

the duodenum is arranged duodenum
in circular folds. Each fold
is covered in tiny villi and
microvilli, through which
the absorption of nutrients
into the bloodstream
takes place.
microvilli

capillary
villus
network

nucleus

vein (carries
artery (carries nutrient-laden
oxygen-rich blood to the body,
blood to the villi) via the liver)
cell membrane

414 MHR • Unit 4 Animals: Structure and Function

The Jejunum and Ileum
Following the duodenum is a structure called the jejunum, which is about 2.5 m long
jejunum the portion of
and contains more folds than the duodenum. The jejunum breaks down the remaining the small intestine that
proteins and carbohydrates so the end products can be absorbed into the bloodstream. follows immediately
The ileum, which is about 3 m long, contains fewer and smaller villi than either the after the duodenum
duodenum or the jejunum. Its function is also to absorb nutrients, as well as to push ileum the portion of
the remaining undigested material into the large intestine. the small intestine that
follows immediately
after the jejunum
The Accessory Organs
bile a greenish-yellow
The pancreas and gall bladder are not part of the alimentary canal itself, but they fluid secreted by the
are connected to the canal by ducts, as shown in Figure 10.11. Because of this close liver that helps digest fat
association with the alimentary canal, the pancreas and gall bladder are referred to
as accessory organs. (An accessory is something that aids or provides support to
something else.) Fluids produced by the accessory organs are essential to the process
of digestion.

esophagus
liver

gall bladder
stomach
duodenum

small intestine
pancreas

Figure 10.11 The pancreas and gall bladder secrete enzymes necessary for digestion.

In an adult human, the pancreas secretes about 1 L of pancreatic fluid into the
duodenum each day. Pancreatic fluid contains numerous enzymes that chemically
digest carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. The fluid also contains bicarbonate, which is
very important to the function of the enzymes. The bicarbonate alters the pH of chyme
from strongly acidic (pH 1) to weakly basic (pH 8), thereby producing conditions in
which the enzymes in the pancreatic fluid can work most efficiently.
The liver is the largest internal organ of the human body. In an adult, it is the size of
a football, with a mass of about 1.5 kg. The main digestion-related secretion of the liver
is bile, a greenish-yellow fluid mixture that is made up of bile pigments and bile salts.
Bile pigments do not take part in digestion. They are waste products from the liver’s
destruction of old red blood cells, and they are eventually eliminated with the feces.
After bile is produced in the liver, it is sent to the gall bladder, which stores the
bile between meals. Bile contains bile salts that are essential for the digestion of
fats. Because fats are insoluble (that is, they cannot be dissolved) in water, they are
suspended in the chyme as small droplets—like the blobs of fats that float up if you put
a greasy dish in a sink of hot water. Bile salts act like detergent, physically breaking up
the fat droplets into smaller fat droplets, and suspending the smaller fat droplets so
they can disperse throughout the chyme. The many smaller fat droplets create a greater
surface area to be exposed for digestive enzymes to chemically break down the fats in
the small intestine: this makes it easier for the intestinal cells to absorb the fats.

Chapter 10 The Digestive System • MHR 415

 Chemical Digestion and Absorption
The bile and pancreatic fluid in the duodenum help break down carbohydrates,
proteins, and lipids into smaller molecules that can be absorbed into cells that line the
small intestine. Enzymatic digestion of macromolecules is performed by carbohydrases
(which digest carbohydrates), lipases (which digest fats), proteases (which digest larger
polypeptides), and nucleases (which digest nucleic acids). Figure 10.12 provides an
overview of the sites of digestion of the four categories of macromolecules and how
enzymes break them down step by step.

Complex Carbohydrates Proteins Fats Nucleic Acids

polysaccharides

salivary amylase

disaccharides
Mouth

proteins

pepsin

small
polypeptides
Stomach

polysaccharides and
smaller peptides fat droplets DNA and RNA
disaccharides
proteases (trypsin bile nucleases
and chymotrypsin)
carbohydrases
(pancreatic amylase, fat droplets
peptides nucleotides
sucrase, maltase, (emulsified)
and lactase) nucleosidases
peptidases lipases

Small nitrogen-containing
glycerol and
intestine monosaccharides amino acids bases, sugars,
fatty acids
and phosphates

Figure 10.12 An overview of chemical digestion and absorption in the small intestine.

Table 10.5 outlines some of the digestive enzymes and their digestive activities.
You may find it helpful to refer to Table 10.5 as you read about the digestion and
absorption of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids on the next few pages.

Table 10.5 Selected Enzymes of the Digestive System

Where Enzyme Nutrient Molecule
Enzyme Origin of Enzyme Acts/pH Digested Products of Digestion
Salivary amylase Salivary glands Mouth/7 Starch, glycogen Maltose (disaccharide)
Pancreatic amylase Pancreas Small intestine/8 Starch, glycogen Maltose
Carbohydrases Small intestine Small intestine/8
• sucrase Sucrose Glucose + fructose
• maltase Maltose Glucose
• lactase Lactose Glucose + galactose
Pancreatic lipase Pancreas Small intestine/8 Lipids Fatty acids and glycerol
Proteases
• pepsin Stomach Stomach/1–2 Protein Peptides
• trypsin Pancreas Small intestine/8 Small polypeptides Smaller peptides
• chymotrypsin Pancreas Small intestine/8 Small polypeptides Smaller peptides
Peptidases Pancreas and small intestine Small intestine/8 Peptides Smaller peptides and amino acids

416 MHR • Unit 4 Animals: Structure and Function

Factors That Affect Enzyme Action
Two factors, temperature and pH, can affect the rate at which an enzyme functions Enzyme Reaction
A
to break down complex molecules. More energy is added at higher temperatures, so by Temperature
the enzyme activity increases. The chemical bonds become too weak to maintain the

(product per unit of time)

enzyme’s shape. The enzyme becomes denatured, meaning that its molecular shape

Rate of Reaction
and structure (and, thus, its properties) are changed. (Think of the changes that occur
to egg white—a protein—when it is heated.) For most human enzymes, the optimal
temperature range is fairly narrow, peaking at about 37°C, as shown in Figure 10.13 (A).
Enzymes also function best within an optimal pH range. Some human enzymes
such as pepsin, shown in Figure 10.13 (B), function best at a low pH. Pepsin is found in
the acidic environment inside the stomach. However, most human enzymes, such as 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Temperature (°C)
trypsin, function best in pH environments of about pH 6 to 8. Trypsin is found in the
more neutral environment of the small intestine. Enzyme
B
Reaction by pH
Absorption in the Small Intestine

(product per unit of time)

Monosaccharides are absorbed into the bloodstream through the lining of the

Rate of Reaction
small intestine as shown in Figure 10.12. They are transported to the liver, where
monosaccharides (other than glucose) are converted into glucose. Glucose is
pepsin trypsin
carried from the liver to all parts of the body by the circulatory system, and is used
by cells as a source of energy. The liver converts excess glucose into glycogen, which
can be temporarily stored in the liver and, in much smaller amounts, in muscles.
When the body needs additional energy, some of the stored glycogen is converted 0 2 4 6 8 10
pH
back to glucose.
Like monosaccharides, amino acids are carried by the bloodstream from the
Figure 10.13 The proper
small intestine directly to the liver. In the liver, amino acids are processed by various functioning of an enzyme is
reactions and are either converted into sugars or used in energy-releasing chemical affected by (A) temperature
reactions. Some of the amino acids resulting from these reactions undergo a series of and (B) pH. Most enzymes in
humans, such as trypsin, which
further transformations in the liver, and become a part of a nitrogen-rich waste called
helps break down protein in
urea. Urea is filtered by the excretory system and expelled from the body in urine. the small intestine, work best
Other amino acids are carried by the circulatory system to the cells of the body, where at a temperature of about 40°C
they are used to make enzymes and other proteins such as keratin, which forms skin and within a pH range of 6 to 8.
and hair.
Glycerol and fatty acid molecules are absorbed into the cells of the small
intestine, where they are reassembled to form triglycerides. The triglycerides are
coated with proteins to make them water-soluble. Protein-coated triglycerides pass SuggestedInvestigation
from the cells of the small intestine into a network of vessels that transfer them into Inquiry Investigation 10-B,
the bloodstream. In the blood, the protein coating is removed and the triglycerides Optimum pH for Two
are broken down by lipase enzymes back to glycerol and fatty acids. These smaller Protease Enzymes
molecules provide energy to the cells.

