Module 4 Geotechnical Engineering 1

Week 9 to 12 (4 weeks)

Module 4 Index Properties and Classification of Soils

Topics a. Introduction
b. Particle Size Distribution, Sieve Analysis, Index Properties
c. Consistency of Soil, Attenberg Limits, Plastic and Liquid Limit
d. Classification of Soils, Unified Soil Classification System, AASHTO
Classification.
Overview: At the end of this module, students will be able to:
1. Understand and perform the laboratory test (sieve analysis, plastic limit,
liquid limit).
2. Understand and differentiate various classification systems.
3. Classify the soil based from the laboratory test performed.
Duration: Week 9-12 (4 weeks)

Targeting Learning Outcomes

Course Intended Learning -To conduct and understand laboratory test for classification and
Outcomes identifying the type of soil.
- To classify the soil using the accepted procedures and standards.
Essential Questions How can I differentiate gravel to sand? Silt to clay?
Learning Targets At the end of this module, you should be able to classify soils based from
the laboratory test results.
Reference and Credits: Essentials of Soil Mechanics and Foundations (Basic Geotecnics by McCarthy)
Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering (Braja M. Das)

INDEX PROPERTIES
(Particle Size Distribution, Attenberg’s Limits, Classification Test)
A. Introduction
To aid the engineering profession and the design–construction field, soils have been divided into basic
categories or classifications based on certain physical characteristics. Consequently, for proper evaluation of a soil’s
suitability for construction or foundation use, information about its properties, in addition to classification, is
frequently necessary. Those properties that do help to define a soil’s engineering qualities and that are used to
assist in determining accurate classification are termed index properties.

The tests necessary to determine index properties are classification tests. Index properties include those
characteristics that can be determined relatively quickly and easily and that will have bearing on items of engineering
importance, such as strength or load-supporting ability, tendency to settle or expand, and effect of water and
freezing conditions.
 Index Properties refers to those properties of soil that indicate the type and condition of soil and provide
relationship to structural properties such as the strength, compressibility, tendency for swelling and permeability.

For coarse-grained soils, properties of the particles and the relative state of compaction are most
significant.

For fine-grained soils, the consistency (firm or soft) and plasticity are particularly important.

B. Classification Tests

1. PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION (Sieve Analysis)

This classification test determines the range of size of particles in the soil and the percentage of particles
in each size of the sizes between maximum and the minimum.

Two methods are in common use for obtaining the necessary information. Sieving is generally used
for coarse-grained soils, and a sedimentation procedure is used for analyzing fine-grained soils.
Sieving is the most direct method for determining particle sizes, but there are practical lower limits to
sieve openings that can be used for soils. This lower limit is approximately at the smallest size attributed to
sand particles.

Two methods in particle size distribution:

1. Sieving
2. Sedimentation

In the sieve analysis, a series of sieves (screens) having different-sized openings are stacked
with the larger sizes over the smaller. The soil sample being tested is dried, clumps are broken, and the
sample is passed through the series of sieves by shaking. Larger particles are caught on the upper
sieves, and the smaller particles filter through to be caught on one of the smaller underlying sieves. The
weight of material retained on each sieve is converted to a percentage of the total sample. The resulting
data are conventionally presented as a grain- or particle-size distribution curve plotted on semi-log
coordinates, where the sieve size opening is on a horizontal logarithmic scale, and the percentage (by
weight) of the size smaller than a particular sieve opening is on a vertical arithmetic scale. Results may
also be presented in tabular form.

Related Video: Particle Size Analysis (Sieving and Hydrometer)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QqxfwpUtEoQ

The appearance of the particle-size distribution plot depends on the range and amounts of the
various sizes of particles in the soil sample. These, in turn, have been affected by the soil’s origin or the
method of deposition. Well-graded soils (a distribution of particles over a relatively large range of sizes)
produce a longish straight curve. A uniform soil (soil having most of the particles approximately similar
size) plots as shown. A gap-graded soil (an absence of intermediate sizes) plot as shown.
EFFECTIVE SIZE (𝑫𝟏𝟎 )
-is taken as the particle size corresponding to the 10% passing from the gram size curve. It is this
size that is related to permeability and capillarity.

UNIFORM COEFFICIENT (Cu)

-particles comparative indication of the range of particle size in the soil. Sand having a wide range of particle
sizes is considered well-graded and has Cu values greater than 10. A uniform soil has Cu values less
than about 5.

