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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFAC E Preface
Table of Contents
II
General Instruction
Ill
Th is learning material provides the guide to students to examine CHAPTER 1: GEOGRAPY OF SOUTHEAST ASIA
both the societies and cultures of Southeast Asia. The study examines Learning Activities
A . Pre paratory Activity
the socio-cultural characteristics of Southeast Asian commun ities and 2
B . Con tent Read ing
2
the role that culture plays in defining contemporary society. It looks at C. Out comes-based Assessme nts 8
some of the reasons for treating Southeast Asia as a single ethnographic CHAPTER 2: MAKING A LIVING AND ORGANIZING SOCIETY
10
Learning Activities
region . However, rather than simply trying to look for unities and
A. Preparat ory Activity 11
commonalities among the region ' s diverse and complex societies and B . Content Readi ng 12
cultures, it considers primarily concepts and analytical perspectives that C. Outcomes-based Assessments 20
have generated important debates in the ethnography of the region, and CHAPTER 3: INDIGENOUS COMMUNALmES 23
Learning Activities
in anthropology in general, in relation to specific issues and processes. A . Preparatory Activity 24
Such a focus is primarily provided by a consideration of key B . Cont ent Reading 25
ethnographies dealing with a particular country and topic, which also C. Out comes-based Assessmen ts 34

have a wider comparative significance . CHAPTER 4: TRADmONAL CULTURE IN SOUTHEAST ASIA 38

Learning Activities
A . Preparatory Activity 39
B . Content Reading 40
C. Outcomes-based Assessme nts 48

CHAPTER 5: TME ENTRY OF THE FOUR "GREAr' TRADITIONS 52

Learning Activities
A . Preparat ory Activity 53
B . Content Reading 54
C. Outcomes-based Assessments 63
CCHAPTER 6: ENCOUNTERS BElWEEN MULTIPLE TRADITIONS IN 66
A PARTICULAR COUNTRY
Learning Activities
A . Preparat ory Activity 67
B . Content Reading 68
C. Outcomes-based Assessments 84
CHAPTER 7: IN QUEST OF A REGIONAL IDENTllY THROUGH ASEAN 87
Learning Activities
A. Preparatory Activity 88
B. Content Reading 89
C. Outcomes-based Assessments 103

Appe ndix A 109

 CHAPTER I : GEOGRAPY OF SOUTHEAST ASIA

INTRODUCTION
- - - - - - - - - General instructions - - -..
As starting point of the study of the culture and society in Southeast Asia, we need
to realize that geographical background of the region is necessary to be known first before
going further of knowing its cultural and societal background. There are two branches of
• Use this learning guide with care geography that we need to consider in our study; the physical geography and human
geography. Physical geography looks at the natural processes of the Earth, such as climate
• Do not write, highlight, erase, or tear the pages of this topography, soil, forest and other physical features of the countries that compose the region
of Southeast Asia . Human geography looks at the impact and behavior of people and how
module.
they relate to the physical world .

• In answering act6ivities or exercises, use a separate Human geography looks at the impact and behavior of people and how they relate
sheet of paper or refer to your instructor for further or to the phys ical world. However, it is important to remember that all areas of geography are
interconnected: for example, the way human CO2 emissions affect the climate Is part of
other instructions . both physical and human geography. The main area of geography that looks at the
connection between physica l and human geography is called environ mental geography.
• This learning guide must be returned after the end of
Human geography concerns the understanding of the dynamics of cultures, societies
the end of the semester.
and economies, and physical geography concern s the understanding of the dynam ics of
landscapes and the environment.

Geography puts this understanding of social and physical processes within the
context of place - recognizing the great differences in cultures, political systems, economies,
landscapes and environment across the world, and exploring the links between them.
Understanding the causes of differences and inequalities between places and social groups
underlie much of the newer developme nts in human geography.

Geography provides an ideal framework for relating other fields of knowledge . It Is

not surprising that those trained as geographers often contribute substantially to the applied
management of resources and environments.

Can you now answer the question, why we need to study first the geography of
Southeast Asia before we go further with our study of the culture and society in the region>
Try to answer thi s question before you proceed to the next part of this module.