Learning Check

13. Explain two functions of pancreatic fluid. 17. A family member has recently had a cholecystectomy,
14. What happens to fats before they are digested and a surgical procedure to remove his gall bladder. Now
absorbed by the intestinal cells? Explain why this he must take medication to prevent diarrhea. Why
occurs. would the removal of the gall bladder cause diarrhea?
15. Make a graphic organizer to show what happens to 18. A baby is born with a mutation that results in an
partially digested food after it leaves the stomach, up unusually smooth small intestine that has far fewer
to the stage where it leaves the small intestine. villi than a normal small intestine. Describe one
possible consequence of this mutation.
16. What is the role of the gall bladder in digestion?

Chapter 10 The Digestive System • MHR 417

 The Large Intestine
After the nutrients in digested food have been absorbed from the small intestine into
the bloodstream, the remaining material moves into the large intestine, or colon, shown
in Figure 10.14. This part of the digestive system is much shorter and wider than the
small intestine.
The main function of the large intestine is to absorb water from the alimentary
canal. About 90 percent of the water is absorbed back into the blood and extra-cellular
fluids. The volume of the indigestible food matter (mostly indigestible plant matter) is
therefore reduced by about two thirds.

Figure 10.14 This view of a healthy colon shows its high number of blood
vessels and its ring-like muscular wall. This image is of the final part of the
large intestine, where it joins to the rectum.

Billions of anaerobic bacteria (bacteria that do not live or grow in the presence of
oxygen) in the colon break down undigested matter further. Some of these bacteria
produce important vitamins, including folic acid, several B vitamins, and vitamin K,
which are absorbed into the bloodstream through the colon. The leftover matter forms
feces, which are pushed by muscular contractions of the colon into the rectum.
The typical brown colour of feces is due to the bacterial breakdown of bilirubin.
Bilirubin is a by-product of the breakdown of hemoglobin (the protein that carries
oxygen in the blood). Bilirubin gets secreted into the bile in the liver.
Fecal odour comes from gases produced by bacterial activity. The rectum stores the
feces until they are eliminated at the anus. Table 10.6 summarizes the primary function
of each structure in the digestive system and how long food usually remains in each
structure as it is being digested.
Table 10.6 Time Required for Human Digestion
Digestive Primary Time Food Spends in
Structure Function Each Structure
Mouth Mechanical and chemical digestion 5–30 s
Esophagus Transport (swallowing) 10 s
Stomach Mechanical and chemical digestion 2–24 h
Small intestine Mechanical and chemical digestion 3–4 h
Large intestine Water absorption 18 h–2 days

418 MHR • Unit 4 Animals: Structure and Function

 Section 10.2 RE V IE W

Section Summary
• The human digestive system is made up of the alimentary • The large intestine absorbs water from the alimentary
canal and three accessory organs: the liver, the pancreas, canal and forms feces, which are eliminated as solid
and the gall bladder. waste.
• Food is transported from the esophagus to the stomach • Different types of enzymes are involved in the chemical
by wave-like muscular contractions known as peristalsis. digestion of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.
• Although chemical digestion begins in the mouth and • The levels of pH differ throughout the digestive system,
continues in the stomach, most chemical digestion occurs to allow optimum enzyme function.
in the small intestine.

Review Questions
1. K/U Use the diagram below to answer the following 5. T/I Infer how the food reaches an astronaut’s
questions. stomach when he or she is floating in zero gravity.
a. Identify the body part(s) where digestion of 6. K/U Why does the acid in gastric juice not damage
carbohydrates occurs. the wall of the stomach?
b. Identify where digestion of proteins occurs. 7. K/U Which structural features of the small intestine
c. Which is the longest section of the alimentary canal? increase surface area? Why is this important?
d. Where does most absorption in the digestive system 8. T/I Why are most digestive enzymes not found in
take place? the stomach?
9. A In what ways would a digestive system that
did not use mechanical digestion differ from one
A that does?
10. A After playing in the dirt, a child sticks her
F fingers in her mouth and ingests a significant number
of bacteria but does not get sick. Explain how this
child’s digestive system protected her from these
B G potentially toxic bacteria.
H 11. K/U What would an individual need to do to replace
C
the function of their pancreas if their pancreas was
removed?
D I
12. T/I A new species of animal is found to have a
E digestive system that uses very little mechanical
digestion. Describe its digestive tract.
13. T/I A nutritionist recommends drinking water
2. C Create a graphic organizer, such as a flowchart before or after a meal, but not during a meal. Why
or a table, that compares the chemical digestion of the might this be good advice?
four types of macromolecules as they move through
14. C Use a graphic organizer to illustrate the
the following body parts: oral cavity, esophagus, small
interaction between the digestive system and the
intestine, and large intestine. Include any enzymatic
circulatory system.
digestion that occurs along the way.
15. K/U Explain how your body absorbs water.
3. K/U The small intestine is divided into three different
regions. Describe the structure and function of each of 16. C Use a graphic organizer, such as a main idea web
these regions. or a fishbone organizer, to summarize the structure
and functions of the large intestine in humans.
4. K/U Your friend is convinced that digestion begins in
the stomach. Is this true or false? Explain your answer.

Chapter 10 The Digestive System • MHR 419

 SECTION
Digestive System Disorders
10.3
Key Terms Digestive system disorders can occur when any part of the system is not working
properly during the digestive process. In this section you will learn about these
peptic ulcer
disorders, and how technological advances help doctors diagnose and treat them.
inflammatory bowel
disease
Peptic Ulcers
Crohn’s disease
Abdominal pain, bloating, nausea, and loss of appetite can all be symptoms of a
ulcerative colitis
peptic ulcer. A peptic ulcer is a sore in the lining of the stomach or duodenum,
hepatitis
where hydrochloric acid and pepsin are present. Ulcers form when the tissues become
cirrhosis
inflamed because the protective mucus that covers the lining has weakened, as shown
diabetes
in Figure 10.15. Ulcers are very painful because exposed, unprotected tissue comes into
contact with acidic gastric juice. They can occur in people of all ages. Most ulcers begin
when populations of an acid-resistant bacterium, Helicobacter pylori, attach themselves
to the wall of the digestive tract and prevent that area from producing the protective
mucus. Because ulcers are caused by a bacterium, they can be treated with antibiotics
that kill the bacteria. Along with antibiotics, doctors also often prescribe medications
that reduce acidity in the stomach. Treatment may also include lifestyle changes, such
as losing weight if overweight, avoiding alcohol, and not smoking.

peptic ulcer a sore

in the lining of the
stomach or duodenum, endoscope
most commonly caused
by infection with the from power source
bacterium Helicobacter
pylori
inflammatory bowel
disease the general
to video
name for a group of monitor
diseases that cause
inflammation in the
intestines
Crohn’s disease Figure 10.15 This photo of a bleeding ulcer in the stomach was taken with an endoscope, a
a form of inflammatory tube-shaped instrument with a tiny lens and light source that is inserted into the digestive tract.
disease that can
affect any part of the Inflammatory Bowel Disease
alimentary canal from Often referred to as IBD, inflammatory bowel disease is a general name for a group
the mouth to the anus
of diseases that cause inflammation in the intestines. The incidence of inflammatory
ulcerative colitis
a form of inflammatory
bowel disease is increasing in Canada—over 200 000 people (1 in 160) are living with
disease that attacks the disease. IBD is a chronic disease, meaning that it is long lasting or recurrent. IBD
the colon can only be treated—not cured—by a special diet and by taking medication to reduce
pain and inflammation. The main forms of IBD are Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis.
Crohn’s disease is a form of IBD that can affect any part of the alimentary canal from
the mouth to the anus. Children with Crohn’s disease generally do not grow properly
during puberty. They develop thinner bones that increase the future risk of fractures,
and they experience poor muscle development. Ulcerative colitis is a form that attacks
the colon. Symptoms of colitis include loose and bloody stools, cramps, and abdominal
pain. In severe cases of IBD, it may be necessary for surgeons to remove the affected part
of the colon and create a new external opening for digestive waste. Research scientists are
trying to find out why these diseases of the digestive tract have been increasing among
children, and why rates are much higher in western nations than in other countries.