𝑫𝟔𝟎
𝒖 𝑫𝟏𝟎
For Sand:

Cu>10 well graded soil

Cu<5 uniform soil

10>Cu>5 gap graded soil ( theoretically)

COEFFICIENT OF Curvature or Gradation(𝑪𝒄 )

 𝟐
𝟑𝟎
𝑪
𝟔𝟎 𝟏𝟎

Types of Soil According to Particle Size ( ASTM D-2487)

Boulders—particles of rock that will not pass a 12-in. (300-mm) square opening
( > 12in or 300mm)

Cobbles - particles of rock that will pass a 12-in. (300-mm) square opening and be retained on a
3-in. (75-mm) U.S. standard sieve ( particle size between 3” to 12” ( 75mm – 300mm)

Gravel—particles of rock that will pass a 3-in. (75mm) sieve and be retained on a No. 4 (4.75-
mm) U.S. standard sieve with the following subdivisions: (particle size between
4.75mm to 75mm)

Coarse gravel—passes 3-in. (75-mm) sieve and retained on ¾” (19mm sieve)

(particle size between 19mm to 75mm)

Fine gravel — passes ¾” (19-mm) sieve and retained on No. 4(4.75-mm) sieve.
(particle size between 4.75 mm to 19mm)
Sand—particles of rock that will pass a No. 4 (4.75mm) sieve and be retained on a No. 200
(75µm) U.S. standard sieve with the following subdivisions: (particle size between
0.075mm to 4.75mm)

Coarse sand —passes No. 4 (4.75-mm) sieve and retained on No.10 (2.00-mm) sieve,
(particle size between 2.00mm to 4.75mm)

Medium sand —passes No. 10 (2.00-mm) sieve and retained on No. 40 (425-µm) sieve
(particle size between 0.425mm to 2.00mm)

Fine sand—passes No. 40 (425-µm) sieve and retained on No.200 (75-µm) sieve.
(particle size between 0.075mm to 0.425mm)

Silt—soil passing a No. 200 (75-µm) U.S. standard sieve that is nonplastic or very slightly
plastic and that exhibits little or no strength when air dry.
(particle size less than 0.075mm)

Clay—soil passing a No. 200 (75-µm) U.S. standard sieve that can be made to exhibit plasticity
(putty-like properties) within a range of water contents and that exhibits considerable
strength when air dry.
(particle size less than 0.075mm)
Example 4.1:

The following table shows the result from the sieving test. The total
mass of the sample is 450 grams. Complete the table for the particle
size analysis

Cumulative
Percentage
Mass Mass Percentage
Mass
Sieve No. Opening (mm) Retained Retained finer or
Retained,
on each above each passing,%
%
Sieve, Sieve,
grams grams
4 4.75 0
10 2 21.6
20 0.85 49.5
40 0.425 102.6
60 0.25 89.1
100 0.15 95.6
200 0.075 60.4
Pan - 31.2
450

Solution:

a. Determine the cumulative mass retained above each sieve in grams

Top Sieve = Mass Retained on the Top Sieve
Succeeding Sieve = Cumulative Mass of the Top Sieve + Mass Retained on the Sieve
Cumulative Mass on Pan = Total Mass of the Sample

Cumulative
Mass Mass
Retained Retained
Sieve No. Opening (mm)
on each above each
Sieve, Sieve,
grams grams
4 4.75 0 0
10 2 21.6 21.6 Succeeding Sieve = 0 + 21.6 = 21.6
20 0.85 49.5 71.1
40 0.425 102.6 173.7
60 0.25 89.1 262.8
100 0.15 95.6 358.4
200 0.075 60.4 418.8
Pan - 31.2 450
450
 b. Determine the cumulative mass passing and percentage finer or passing

Percentage Mass Retained = (Cumulative Mass Retained)÷ (Mass of Sample)} x 100%

Percentage Finer or Passing = 100% – Percentage Mass Retained

Cumulative
Mass Mass
Percentage Percentage
Retained Retained
Sieve No. Opening (mm) Mass finer or
on each above each
Retained, % passing,%
Sieve, Sieve,
grams grams
4 4.75 0 0 0.0 100.0
10 2 21.6 21.6 4.8 95.2
20 0.85 49.5 71.1 15.8 84.2
40 0.425 102.6 173.7 38.6 61.4
60 0.25 89.1 262.8 58.4 41.6
100 0.15 95.6 358.4 79.6 20.4
200 0.075 60.4 418.8 93.1 6.9
Pan - 31.2 450 100.0 0.0
450