SPECTFIC LEARNTNG OUTCOMES

The follow ing are the specific learning outcomes expected to be realized by th e
If thi s learning guide is lost and found , please return to : learner after the completion of this module :
1. Describe the geographical featu res of Southeast Asia in terms of its climate,
topography, soi ls and forests. ·on
EASTERN SAMAR STATE UNIVERSITY 1
2. Distinguish the differences between the mainland reg ion and :::~nt~~e:~~:~' ·
3. Determi ne the impact of the environmenta l geography of the hie I
comprises Southeast Asia in relation to its location and other geograp a
factors.
 rain forest is the second largest on earth (with the Amazon being the largest). An exception
to this type of climate and vegetation is the mountain areas in the northern region whe
Mgh altltudes lead to milder temperatures and drier landscape. Other parts fall ou~ oft~: C. SOILS AND FORESTS
climate because they are desert like.
So_utheas~ Asia, on balance, has a higher proportion of re lativetv fertile soils than
most trop1_cal regions, and soil erosion is less severe than elsewhere. Much of the region
l( op~,i-G~, chm,U t' ,1.w, ,nc .11,0., m.ip !or Soutnedl!>lt' • n A!.111 I 19B0~l 0 16 1
howev:r, 1s covere~ ~V tropical soils that generally are quite poor in nutri ents . Often th~
profus1~n of.plant h.f~ 1s ~ore r~lated to heat and moisture than to soil quality, even though
these climatic conditions 1ntens1fy both chemical weathering and the rate of bacterial action
that usually improve soil fertility . Once the vegetation cover is removed , the supply of
humus quickly disappears. In addition, the often heavy rainfall leaches the soils of their
soluble nutrients, hastens erosion, and damages the soil texture . The \eachmg process ·10

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part results in laterites of reddish clay that contain hydroxides of iron and alumina.

Laterite soils are common in parts of Myanmar, Thaila nd, and Vietnam and also

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occur in the islands of the Sunda Shelf, notably Borneo. The most fertile soils occur in
regions of volcanic activity, where they eject chemically alkaline or neutral. Such soils are
found in parts of Sumatra and much of Java in Indonesia. The alluvial soils of the river valleys
also are highly fertile and are intensively cultivated.

Southeast Asia is home to nearly 15% of the world's tropical forests. However, the
region is also among the world' s major deforestation hot spots, and ranks among the highost
in terms of severe biodiversity loss, mostly due to the conversion of intact forests mto
plantations, such as for palm oil.

Southeast Asia lost about 80 million hectare of forest between 200S and 2015, and ,t
is feared that such deforestation could lead to over 40% of Southeast Asia's biodiversity
Southeast Asia is one of the most vulnerable regions to climate change in the world.
vanishing by 2100. Human activities such as logging and clear-cutting for food production,
Climate change will have a big effect on agriculture in Southeast Asia such as irrigation
cash crops and agriculture are t he main drivers of this forest loss
systems w ill be affected by changes in rainfall and runoff, and subsequently, water quality
and supply. Climate change is also likely to pose a serious threat to the fisheries industry in
Forests of Southeast Asia are known for t heir high biodiversity, arguably among the
Southeast Asia . greatest in the world . They have been the subject of much international attention over the
past decades.