420 MHR • Unit 4 Animals: Structure and Function

Constipation
Constipation is a common disorder of the digestive system in which bowel movements
are reduced to three per week or less and stools are dry, small, and difficult to eliminate.
Constipation can be caused by inadequate water intake (which leaves the stools dry)
and lack of good nerve and muscle function in the bowel. An unhealthy diet and lack
of physical activity can also cause constipation.
Although fibre is not a nutrient and is not digested, it is essential for maintaining
a healthy digestive system. Fibre refers to parts of fruits, vegetables, and grains that
are not broken down in the digestive system—they pass through the body almost
unchanged. Foods rich in fibre include whole grain bread, brown rice, whole grain
pasta, oats, beans, peas, lentils, grains, seeds such as flax, some fruits, and vegetables.
Most dietary fibre is made up of cellulose, which humans are unable to digest. The bulk
and soft texture of fibre helps to prevent constipation.

Disorders of the Accessory Organs

Two of the most serious disorders of the liver are hepatitis and cirrhosis, and both
hepatitis inflammation
are life-threatening. Hepatitis is an inflammation of the liver. There are three types of of the liver, most
hepatitis: A, B, and C. Hepatitis A is usually contracted from drinking contaminated commonly caused
water. Hepatitis B is spread by sexual contact but there is a vaccine to protect against it. by a virus
Hepatitis C is usually contracted by contact with infected blood. There is no vaccine for cirrhosis the
hepatitis C. irreversible replacement
of healthy liver tissue
Figure 10.16 shows part of the liver of someone who has cirrhosis—a chronic
with non-functioning
disease of the liver that occurs when scar tissue replaces healthy liver tissue and scar tissue; most
prevents the liver from functioning properly. Chronic alcoholism and hepatitis C commonly caused by
are the most common causes of cirrhosis of the liver. There are few symptoms in the excessive alcohol intake
or hepatitis
early stages of the disease. Blood tests, however, can determine if the liver is becoming
fatty—an early warning sign that cirrhosis is developing. The liver has the ability to heal
itself, but in many cases there is not enough regeneration to avoid liver failure. A liver
transplant is the primary treatment for liver failure.
Figure 10.16 (A) A normal,
A B healthy human liver, and
(B) a liver affected by
cirrhosis. The word cirrhosis
comes from the Greek
word khirros, which means
tawny, referring to the
brownish-orange colour of
the diseased liver.

Another common disorder that affects the accessory organs is gallstones, which
are small hard masses that form in the gall bladder. Remember that the gall bladder
stores bile from the liver. Sometimes, cholesterol (a fat-like substance found in the
blood and cells) in the bile can precipitate out of the bile and form crystals. The crystals
grow and become gallstones. Factors that are related to the formation of gallstones are
obesity, alcohol intake, and heredity. Gallstones are usually treated with medications
or with ultrasound shock waves to disintegrate the stones so that they can be passed
out in the urine. Since gallstones often reoccur, it is important to reduce the causal
factors. Cholesterol in the gall bladder can be lowered by losing weight, increasing the
intake of omega-3 fatty acids (unsaturated fats that are found in fish and nut oils), and
decreasing the size of meals. If the gallstone problem is serious, the entire gall bladder
may need to be surgically removed.

Chapter 10 The Digestive System • MHR 421

 Learning Check

19. How do Helicobacter pylori cause the condition 23. Define the following disorders of the digestive
shown in Figure 10.15? Explain your answer. system, and identify the causes of each.
20. Identify some lifestyle changes that can reduce the a. constipation
risk of developing a gallstone. b. hepatitis
21. Why might Crohn’s disease be difficult to diagnose? c. cirrhosis
22. Distinguish between inflammatory bowel disease, 24. Why are coffee and citrus fruits, such as oranges
Crohn’s disease, and ulcerative colitis, and describe and grapefruits, not recommended for patients
in which part of the digestive tract each disease with ulcers?
occurs.

The Endoscope and Digestive System Disorders

Modern technology allows surgeons to locate, diagnose, and remove ulcers, tumours,
and other problems of the digestive tract without having to cut into the body of the
patient. Recall that the alimentary canal is a tube running from the mouth to the anus.
Therefore, physicians can get access to it through these natural openings at either end.
A device used for this purpose is the endoscope.
The endoscope often helps to confirm medical problems that are hard to observe
using other methods, such as X rays. It allows a surgeon to visually inspect the lining
of any part of the alimentary canal, including the stomach as shown in Figure 10.17 (A).
Other attachments that can be fitted to the endoscope include a camera to photograph
and record portions of the alimentary canal for further study; a laser that can be used
to cut through tissue and seal blood vessels; and tiny forceps that can be used to extract
samples of tissue for laboratory examination.
A more recent development is the capsule endoscope, shown in Figure 10.17 (B)—a
tiny camera placed inside a capsule that can be swallowed. The capsule endoscope is
especially useful for seeing inside the small intestine, which is too long and coiled to
allow an endoscope tube to be pushed through its entire length.
Figure 10.17 (A) Doctors
perform an endoscopy A B
to examine a woman’s
stomach and take a tissue
sample (a biopsy). (B) The
patient swallows a tiny
capsule endoscope. Over
the next eight hours, it
travels down the digestive
tract, where it takes about
30 pictures per second.

Technologies such as endoscopy are known as non-invasive surgery, in contrast

to traditional surgery in which a physician must cut into the body to repair or remove
tissues and organs. Non-invasive surgery is relatively painless and allows patients
to recover much faster than they do from traditional surgery. Complications from
non-invasive surgery are rare. It can be carried out with only a local anesthetic, and
it reduces the risk of infection.

422 MHR • Unit 4 Animals: Structure and Function

Diabetes
Diabetes is a chronic disease in which body cells are unable to use glucose to provide
diabetes a condition
energy for muscles and tissues. Normally, the pancreas releases insulin into the in which the body is
bloodstream after the individual has eaten. Insulin allows glucose from the digested unable to use glucose
food to enter the body’s cells, and this lowers the amount of glucose circulating in the for energy
bloodstream throughout the body. As the glucose level in the bloodstream drops, so
does the release of insulin from the pancreas. As you learned earlier in the chapter,
glycogen can be temporarily stored in the liver so that when the insulin level gets
low—for example, when you have not eaten for a while—some of that stored glycogen
is converted back to glucose to keep the blood glucose at a normal level.
Diabetes develops when there is not enough insulin in the bloodstream or when
the body cannot properly use the insulin that the pancreas makes. Without insulin,
glucose cannot get into the cells and the glucose level in the blood can increase to
life-threatening levels.

The Three Types of Diabetes

The three types of diabetes are type 1, type 2, and gestational diabetes. Type 1 diabetes
occurs when the insulin-producing cells of the pancreas are destroyed by the immune
system and therefore no longer produce insulin. Type 1 diabetes is most often
diagnosed in children, teens, and young adults. Type 2 diabetes occurs when either the
body does not make enough insulin or it is unable to properly use the insulin it makes.
Although Type 2 diabetes is most often diagnosed in people over the age of 40, it is
becoming increasingly common in children and adolescents.
Gestational diabetes can develop during pregnancy. Even though this type of
diabetes often ends when the baby is born, women who have had gestational diabetes
are more likely to develop type 2 diabetes later in life. Gestational diabetes is often the
result of pregnancy hormones or inadequate levels of insulin production.