Cumulative
Mass Mass
Percentage Percentage
Retained Retained
Sieve No. Opening (mm) Mass finer or
on each above each
Retained, % passing,%
Sieve, Sieve,
grams grams
4 4.75 0 0 0.0 100.0
10 2 21.6 21.6 4.8 95.2
20 0.85 49.5 71.1 15.8 84.2
40 0.425 102.6 173.7 38.6 61.4
60 0.25 89.1 262.8 58.4 41.6
100 0.15 95.6 358.4 79.6 20.4
200 0.075 60.4 418.8 93.1 6.9
Pan - 31.2 450 100.0 0.0
450
From the given complete table.

a. Determine the percentage of gravel

b. Determine the percentage of sand
c. Determine the percentage of silt/clay
d. Draw/Sketch particle grain size curve and determine the effective size,
uniformity coefficient and coefficient of curvature

a. Determine the percentage of gravel

- particles of rock that will pass a 3-in. (75mm) sieve and be retained on a No. 4 (4.75-mm) U.S.
standard sieve with the following subdivisions: (particle size between 4.75mm to 75mm)

since there is 100% percentage passing on No.4 sieve, there are no particle size greater
than 4.75mm therefore 0% gravel. Ans.

b. Determine the percentage of sand

- particles of rock that will pass a No. 4 (4.75mm) sieve and be retained on a No. 200 (75µm) U.S.
standard sieve with the following subdivisions: (particle size between 0.075mm to 4.75mm)

The particle of sand is between the percentage passing on No. 4 and No. 200 sieve
= 100% - 6.9% = 93.1% percentage of sand Ans.

c. Determine the percentage of silt/clay

- soil passing a No. 200 (75-µm) U.S. standard sieve

since both silt and clay are particle size passing the No.200 sieve therefore percentage of
clay or silt is 6.9% Ans.
 d. Grain Size Curve ( for better results use spreadsheet with log scale at x-axis)

D60 = 0.41 D30 = 0.185 D10 = 0.09

CHART TITLE
Series1

120
100.0
95.2
100
84.2

80
61.4
60
41.6
40
20.4
20
6.9
0.0
0.41 0.185
0
4.75 2.00 0.85 0.43 0.25 0.15 0.09 0 . 0 8

From the graph we can determine the effective size is D10 = 0.09mm Ans.

Cu = D60/D10 = 0.41 / 0.09 = 4.56 Ans.

Cc = D302 / (D60 x D10) = 0.1852 / ( 0.41 x 0.09) = 0.93 Ans.

2. CONSISTENCY IN THE REMOLDED STATE AND PLASTICITY

In the remolded state, the consistency of a clay soil varies in proportion to the water content.
At higher water content the soil-water mixtures possesses the properties of a liquid; At lesser
water contents the volume of the mixture is decreased and the materials exhibits the properties of
a plastic; At still lesser water content, the mixtures behave as a semi-solid and finally solid.

The water content indicating the division between the liquid and plastic state has been
designated the liquid limit. The water content at the division between the plastic and semisolid
state is the plastic limit. The water content at the division between the semisolid and the solid
state is the shrinkage limit.

Related Video: Attenberg Limit Test (Plastic and Liquid Limit Test)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EcXJ961qjGA
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CL-Rxg8bE6M

Shrinkage Test
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6LZj6a4jeqI
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4HNGXwqX4L0

ATTEBERG LIMITS

Liquid Limit (LL or wL)

The water content indicating the division between the liquid and plastic state.

Plastic Limit (PL or wp)

The water content at the division between plastic and semi-solid state.

Shrinkage Limit (SL or ws)

 The water content at the division between solid and semi-solid state.

Plasticity Index (PI)

is the numerical difference of the liquid and plastic limits, and indicates the range of
water content through which the soil remains plastic.

Liquidity Index (LI)

Relationsip between the natural(in-situ) moisture content to the liquid and plastic
limit provide an indication of the soil’s consistency and/or sensitivity potential.
A value less than 1 indicates that the natural water content is less than the liquid
limit. A very low value for the LI, or a value near zero, indicates that the water content is
near the plastic limit, where experience has shown that the sensitivity will be low and the
cohesive strength relatively high (a stiff or hard consistency). Negative values of the LI are
possible and normally indicate a desiccated (dried), hard soil.

PI = LL - PL 𝑤−𝐿𝐿 =
LI = 𝐿𝐿−𝑃𝐿
EXAMPLE 4.2

Following are the results from the liquid and plastic limit tests for a soil is 12.2%.
Liquid limit test:
Number of blows, Moisture content
N (%)
16 36.5
20 34.1
28 27
A. Draw the flow curve and obtain the liquid limit.
B. What is the plasticity index of the soil?