B. TOPOGRAPHY The sub-region is a major player in the tropical timber trade. Meranti timber from
the dipterocarp forests and teak from Java, Myanmar and Thailand are among the better-
Southeast Asia' s landscape is characterized by three intermingled physical elements: known tropical timbers of the world . Plantation forestry is widely practiced; the teak
mountain ranges, plains and plateaus, and water in the form of both shallow seas and plantations of Java and the rubber plantations of Malaysia are prime examples. Special
extensive drainage systems. Of these, the rivers probably have been of the greatest management systems for tropica l natural forests have been developed in t he sub region.
historical and cultural significance; for waterways have decisively shaped forms of
settlement and agriculture, determined fundamental political and economic patterns, and
helped define the nature of Southeast Asians' worldview and distinctive cultural syncretism.
D. MAINLAND AND INSULAR REGIONS
It also has been of great importance that Southeast Asia, which is the most easily accessible
tropical region In the world, lies strategically astride the sea passage between East Asia and Southeast Asia can be divided into two geographic regions. The mainland portion,
the Middle Eastern-Mediterranean world . th
which is connected to India and China, extends south into what has been_called e
15
Indochina Peninsula or Indochina, a name given t o the region by France. Th ma,nlanci
The physiography of Southeast Asia has been formed to a large extent by the . . L cambodia Thailand, and Myanmar
region consists of the countnes of Vietnam, aos, . • nd Ina The islands or
cpon~fiergence of th ree of the Earth's major crustal units: the Eurasian Indian-Australian and
ac, c plates Burma). This region has been influenced historically by India a Ch · _ in
upl'ft' d. The land
. h as been subjected to a considerable amount ' •
of faulting folding
( . d d by water The coun tries
1 mg, an volcanic actlvit I · • insular region to the south and east consist of _nat1ons surroun ~mor and the Philippines.
There are mark d '
y over geo og1c time, and much of the region is mountainous. ' t
this region include Malaysia, Singapore, Brune,, Indonesia. EaS •
region. e struct ural differences between the mainland and insular portions of the
 Southeast Asia or Southeastern Asia is a sub region of Asia, consisting of the regions
that are geographically south of China, east of the Indian subcontinent and north-west of LAOS - .is a South~ast Asian country traversed by the Mekong Rive r and know n for
Australia . Southeast Asia is bordered to the north by East Asia, to the west by South Asia and mounta1n~us t~rram, French colonial architecture, hill tribe settlements and Buddhist
the Bay of Bengal, to the east by Oceania and the Pacific Ocean, and to the south by m~nastenes. Vientiane, the capital, is the site of the That Luang monument, where a
Australia and the Indian Ocean . The region is the only part of Asia that lies partly within the reliquary reportedly houses the Buddha's breastbone, plus the Patuxai war memorial
Southern Hemisphere, although the majority of it is in the Northern Hemisphere. In and Talat Sao (Morning Market ), a complex jammed with food, clothe s and cra ft stalls.
contemporary definition, Southeast Asia consists of two geographic regions.
MALAYSIA - Malaysia is a Southeast Asian country occupying parts of the Malay
Peninsula and the island of Borneo. It's known for its beaches, ra inforest s and mix of
E. PRESENT-DAY COUNTRIES AND ADJACENT REGIONS Malay, Chinese, Indian and European cultural influences. The capital, Kua la Lumpur, 15
home to colonial buildings, busy shopping districts such as Suk.it Bintang and
Southeast Asia is composed of eleven countries of impressive diversity in religion, skyscrapers such as the iconic, 451m-tall Petronas Twin Towers.
culture and history: Brunei, Burma (Myanmar), Cambodia, nmor-Leste, Indonesia, Laos,
Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam. It is also one of the most SINGAPORE• an island city-state off southern Malaysia, is a global financial center with
dynamic areas of the world economically, a factor which largely accounts for Its growing a tropical climate and multicultural population. Its colonial core centers on the Padang,
international significance. a cricket field since t he 1830s and now flanked by grand build ings such as City Hall, wit h
its 18 Corinthian columns. In Singapore's circa -1820 Chinatown stands the red-and-gold
CAMBODIA · Cambodia is a Southeast Asian nation whose landscape spans low-lying Buddha Tooth Relic Temple, said to house one of Buddha's teeth.
plains, the Mekong Delta, mountains and Gulf of Thailand coastline. Phnom Penh, its
capital, is home to the art deco Central Market, glittering Royal Palace and the National VIETNAM • is a Southeast Asian country on the South China Sea known for its beaches,
Museum's historical and archaeological exhibits. In the countrys northwest are the rivers, Buddhist pagodas and bustling cities. Hanoi, the capital, pays homage to the
ruins of Angkor Wat, a massive stone temple complex built during the Khmer Empire. nation's iconic Communist-era leader, Ho Chi Minh, via a huge marble mausoleum. Ho
Chi Minh City (formerly Saigon) has French colonial landmarks, plus Vietnamese War
THAILAND - It's known for tropical beaches, opulent royal palaces, ancient ruins and history museums and the Cu Chi tunnels, used by Viet Cong soldiers.
ornate temples displaying figures of Buddha. In Bangkok, the capital, an ultramodern
PHILIPPINES - officially the Republic of the Philippines, is an archipelagic country in
cityscape rises next to quiet canal side communities and the iconic temples of Wat Arun,
Southeast Asia . Situated in the western Pacific Ocean, it consists of about 7,641 isla nds
Wat Pho and the Emerald Buddha Temple (Wat Phra Kaew). Nearby beach resorts
that are broadly categorized under three main geographical divisions from north to
include bustling Pattaya and fashionable Hua Hin.
south : Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao.

BRUNEI · a tiny nation on the island of Borneo, in 2 distinct sections surrounded by

Most countries in the region enjoy national autonomy. Democratic forms of
Malaysia and the South China Sea. It's known for its beaches and bio diverse rainforest,
government and the recognition of human rights are taking root. ASEAN provides a
much of it protected within reserves. The capital, Bandar Seri Begawan, is home to the
framework for the integration of commerce, and regional responses to international
opulent Jame' Asr Hassan ii Bolkiah mosque and its 29 golden domes. The capital's
concerns .
massive lstana Nurul Iman palace Is the residence of Brunei's ruling sultan.
China has asserted broad claims over the South China Sea, based on its Nine-Dash
MAYANMAR (BURMA) - Myanmar (formerly Burma) is a Southeast Asian nation of
Line, and has built artificial islands in an attempt to bolster its claims. China also has asserted
more than 100 ethnic groups, bordering India, Bangladesh, China, Laos and Thailand.
an exclusive economic zone based on the Spratly Islands. The Philippines challenged China in
Yangon (formerly Rangoon), the country's largest city, is home to bustling markets,
the Permanent Court of Arbitration in The Hague in 2013, and in Philippines v. China (2016),
numerous parks and lakes, and the towering, gilded Shwedagon Pagoda, which contains
the Court ruled In favor of the Philippines and rejected China's claims.
Buddhist relics and dates to the 6th century.