Canadian Contributions to Diabetes Research

In 1922, Canadian scientists Frederick Banting and
Charles Best, seen in Figure 10.18, discovered the
connection between insulin and diabetes. Before then,
diabetes usually resulted in early death.
After Banting and Best demonstrated that insulin
injections could help people with diabetes, the University
of Toronto’s Connaught Laboratories developed ways
to produce the hormone in large quantities. Some of
these methods are described on the following page.
The production of insulin in such large quantities has
prolonged the lives of millions of people around the world.

Figure 10.18 Charles Best (left) and

Frederick Banting (right) discovered
that people suffering from diabetes
could be saved from an early death
by taking injections of the pancreatic
hormone insulin.

Chapter 10 The Digestive System • MHR 423

 Technological Advances in Treating Diabetes
Diabetes is becoming a more common medical condition in Canada as a result of
increasingly sedentary lifestyles and an ageing population. Figure 10.19 shows a steady
increase in the number of Canadians with diabetes over a seven-year period. According
to Statistics Canada, from the period 2001 through 2008, men were more likely than
women to report that they had diabetes. In 2008, the incidence of diabetes ranged from
0.3% at ages 12 to 19 to 16.0% for seniors (65 or older). At ages 20 to 34, women were
more likely than men to have diabetes (1.1% versus 0.6%), but by age 55 men were
more likely than women to be diabetic.

Percentage Reporting Diabetes, by Sex,

Household Population Aged 12 or Older, Canada, 2001 to 2008
7 men
women
6
Percentage Reporting Diabetes

0
0 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
Year

Figure 10.19 Survey respondents were asked to report diabetes that had been diagnosed by
a doctor, so type 1, type 2, and gestational diabetes are all included in these percentages.

According to the Public Health Agency of Canada, the risk factors for diabetes also
include being of advanced age, having a family history of the disease, and belonging
to certain high-risk ethnic groups (Aboriginal peoples and people of African, Asian,
Hispanic, and Pacific Island descent). To meet a growing demand for improved treatment
for diabetes, scientists have developed several new technologies, described below.

Manufacturing Human Insulin

Until the early 1980s, insulin used to treat diabetes was extracted from pigs or cattle.
However, the human body treats these kinds of insulin as a “foreign” contaminant, and
injections of this type of insulin eventually trigger an immune response. The immune
response is how the body recognizes and defends itself against bacteria and other
harmful substances.
Figure 10.20 Human
DNA with instructions The development of genetic engineering during the 1990s allowed pharmaceutical
for making insulin can be companies to manufacture human insulin using bacteria and modified bacterial
added into this bacterial plasmids, as shown in Figure 10.20. A plasmid is a circular molecule of DNA that is
plasmid, resulting in commonly found in bacteria. Large vats of genetically engineered bacteria produce
recombinant DNA. Once
the recombinant DNA is human insulin in the lab, and this is now the main source of insulin for people with
inserted into bacteria, the diabetes in Canada.
bacteria begin to produce
human insulin.

424 MHR • Unit 4 Animals: Structure and Function

Timing Insulin Delivery
Until the 1980s, people with diabetes had to monitor their blood glucose levels
regularly using a glucose meter in order to know when to inject insulin into
their bloodstream at times when it was most needed. To replace this form of
monitoring, researchers developed computerized insulin pumps, as shown
in Figure 10.21. The device includes the pump itself (the processing module,
controls, and batteries) and a disposable internal insulin reservoir. It also comes
with a disposable infusion set, consisting of a cannula (a soft plastic needle) and
the tubing that runs from the insulin reservoir to the cannula.
An advantage of this technology is that it provides better control over blood
glucose levels, reducing the risk of long-term complications that can affect the
eyes, kidneys, and blood vessels. A disadvantage is that pumps are far more
expensive than the syringes used for insulin injection. Because a pump must
be attached most of the time, users may find it uncomfortable and must avoid
jarring activities that might damage it.

Figure 10.21 This small insulin pump is an alternative to multiple daily self-administered
insulin shots.

Activity 10.3 Digestive System Cancers

Aside from lung cancer, digestive system cancers kill more 2. Using print or on-line resources, research your chosen
Canadians than any other type of cancer. Every year, about disease to find out the causes, symptoms, diagnostic
15 000 Canadians die of cancers of the digestive tract, technologies, treatments, and prognosis. Include in
including the accessory organs. According to the Canadian your research any screening tests that can aid in early
Cancer Society, about half of all cancers can be prevented detection of the disease.
by maintaining a healthy lifestyle. In this activity you will
3. Summarize your findings in an appropriate format and
research and report on one type of digestive system cancer,
present them to the class.
and evaluate the importance of technological advances in
detection, diagnosis, and treatment of the disease.
Questions
Materials 1. What are some lifestyle factors that increase the risk
of developing digestive system cancers? What lifestyle
• reference books
changes can help minimize this risk?
• computer with Internet access
2. What are some of the social and economic costs
Procedure associated with cancer? Explain your answer.
1. Choose one type of digestive system cancer that you
3. Evaluate the importance of technological advances in
would like to research, such as cancer of the esophagus,
diagnosing and treating digestive system cancers.
colon, rectum, stomach, pancreas, liver, or gall bladder.

Chapter 10 The Digestive System • MHR 425

STSE

Quirks &
Quarks
with BOB MCDONALD

THIS WEEK ON QUIRKS & QUARKS

Do You Really Need Your Appendix? Related Career

Nutritional counsellors create
Today, every known human body process and absorption of food. They also help keep personalized food, supplement, and
is at least partly understood by doctors out “bad” bacteria that make people sick. lifestyle plans to help their clients
and scientists. Many of the mysteries of If the bad bacteria are present in the achieve optimum health. Clients
circulation, respiration, and digestion have intestines in large numbers, the immune can range from children to seniors
been solved. One organ, however, still has system triggers a reaction that cleans out to professional athletes. Training
biologists stumped: the appendix. Humans the intestines—taking out the lining and to become a nutritional counsellor
have this small pouch at the intersection of everything else in an effort to flush out the includes studies in anatomy, basic
biochemistry, nutritional support of
the small and large intestines. What is it for? bad bacteria. (We call this diarrhea.) This
body systems, and environmental
Dr. William Parker, a professor of surgery approach is very effective, but once the bad
influences on health and disease.
at Duke University in North Carolina, USA, bacteria are gone, how do we get the good
and his colleagues think they have solved the bacteria back in there?
mystery, and Bob McDonald interviewed him Dr. Parker and his colleagues found
on Quirks and Quarks to hear their theory. evidence of large populations of good
bacteria around the appendix. They think that
Is the Appendix a Safe Haven? this little pouch is ideally situated—out of
Dr. Parker admitted that he and his the way of intestinal clean-outs—to provide
colleagues were not all that interested in the a place for good bacteria to stay
appendix when they began their research. until the bad bacteria have been
They were trying to find out how the cleaned out. Parker says when it
immune system interacts with the normal is safe, the good bacteria can
(“good”) bacteria found in the intestines. The emerge from the appendix to
intestines contain more than 100 different re-populate the intestines.
species of bacteria, with numbers in the
billions. The bacteria aid in digestion

An inflamed appendix will likely

burst if it is not removed.

large intestine QU ES T I ONS

1. Why is the function of the appendix, as proposed by

cecum Dr. Parker and his colleagues, particularly important
for people living in developing countries?
appendix
2. Use the Internet or print resources to research careers
in the field of natural and holistic nutrition.

426 MHR • Unit 4 Animals: Structure and Function

 Section 10.3 RE V IE W

Section Summary
• Ulcers in the alimentary canal are primarily caused by the • The pancreas secretes insulin that regulates the
bacteria Helicobacter pylori. absorption of glucose from the small intestine; diabetes
• Inflammatory bowel disease is a group of chronic diseases results when there is insufficient insulin to regulate
that cause inflammation in the intestines. blood glucose levels.
• Technological advances such as medical imaging • Genetically engineered human insulin and computerized
technology and endoscopy enable doctors to diagnose insulin pumps are some of the technological innovations
and treat many diseases of the alimentary canal without used in the control and maintenance of blood glucose
the need for invasive surgery. levels.