SOLUTION:

A. LL = 28.5 Ans.

B. 𝑃𝐼 = 𝐿𝐿 − 𝑃𝐿 = 28.5 − 12.2 = 16.3 Ans.

EXAMPLE 4.3

Following are the results from the liquid and plastic limit tests for a soil. Liquid limit test:

Number of blows, Moisture content

N (%)
15 42
20 40.8
28 39.1

Plastic limit test: PL = 18.7%

a. Draw the flow curve and obtain the liquid limit.
b. What is the plasticity index of the soil?
c. What is the Liquidity Index if the in-situ moisture content is 26%

SOLUTION:

A. LL = 39.7
B. 𝑃𝐼 = 𝐿𝐿 − 𝑃𝐿 = 39.7 − 18.7 = 21 Ans
C.

.
𝐿𝐼 = = = 0.35 Ans.
. .
3. CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL
Soil Classification systems have been primarily devised to facilitate the transfer of information
between interested parties. In the engineering and construction field the broad general properties of concern
relate to the performances or usefulness for supporting structures and the handling or working qualities of
soil.

In general, there are two major categories into which the classification systems developed in the past
can be grouped.

A. The textural classification is based on the particle-size distribution of the percent of sand, silt,
and clay-size fractions present in a given soil.
1. US Department of Agriculture (USDA)

B. The other major category is based on the engineering behavior of soil and takes into
consideration the particle-size distribution and the plasticity (i.e., liquid limit and plasticity index).
1. Unified Soil Classification System (USCS ASTM D-2487)
2. AASHTO Classification System

Particle Size Classification of Classification Systems

US Department of Agriculture (USDA) System

Soil texture is influenced by the size of the individual particles present in it. Divided soils into
gravel, sand, silt, and clay categories on the basis of particle size. In most cases, natural soils are
mixtures of particles from several size groups. In the textural classification system, the soils are
named after their principal components, such as sandy clay, silty clay, and so forth . Several other
textural classification systems are also used, but they are no longer useful for civil engineering
purposes.
EXAMPLE 4.4

If the particle-size distribution of soil A shows 30% sand, 40% silt, and 30% clay-size
particles. Classify the soil using the USDA Classification System

Solution:

Since the particle size fall in Clay Loam, therefore the soil can be classified as:
Clay Loam Ans.
EXAMPLE 4.5

If the particle-size distribution of soil B, has a particle-size distribution of 20% gravel,

10% sand, 30% silt, and 40% clay, Classify the soil using the USDA Classification System

Solution:

Since there are 20% gravel, the modified distributions are

%
Sand = = = 12.5%
%

%
Silt = = = 37.5%
%

%
Clay = = = 50%
%

Since the particle size fall in Clay, therefore the soil can be classified as: Clay Ans.
Since there is presence of gravel it can also be classified clay with gravel
Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)

The Unified Soil Classification System satisfies the requirements of a classification system and is
the system that is coming into prevalent use in the engineering and construction fields. Classifications
are on the basis of coarse- and fine-grained soils, and retain the four common groupings of soil—gravel,
sand, silt, and clay. The symbols are easily associated with the classification, being simply the first letter
of the soil type (except for silt, which has the designation M, from mo, the Swedish word for silt). The
Unified System includes the use of a plasticity chart for aiding the classification of fine-grained soils.
Flow chart for classifying coarse-grained (gravel or sand) soils
(more than 50 percent retained on No. 200 sieve).

Flow Chart for classifying fine-grained (silt or clay) soil (50 percent or more passes No. 200 sieve)
Plasticity Chart
EXAMPLE 4.6
Given the following laboratory test results. Identify the group symbol and group
name

Sieve No. %Passing (Finer)

Soil A Soil B
4 100 100
10 100 -
40 80 -
200 58 8
LL 30 30
PL - 22
PI 10
Cu 1.59
Cc 1.25

Solution: SOIL A
1. Classify first if the soil sample is coarse grained soil or fine grained soil
Coarse grained soil should be 50% or more retained in No. 200 sieve
Retained in No. 200 = 100% - %passing No.200
= 100% - 58%
= 42% not greater 50% therefore not coarse grained soil

Fine Grained Soil should be more than 50% passing No. 200 sieve
Passing No. 200 = 58%, > 50% therefore the soil sample is fine grained soil

2. Classify if the fine grained soil is silt or clay

Check or Compute for the liquid limit (LL)
LL = 30 (check flow chart)
3. Locate the location of PI in the Plasticity Chart and identify the group symbol

PI > 7 and plots above A-line

 Therefore the group symbol is CL Ans.