Review Questions
1. K/U What is a peptic ulcer? 6. T/I Diseases of the liver can be fatal. Why is the

2. K/U Use the figure below to answer the following liver such an important organ?
questions. 7. K/U Summarize the differences between a traditional
a. Identify the body part(s) where an ulcer can occur. endoscope and a capsule endoscope.
b. Identify where Crohn’s disease occurs in the body. 8. K/U Why might an endoscope be used for retrieving
c. Which body part(s) does colitis affect? foreign objects in the alimentary canal?
d. What organ does hepatitis target? 9. C Create a Venn diagram that compares the costs
and benefits of using capsule endoscopy as compared
to traditional endoscopy for detecting gastrointestinal
disorders.
A
10. K/U What are the three types of hepatitis, and how is
each type contracted?
F
11. A For health reasons, particularly to fight cancer,
B certain organs of the digestive system may be removed
or altered. Which organs are vital to digestion and,
G thus, could not be removed?
H
C 12. C Make a table to compare and contrast the
D advantages and disadvantages of using self-delivery
I insulin injections compared with using a computerized
insulin pump.
E 13. A Would a capsule endoscope be useful for
viewing the interior of the pancreas? Explain.
3. C Create a table that compares the causes of,
14. T/I Your friend complains about having hard stools,
symptoms of, and treatments for the following
infrequent bowel movements, and difficulty having
digestive system disorders: ulcers, inflammatory bowel
bowel movements. What diagnosis would your friend’s
disease, cirrhosis, and gallstones.
doctor probably make based on these symptoms?
4. A Your friend may have a stomach virus and she What advice would the doctor likely provide to relieve
vomits violently in class. She is concerned because she these symptoms?
sees a green tint in her vomit. What do you suppose
15. A An older friend of the family has just had her
that is? Explain your answer.
gall bladder removed. Describe the kind of diet you
5. A List five important questions that a think she would be wise to follow.
gastroenterologist (a medical doctor who specializes in
16. T/I Why do you think the incidence of diabetes
digestive disorders) should ask every new patient prior
is generally higher among elderly people than in
to diagnosis or treatment.
younger people?

Chapter 10 The Digestive System • MHR 427

 ThoughtLab 10-A
INVESTIGATION
Skill Check

✓
Initiating and Planning
Performing and Recording
An Accident and an Opportunity
On June 6, 1822, an army surgeon at Mackinac Island, on Lake Huron,
✓ Analyzing and Interpreting
recognized a unique opportunity to learn how the stomach works. A Canadian
✓ Communicating
trapper, Alexis St. Martin, arrived with a shotgun wound to his stomach.
The surgeon, William Beaumont, pushed back protruding parts of the lung and
stomach, and cleaned the wound. Upon healing, the stomach lining had fused
to the outer body wall, leaving an opening directly to the stomach. Beaumont
found that he could look directly through this “window” and observe and
perform tests on the stomach in action. Beaumont’s discoveries marked the start
of a new understanding of human digestion. In this ThoughtLab, you will infer
some of what Beaumont discovered based on excerpts from the journal he kept.
During a period of several years, Beaumont gathered gastric juice, had its
components identified, introduced food into the hole in Alexis St. Martin’s
stomach with a string attached so he could retrieve the food particles that were
partially digested, and observed the effect of emotion on digestion. Much of
what Beaumont discovered was new to science—and contrary to the accepted
teachings of the time. He recounted many of his observations and experiments
in his journal. The following are selections from that journal.
Note: You might be wondering how Alexis St. Martin felt about serving as a
human guinea pig in these experiments. For awhile, he submitted to them.
He was, after all, receiving free room and board. Boredom eventually took its
toll, and St. Martin returned to Canada, where he married and resumed his
former life as a trapper. He lived until the age of 83, having spent over 60 years
of his life with a hole in his stomach.

Pre-Lab Questions
1. What is the source of data for this activity?
2. What substances is gastric juice made up of?
3. Why might people in Beaumont’s time have believed the stomach heated up
when people ate?

Question
What important contributions did William Beaumont make to our current
understanding of the digestive process?

Organize the Data

1. Read the excerpts from William Beaumont’s journal on the following page.
2. As you read, make notes to help you organize and summarize the
information.

428 MHR • Unit 4 Animals: Structure and Function

 Excerpts from William Beaumont’s Journal
Excerpt A Excerpt D
I consider myself but a humble inquirer after truths—a The gastric juice does not accumulate in the cavity of the
simple experimenter. And if I have been led to conclusions stomach until alimentary matter is received and excites its
opposite to the opinions of many who have been vessels to discharge their contents for the immediate
considered luminaries of physiology, and in some purpose of digestion.
instances, from all the professors of this science, I hope the Excerpt E
claim of sincerity will be conceded to me, when I say that At 2 o’clock P.M.—twenty minutes after having eaten an
such difference of opinion has been forced upon me by the ordinary dinner of boiled, salted beef, bread, potatoes, and
convictions of experiment, and the fair deductions of turnips, and drank [sic] a gill [about 142 mL] of water, I took
reasoning. from his stomach, through the artificial opening, a gill of
Excerpt B the contents. … Digestion had evidently commenced, and
But from the result of a great number of experiments and was perceptually progressing, at the time.
examinations, made with a view to asserting the truth of Excerpt F
this opinion, in the empty and full state of the organ … I am To ascertain whether the sense of hunger would be allayed
convinced that there is no alteration of temperature. without food being passed through the esophagus, he
Excerpt C fasted from breakfast time, til 4 o’clock P.M., and became
I think I am warranted, from the result of all the quite hungry. I then put in at the aperture, three and a half
experiments, in saying that the gastric juice, so far from drachms [about 13 mL] of lean, boiled beef. The sense of
being “inert as water,” as some authors assert, is the most hunger immediately subsided, and stopped the
general solvent in nature of alimentary [food-related] borborygmus, or croaking noise, caused by the motion of
matter—even the hardest bone cannot withstand its action. the air in the stomach and intestines, peculiar to him since
the wound, and almost always observed when the stomach
is empty.

Analyze and Interpret Conclude and Communicate

1. The prevailing view of Beaumont’s time was that 5. Summarize the significance of the discoveries
the stomach heated up when people ate. Beaumont Beaumont described in Excerpt F.
discovered this was not the case. Identify the excerpt
in which he makes this statement. Extend Further
2. It was believed that once food had been ingested,
the stomach remained idle for an hour or more 6. INQUIRY Beaumont was a surgeon by profession.
before digestion began. Identify the excerpt in which In what ways was he also a research scientist? Justify
Beaumont found otherwise. your answer.
3. Many scientists before Beaumont’s time asserted that 7. RESEARCH Based on what you have learned about the
stomach fluid is essentially water. Although some stomach and its actions, how accurate do you think
evidence had been produced to disprove this assertion, Beaumont’s observations and conclusions were?
the belief proved strong enough to persist to the 1800s. Quote passages from this textbook or your own
What evidence did Beaumont cite in response to research to support your answer.
this belief?
4. In which excerpt did Beaumont suggest that gastric
juice is not stored in the stomach, as was believed to
the case?

Chapter 10 The Digestive System • MHR 429

 Inquiry 10-B
INVESTIGATION
Skill Check

✓
Initiating and Planning
Performing and Recording
Optimum pH for Two Protease Enzymes
Two protease enzymes, pepsin and trypsin, are secreted at different stages and
✓ Analyzing and Interpreting
at different sites during human digestion. Each of the two protease enzymes
✓ Communicating
works best at an optimum pH. The stomach has a pH of about 2 and the small
intestine has a pH of between 7 and 8. In this investigation, you will compare the
Safety Precautions optimum pH at which these two enzymes work.

Pre-Lab Questions
• Hydrochloric acid is a strong acid,
and sodium hydroxide is a strong 1. Why do you have to wear safety glasses and protective clothing while
base. Both are very corrosive and conducting this investigation?
must not be mixed together. 2. What does the test tube label P-8 signify?
• Other chemicals used in this 3. What do you expect the two protease enzymes to do?
investigation may be toxic. Take
extra care to avoid getting them in Question
your eyes, on your skin, or on your How can you use pH to determine which protease enzyme, pepsin or trypsin, is
clothes. Flush spills immediately secreted into the stomach and which is secreted into the small intestine?
with plenty of cool water, and
inform your teacher. Procedure
• Never eat, drink, or taste anything 1. Use a wax pencil to label the test tubes as follows: C-2, C-8, P-2, P-8, T-2,
in the biology classroom. and T-8. The C tubes are controls, the P tubes will contain pepsin, and the
T tubes will contain trypsin. The numbers indicate the pH of the contents of
• Inform your teacher if you have
the test tubes. Place the test tubes in the test tube rack.
any allergies.
• Wash your hands with soap
and water after completing the
procedure.

Materials
• 18 cubes of boiled egg white
(protein samples)
• 10 mL distilled water
• 10 mL 2% pepsin solution
• 10 mL 5% trypsin solution
• 15 mL dilute hydrochloric acid
• 15 mL dilute sodium hydroxide
• wax pencil
• 6 test tubes
• test tube rack
• water bath at 37°C
• 10 mL graduated cylinder
• test tube holder

430 MHR • Unit 4 Animals: Structure and Function

2. Put three cubes of boiled egg white into each test tube. Analyze and Interpret
Prepare a data table like the one below. Record the size 1. How did the contents of the tubes with protease
and appearance of the cubes in each tube in the table. enzymes differ from the control test tubes?
Appearance of Egg Cubes Before and After Digestion 2. At what pH did pepsin break down protein more
Before Digestion After Digestion completely?
Test Size of Appearance Size of Appearance 3. At what pH did trypsin break down protein more
Tube Cubes of Cubes Cubes of Cubes completely?
C-2
C-8 Conclude and Communicate
P-2 4. Based on your results, which enzyme would be most
P-8 effective in the small intestine? Explain your answer.
T-2 5. Based on your results, which enzyme would be most
T-8
effective in the stomach? Explain your answer.

3. Add 5 mL distilled water to each test tube labelled C. Extend Further

Add 5 mL pepsin solution to each test tube labelled P.
Add 5 mL trypsin solution to each test tube labelled T. 6. INQUIRY What conditions may slow down the level of
4. Add 5 mL dilute hydrochloric acid to each test tube activity of these proteases, or even destroy them?
labelled 2. Add 5 mL dilute sodium hydroxide to each 7. RESEARCH Conduct research on enzymes that
test tube labelled 8. function in extreme conditions, and why many
5. Place the tubes in a water bath and leave them modern industries are interested in these extreme
overnight at a temperature set between 35°C and 39°C. enzymes.
6. Observe the contents of each test tube and record your
observations in the table.
7. Dispose of the contents of the tubes as directed by your
teacher, and clean up your work area.

Chapter 10 The Digestive System • MHR 431

STSE
Case Study
Eating Well
Assessing the Benefits of Functional Foods

Scenario

The administrators at your school have proposed a ban Some students support the administration’s proposal
on the sale of conventional snack foods in the school and one.
nd view this change in snack food choices as a positive one
cafeteria. They want to replace these foods with functional However, other students oppose the change. They insist that
foods such as low-calorie junk food—for example, low-fat, no research solidly demonstrates that functional foods are
low-salt popcorn instead of potato chips, high fibre grain more beneficial to health and well-being than conventional
and nut bars, fortified beverages, and yogurt with probiotics. foods. They also say that the school should not impose
(Probiotics are the “good” bacteria that live in your digestive decisions about food choices on students. The student
tract. They are often added to food to boost digestive health.) council has called an after-school meeting to let both
The school administrators’ goal is to promote healthier eating sides state their points of view and to try to
habits for everyone in the school. They are concerned about resolve the issue.
recent statistics showing a steady increase in obesity, as well
as increased risk for heart disease, type 2 diabetes, and some
types of cancer, even among young people.

What Are Functional Foods?

All types of foods provide the nutrients that your body needs,
to varying degrees. But some foods, known as functional foods,
apparently do more for your body than just provide essential
nutrients. Some nutritionists and manufacturers of functional
foods claim that these foods perform specific beneficial functions
in the body. These functions include strengthening the immune
system, preventing and treating disease, controlling certain
physical or mental conditions, or slowing the ageing process.
There are several different categories of functional foods.
Whole foods contain a natural level of a functional component,
such as the antioxidant beta-carotene in carrots, or the
dietary fibre in wheat bran, oats, and barley. (Antioxidants are
substances that protect the body’s cells from damage caused by
environmental stressors such as air pollution, radiation, and
cigarette smoke.) Fortified foods contain added ingredients,
such as calcium-fortified fruit juice. Enhanced foods contain a
Eating well involves being informed, and functional component that has been introduced into the organism
making choices that are right for you. from which the food comes—through breeding, feeding, or
genetic engineering. For example, chickens are fed fish oil,
which naturally contains omega-3 fatty acids. Thus, the chickens
produce omega-3-enhanced eggs. Some examples of functional
foods and their potential health benefits, are shown in the table.

432 MHR • Unit 4 Animals: Structure and Function

Examples of Functional Foods Research and Analyze
Functional Key Functional 1. Multifunctional foods are foods that serve more
Food Component Potential Health Benefits than one function, such as satisfying a snack craving
Whole foods while claiming to provide a specific health benefit.
Fish, flaxseed Omega-3 fatty Reduces blood cholesterol; reduces What types of products have resulted from society’s
acids risk of heart disease and certain demand for multifunctional foods, such as low-calorie
cancers; aids in blood glucose snack foods? Research some popular snack foods
control that claim to be healthy snacks, and compare these
foods to the conventional version of that snack food.
Fruits and Phytochemicals Reduce risk of heart disease, high
vegetables, nuts (chemical blood cholesterol, cancer, and cell Summarize the similarities and differences between
and seeds, black substances found damage the two versions of the food. As part of your analysis,
and green tea, in plants) include whether you think the manufacturers’ claims
coffee, dark related to the “healthy” version are valid.
chocolate
2. Lifestyle-related chronic disorders are a major factor
Oats and other Soluble fibre Reduce blood cholesterol and in Canada’s increasing health-care costs. Heart
whole grains constipation; reduce risk of heart disease, diabetes, cancer, obesity, arthritis, and
disease and certain cancers; aid in osteoporosis are all linked in part to poor nutrition
controlling blood glucose levels
and lifestyle habits. Research Health Canada’s current
Soy foods (tofu, Soy protein Reduce blood cholesterol; reduce initiatives related to manufacturers’ health claims
soy milk, soy risk of osteoporosis (permanent for functional foods. Write a paragraph to summarize
beans) loss of bone mass), heart disease, your findings. State whether you believe consumers
and certain cancers are adequately protected against potentially false
Fortified foods health claims by food manufacturers.
Cereals with Soluble fibre Reduce blood cholesterol and 3. Consumer demand for functional foods has
added fibre, constipation; reduce risk of heart grown rapidly since 2000 as people respond to
juices with added disease and certain cancers; aid in advertisements claiming that these foods can
fibre controlling blood glucose levels improve their health and well-being. Based on your
Juices with added Calcium Reduce risk of osteoporosis and research, evaluate whether eating functional foods
calcium high blood pressure is a valid means to improve health and well-being.
Milk with added Vitamin D Reduces risk of soft bones and
vitamin D osteoporosis Take Action
Enhanced foods 1. Plan In a group, discuss the pros and cons of
choosing functional foods over the conventional
Beverages with Antioxidants Reduce risk of heart disease and
versions of these foods. What are the differing points
added green tea cancer; reduce high blood pressure
extracts of view within your group? What other questions
might you ask about functional foods before you
Dairy products Lactobacillus Reduce risk of colon cancer; choose which type of food is right for you? Share
with added acidophilus control tissue inflammation; with your group the results of your research and
probiotics (beneficial live help treat diarrhea and some
analysis from questions 1 to 3 above. Determine
bacteria) skin disorders
whether your group will support or challenge
Eggs with added Omega-3 fatty Reduce blood cholesterol; reduce the school administrators’ proposal to substitute
omega-3 fatty acids risk of heart disease and certain functional snack foods for conventional snack foods.
acids cancers; aid in controlling blood
glucose levels 2. Act Within your group, prepare a draft of a
presentation that you will make at the student
Margarine Phytochemicals Reduces risk of heart disease, high
council meeting. State your position on whether
with added blood cholesterol, and cancer
phytochemicals the school administration’s proposal should be
challenged. Support your point of view with
information from current and credible sources.