4. Determine the group name

a. Determine the %retained(plus) in No. 200
Retained in No. 200 = 100% - %passing No.200
= 100% - 58%
= 42% > 30%
b. Determine the percentage of sand and gravel
Percentage of sand is passing No. 4 and retained on No. 200
Percentage of Sand = %passing No. 4 - %passing No. 200
= 100% - 58%
Therefore %sand is 42%

Percentage of gravel
Since 100% passing in No. 4 therefore 0% gravel

Therefore the group name is sandy lean clay Ans.

Solution: SOIL B
Sieve No. %Passing (Finer)
Soil A Soil B
4 100 100
10 100 -
40 80 -
200 58 8
LL 30 30
PL - 22
PI 10
Cu 1.59
Cc 1.25

1. Classify first if the soil sample is coarse grained soil or fine grained soil

Coarse grained soil should be 50% or more retained in No. 200 sieve

Retained in No. 200 = 100% - %passing No.200

= 100% - 8%

= 92% greater 50% therefore coarse grained soil

Fine Grained Soil should be more than 50% passing No. 200 sieve

Passing No. 200 = 8%, less than 50% therefore the soil sample is not fine grained soil

2. Determine the % sand , %gravel and %fines

%gravel = %retained at No. 4 sieve
Since 100 passes No. 4 Sieve therefore 0% gravel

%sand = %passing No. 4 - %passing No. 200

= 100% - 8%
= 92% sand

% sand > %gravel

%fines = %passing No.200

= 8% fines

% fines is 5-12%
3. Determine the group symbol

Cu = 1.59 < 6
and or
Cc = 1.25 ; 1 >Cc>3

Classify fines using Plasticity chart

LL = 30
PL = 22
PI = LL – PL = 30-22 = 8
Therefore fines is classify CL

Therefore group symbol is SP-SC Ans.

4. Determine the group name
Determine the % gravel
%gravel = %retained at No. 4 sieve
Since 100 passes No. 4 Sieve therefore 0% gravel
%gravel is less than 15%

Therefore final group name poorly graded sand with clay (silty clay) Ans.
AASHTO Classification System
AASHTO Classification System, which has been in national use for highway and
transportation-related construction projects. This system classifies soil material into eight groups, with
assignment to a particular group based on determination of particle size distribution, liquid limit and
plasticity index, and presence of organic material. The soil groups are based on performance criteria that
relate to providing load support for traffic bearing pavements.

Both soil classification systems, AASHTO and Unified, are based on the texture and plasticity of soil.
Also, both systems divide the soils into two major categories, coarse grained and fine grained, as separated
by the No. 200 sieve. According to the AASHTO system, a soil is considered fine grained when more than
35% passes through the No. 200 sieve. According to the Unified system, a soil is considered fine grained
when more than 50% passes through the No. 200 sieve.
A generalized comparison of the Unified and AASHTO systems is presented
 Learning Task No. 4
Problem Set No. 3: To be uploaded/submitted thru MS Teams/MS Forms. Write
your solutions and encircle your final answer.

Name_____________________________________ Course/Yr/Sec____________

1. A fine grained soil (no sand) is found to have a liquid limit of 70% and plastic limit of
38%.
a. What is the Plasticity Index (PI)?
b. Using the Unified Soil Classification System, what soil type (group symbol )is this?

2. For a given soil, the following are known

Percentage passing No. 4 sieve = 70
Percentage passing No. 200 sieve =30
Liquid limit = 33
Plastic limit =12
Classify the soil using the Unified Soil Classification System. Give the group symbol and
the group name.
3. For a given soil, the following are known:
Percentage passing No. 4 sieve = 100
Percentage passing No. 200 sieve =61
Liquid limit = 26
Plastic Index =6
Classify the soil using the Unified Soil Classification System. Give the group symbol
and the group name.
.

4. The following are results of sieve analysis. Complete the table and draw particle size
distribution (use any spreadsheet or graph software). From the grain size curve,
a. Determine effective size (D10), uniformity coefficient (Cu) and coefficient of gradation (Cc).
b. Determine the percentage of gravel, sand and silt/clay

Cumulative
Mass Retained Percentage Percentage
Mass Retained
Sieve No. Opening (mm) on Each Sieve Mass Retained Passing or
above each
(grams) (%) Finer, (%)
Sieve (grams)
4 4.75 0 0 0.00 100.00
10 2.00 40 40 5.49 94.51
20 0.850 60 100 13.72 86.28
40 0.425 89 189 25.93 74.07
60 0.250 140 329 45.13 54.87
80 0.180 122 451 61.87 38.13
100 0.15 210 661 90.67 9.33
200 0.075 56 717 98.35 1.65
Pan - 12 729 100.00 0.00
0 0.00 100.00