Chapter 10 The Digestive System • MHR 433

Chapter 10 SUMMARY

Section 10.1 The Function of Digestion

Digestion is the process by which essential nutrients are KEY CONCEPTS

broken down to provide the raw materials for energy, • There are four major categories of macromolecules that
cellular activities, and to build and repair tissues. contain the essential nutrients needed to maintain life:
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
KEY TERMS
• Macromolecules are chemically broken down by hydrolysis,
alimentary canal lipid
a process that uses certain enzymes as catalysts.
amino acid macromolecule
chemical digestion mechanical digestion • Water helps transport materials around the body, lubricate
disaccharide metabolism joints, form vital fluids such as blood, and regulate body
enzyme monosaccharide temperature.
essential nutrient peptide bond • To digest their food, most animals have a digestive tract
glycogen polypeptide that consists of a tube known as the alimentary canal.
hydrolysis polysaccharide • The four stages of food processing in animals are ingestion,
digestion (mechanical and chemical), absorption, and
elimination.

Section 10.2 The Human Digestive System

The human digestive system is made up of a tube-like KEY CONCEPTS

alimentary canal with the specialized organs and • The human digestive system is made up of the alimentary
chemical environments needed to digest and absorb canal and three accessory organs: the liver, the pancreas,
nutrients and eliminate undigested waste. and the gall bladder.
• Food is transported from the esophagus to the stomach by
KEY TERMS
wave-like muscular contractions known as peristalsis.
bile jejunum
chyme pepsin • Although chemical digestion begins in the mouth and
duodenum peristalsis continues in the stomach, most chemical digestion occurs
esophagus saliva in the small intestine.
gastric juice salivary glands • The large intestine absorbs water from the alimentary canal
ileum villi and forms feces, which are eliminated as solid waste.
• Different types of enzymes are involved in the chemical
digestion of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.
• The levels of pH differ throughout the digestive system, to
allow optimum enzyme function.

Section 10.3 Digestive System Disorders

Technological advances enable doctors to diagnose KEY CONCEPTS

and treat digestive system disorders such as ulcers, • Ulcers in the alimentary canal are primarily caused by the
inflammatory bowel disease, cancer, diabetes, and bacteria Helicobacter pylori.
diseases of the accessory organs. • Inflammatory bowel disease is a group of chronic diseases
that cause inflammation in the intestines.
KEY TERMS
cirrhosis inflammatory bowel disease • Technological advances such as medical imaging
Crohn’s disease peptic ulcer technology and endoscopy enable doctors to diagnose
diabetes ulcerative colitis and treat many diseases of the alimentary canal without
hepatitis the need for invasive surgery.
• The pancreas secretes insulin that regulates the absorption
of glucose from the small intestine; diabetes results when
there is insufficient insulin to regulate blood glucose levels.
• Genetically engineered human insulin and computerized
insulin pumps are some of the technological innovations
used in the control and maintenance of blood glucose levels.

434 MHR • Unit 4 Animals: Structure and Function

Chapter 10 REVIEW

Knowledge and Understanding 7. Which is the correct order of the four main stages of
Select the letter of the best answer below. food processing?
a. ingestion → digestion → absorption → elimination
1. To leave the digestive tract, a substance must cross a
cell membrane. During which stage of food processing b. digestion → ingestion → absorption → elimination
does this take place? c. absorption → elimination → ingestion → digestion
a. ingestion d. elimination → ingestion → digestion → absorption
b. digestion e. ingestion → elimination → absorption → digestion
c. elimination 8. How do we refer to animals that sift small food
d. absorption particles from the water?
e. hydrolysis a. filter feeders d. bulk feeders
2. What is the first type of macromolecule that is broken b. substrate feeders e. leaf miners
down by enzymes in the human digestive tract? c. fluid feeders
a. carbohydrates Answer the questions below.
b. lipids 9. Chyme, bolus, and feces are all undigested food
c. nucleic acids materials in the digestive tract. Which of these enables
d. fats nutrients to be absorbed during digestion? Explain
e. proteins your answer.
3. Which of the following is a monosaccharide? 10. In your notebook, state whether each of the following
a. glycogen statements is true or false. If the statement is false,
b. starch rewrite it so that it is true.
c. carbohydrase a. After surgical removal of an infected gall bladder,
d. glucose a person must be especially careful to minimize
e. sucrose protein intake.
b. You can expect to see a large cecum in rabbits,
4. Which of the following statements is true of digestion
horses, and herbivorous bears.
in humans?
c. A substance that increases water reabsorption in the
a. All foods begin their enzymatic digestion in the
large intestine can contribute to constipation.
mouth.
b. After leaving the oral cavity, the bolus enters the 11. The pH of the stomach is fairly acidic, and the rate of
larynx. protein digestion is high enough that the cells of the
c. The epiglottis prevents food from entering the stomach are at risk of self-digestion. Explain what
trachea. prevents this from happening.
d. Enzyme production continues in the esophagus. 12. Why is it important to chew your food when you eat?
e. The trachea leads to the esophagus and then to the 13. Explain the function of the esophagus.
stomach. 14. Explain the role of the liver in the digestion of fats, and
5. What part of the digestive system has secretions with describe the importance of this process.
a pH as low as 2? 15. Identify each statement about what happens in the
a. small intestine d. liver large intestine as true or false. Explain why each false
b. stomach e. mouth statement is false.
c. pancreas a. Waste materials are concentrated and eliminated.
6. Which of the following pairs of organs and functions b. Digestible food matter passes through the colon.
is incorrect? c. The removal of water and salts reduces volume.
a. stomach, protein digestion d. Undigested remains form feces.
b. oral cavity, starch digestion e. Feces are stored in the rectum.
c. large intestine, bile production 16. Refer to Figure 10.11 showing the gall bladder and
d. small intestine, nutrient absorption surrounding organs. Assess how and where gallstones
e. pancreas, insulin production can cause serious problems if they are not removed.

Chapter 10 The Digestive System • MHR 435

Chapter 10 REVIEW

Thinking and Investigation 22. The time food stays in the various parts of the human
17. A new diet pill claims that it can help a person lose digestive tract under normal conditions is as follows:
weight by turning off enzyme production in the • stomach: 4 to 6 hours
stomach. Why do people think this will help them • small intestine: 2 to 4 hours
reduce weight? What are some possible side effects? • large intestine: 24 to 48 hours
18. Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) is a chronic Use the above information to answer the following
disease in which gastric juice flows up into the questions:
esophagus. What could be some of the complications a. Why do many people get hungry at mealtime?
of this disease if it is left untreated? b. Why do you have a bowel movement every day or
19. Diseases such as pancreatic cancer and human every two days?
immunodeficiency virus (HIV) can interfere with 23. Someone helps out at the scene of a car accident.
the healthy functioning of the pancreas. What would Based on what you have learned about disorders of the
happen to the digestion of carbohydrates, proteins, accessory organs, what disease could this person be at
and fats when the pancreas is dysfunctional? risk of contracting if they were to make contact with
20. Groups of organs with specific structures the blood of an infected person?
and functions work together as systems, 24. You are studying birds and you notice that they do not
which interact with other systems in the body. Copy have teeth. What do you predict about digestion in the
the table below into your notebook, and fill in the mouth of birds?
missing rows to analyze how the digestive system
interacts with other systems in the body. Give your Communication
table a title. 25. Write a brief essay about how the esophageal and
pyloric sphincters increase the efficiency of digestion
Interconnection with
System Digestive System in humans.
Integumentary Vitamin D in the skin plays a role in the 26. You are asked to write a script for a digital animation
absorption of calcium. showing digestion in the body. Write an outline of the
Skeletal script that summarizes how you will show different
Muscular
macromolecules breaking down in the body.

Nervous This influences digestive system activity. 27. Create a Venn diagram that compares and contrasts
how sugars and lipids move from the small intestine to
Lymphatic
body cells. Use the image below to help you.
Cardiovascular
Respiratory

21. The following questions relate to the graph below.

capillary
a. Describe what is happening in the graph, and why. network
b. Suggest a reason why blood insulin levels peak
villus
after blood glucose levels do, rather than at exactly
the same time. How might this explain why people
sometimes experience a sugar craving a few hours
after a sizeable carbohydrate-rich meal?
Blood Glucose and Insulin Levels artery
after a Carbohydrate Meal
vein
blood glucose
Concentration

blood insulin
in Blood
Relative

28. Create a main idea web of a few examples of

technology related to the human digestive system.
Put “the needs of society” in the centre, and include
carbohydrate what each piece of technology is used for.
Time
meal

436 MHR • Unit 4 Animals: Structure and Function

29. Conduct research on one disorder of the digestive d. a diet that includes a high proportion of
system. Look into the causes and symptoms of the carbohydrate-rich convenience foods
disorder, how it is diagnosed and treated, and any e. a situation in which insulin does not bind to the
new advances in the treatment of the disorder. Create surface of cells
a pamphlet based on your findings. 36. Diabetes occurs when the special cells in the pancreas
30. Create a Venn diagram that shows the relationships do not make enough insulin. As a result, the person’s
among inflammatory bowel disease, Crohn’s disease, blood glucose rises. The body cells are being starved
and colitis. for glucose because the glucose stays in the blood
31. The development and uses of technology to rather than moving into the cells. Using what you have
maintain human health are based, in part, learned in previous studies about osmosis, explain why
on the changing needs of society. Self-administered excess blood glucose also dehydrates cells in people
insulin injections are being replaced by insulin pump with diabetes.
therapy because it is more convenient and more 37. Some people have a band surgically inserted near the
reliable. But consider the technical issues that arise if top of the stomach to help them control their weight.
the insulin pump malfunctions. Create a handout to What impact would this have on their digestion?
compare and contrast the costs and benefits of insulin 38. Identify the organs below and write a summary of what
injections and insulin pump therapy. happens in each.
32. Summarize your learning in this chapter using
A
a graphic organizer. To help you, the Chapter 10
Summary lists the Key Terms and Key Concepts. Go to
Using Graphic Organizers in Appendix A for help with
deciding which type of graphic organizer to use.
E
Application
33. Pizza is considered to be a fairly nutritious food
compared to other fast foods. Analyze the nutritional B F
value of pizza based on what you learned in the chapter.
The Nutritional Value of Pizza G
Food in Pizza Nutrients
Cheese
Meat H
C
Crust
Broccoli D
I
Tomato sauce

34. Stem cells have the potential to develop into nearly any 39. What gastrointestinal disorders might stimulate the
kind of cell when they mature. How might advances contraction of the diaphragm and the abdominal
in stem cell research contribute to new treatments for muscles, which can cause you to vomit? Based on
diabetes? your knowledge of the body, is there anything else that
might initiate vomiting?
35. Identify whether each of the following factors can
or cannot contribute to type 2 diabetes. Explain 40. Through genetic engineering, scientists can
your answers. manufacture large quantities of the protein insulin
for treating diabetes. This is done by inserting human
a. gestational diabetes
DNA with genes for making insulin into bacterial
b. obesity
plasmids. Based on basic principles of genetics and
c. immune system-mediated destruction of
evolution, why is it possible to insert a gene from a
insulin-producing cells
human into the DNA of bacteria to make insulin?

Chapter 10 The Digestive System • MHR 437

Chapter 10 SELF-ASSESSMENT

Select the letter of the best answer below. 7. K/U Which of the following organs is correctly

1. K/U Which is an example of a fluid feeder? paired with one of its functions?
a. a sponge that filters food particles from the water a. pancreas, starch digestion
b. a butterfly that drinks nectar from a flower b. liver, protein digestion
c. a lion that tears apart its caught prey c. large intestine, bile production
d. a rabbit that chews on tough leaves d. oral cavity, nutrient absorption
e. a dog that licks water from a bowl e. liver, bile storage
2. K/U During which stage of food processing do 8. K/U Which are two major sources of energy in the

enzymes help break apart large macromolecules into human body?

smaller molecules? a. carbohydrates and proteins
a. ingestion b. lipids and carbohydrates
b. filtration c. nucleic acids and lipids
c. digestion d. water and lipids
d. absorption e. proteins and minerals
e. elimination 9. K/U Which is an example of mechanical digestion?
3. K/U Which macromolecule is first broken down by a. digestion of sugars in the small intestine
digestive enzymes in the stomach? b. bile salts combining with fat droplets
a. protein c. bile production by the liver
b. carbohydrate d. chewing food in the mouth
c. cholesterol e. proteins that transport ions in cell membranes
d. glycogen 10. K/U Which compound is important for storing
e. glucose energy in plants?
4. K/U In what organs and/or body structures do you a. starch
find enzymes that break down carbohydrates? b. phospholipids
a. pancreas, small intestine, and large intestine c. glycogen
b. liver and gall bladder d. maltose
c. stomach, liver, and small intestine e. insulin
d. mouth, pancreas, and small intestines Use sentences and diagrams as appropriate to answer the
e. esophagus, stomach, and pancreas questions below.
5. K/U Which two types of molecules make up the 11. K/U Fish is a good source of protein. Describe some
macromolecules known as lipids? of the major functions that proteins have in your body.
a. glycerol and phospholipids
12. C Examine the molecule in the diagram below.
b. triglycerides and phospholipids
c. glycerol and fatty acids
d. triglycerides and glycerol
sucrose
e. phospholipids and fatty acids
6. K/U In which part of the digestive system does a. Draw a hydrolysis reaction of the disaccharide
trypsin work? shown.
a. mouth b. List the type of end products formed.
b. esophagus c. State which enzymes are involved in this process.
c. stomach d. Identify the origin of the enzymes.
d. small intestine
e. large intestine

438 MHR • Unit 4 Animals: Structure and Function

13. A Which class of molecule is shared by all of the 16. T/I How is food still able to propel down the
food items shown below, and how are they broken esophagus when a person is hanging upside down?
down in the body? 17. K/U What are ulcers and how do they form?
18. C Create a handout to compare and contrast
type 1 and type 2 diabetes. If you were teaching this
material to students in a lower grade, what information
would you use to teach them the basic differences
between the two types?
19. A A patient has loose and bloody stools, cramps,
and abdominal pain. Make a possible diagnosis.
20. T/I The graph below shows the effect of pH
on the activity of an unknown digestive enzyme.
Answer the questions that follow.

14. T/I Explain why macromolecules are also known as

Enzyme Activity
essential nutrients.
15. A Sketch the diagram below into your notebook
and use a coloured pencil to map out the path that
food takes through the body. Shade in the important
0 2 4 6 8 10
accessory organs using a different colour. pH

a. From your knowledge of digestive enzymes,

explain the above graph. Give the graph a title.
b. What digestive enzyme may be involved in the
activity shown in the graph?
c. Where is this digestive enzyme likely to be active
in the body?
d. Suggest why enzyme activity is affected by pH.
21. K/U Why does the stomach not digest its own lining?
22. Why does Crohn’s disease result in poor muscle
A
development?
23. T/I Why do you think it is dangerous to take more
than the recommended quantity of fat-soluble
vitamins, such as vitamin A and vitamin E?
24. C Frederick Banting and Charles Best made an
important discovery in 1922. Describe and explain
the significance of their discovery to a class of grade 4
students.
25. A You find an organism with a large cecum that is
filled with specialized bacteria. What can you infer
about the organism’s diet?

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Chapter 10 The Digestive System • MHR 439