TIMOR-LESTE · or East Timor, a Southeast Asian nation occupying half the island of
Timor, Is ringed by coral reefs teeming with marine life. Landmarks in the capital, Dili,
speak to the country's struggles for independence from Portugal in 1975 and then
1ndones,a in 2002. The iconic 27m-tall Cristo Rei de Dili statue sits on a hilltop high over SOURCES :
the city, with sweeping views of the surrounding bay.
1. https://www.britannica.com/place/Southeast -As1a .
2. https://asiasociety.or g/education/introdurt ion-southeast•as,a
INDONESIA · officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia,
between the Indian and Pacific oceans. It is the world's largest island country with 3. https ://en .wikiped1a.org/wik1/Southeast Asia • . µfl•Watc!J
1
~ore thbya~ seventeen thousand islands, and at 1,904,S69 square kilometers th~ 14th 4. https://www rsis -org/anatvs1s/$0utheast -as1a~2p1g four ,.s
1
argest and area and 7th in the combined sea and land area. ' s. http ://ontheworldmao-rom/asia/map-9f-rnuthe,1H-M a html
C. Outi:omes,Bued Ana11111tntl

fter reading the content, answer the following questions and perform the suggested ctlvities. a. Economic aspect

CHALLENGE YOUR SELF

b. Political aspect
1. Describe the geographical features of Southeast Asia in terms of the
following factors:

a. Climate

c. Social aspect

b. Topography

TRYTHIS OUT
c. Soils
1. Draw the political map of Southeast Asia and label the countries comp rising
the region. You may also include indications of any physical features found
in the area.

2. Create a geographical profile of the Southeast Asia as a region . Include in

d. Forests this profile the dominant natural resources found in the area, its means of
livelihood, major products tradition and culture, and other unique or distinct
features .

2 Distinguish the differences between the mainland region and the insular
region of Southeast Asia by filling-in five (5) characteristics of both regions in
the table below.

Mainland Region Insular Region

3. Determine the impact of the environmental geography of the countries that

comprises Southeast Asia in relation to its location and other geographical
factors on the following aspects of the society of Southeast Asian Countries.
 LEAJL'IJ};G ACTJVm ES
CHAPTER z: MAKING A LIVING AND ORGAN IZING soc1m
A. Prepanlory Acllvi!y

JNTRUDl.:CTION nlock the difficulties bv performing this prepamo"I aaMty frsL Get the undemand ng of the 'ollo,

How should society be o rgan ized ? This motive que snon will serve as our guide to be
certa in o f t he main f oe.us of this module. We already learned the climate and geography of
the Southeast Asian countries, now It is important to know the culture and history behi nd l . History
each countrv. We want to lcnow how the Southeast Asian co untries got to what thev are
todav. We want to know whv a wide varietv of cultures developed in Southeast Asia .

Throughout time and in every part of the world, peopl e have organized themsetves
into groups with common rul es of living. A s.ociety ls t he name we g;ve to the organization of
such a group. 2. Prehistoric

Th ink about the people you see every day. Do you spend each day meeting new
strangers ? Or do you see the same fam lty members, class mates, and teachers every day ?
Chances are, there is a pattern to your interactions. A group of people sharing a culture is
known as society eNery society has a society structure, or a pattern of organized
reladonships among groups of people within the society. A society may be as small as a 3. Societv
single community or as large as a nation or even a group of similar nations. Smaller groups
work t ogether on particular ta sk..s such as gathering food , protecdng the communrty, and
education. Social structure helps people work together to meet one another's basic needs.
With th is, the ma king of a living of a group of people could be the most important factor for
us to determine how the society is organized.
4. Ethnicities
The organiza tion of the region of Southea st Asia as socia l structure could be traced
by knowing its his torical background from pre-historic period to the mother time. It could
also be analyzed by tracing the development of their races and ethnicities particularly of
their subsistence strategies and pollt1cal systems.

5. Social Process

SPECll'JC LEARNI NG OUTCOMES

The follow ing are the specific lea rning outcomes expected to be realized by the
learner after the completion of th is module:

1. Trace the historical background of the organ ization in Southeast Asian as a

societal structure through the available lnformat1on about prehistoric basis
provided by different sources.
2. Describe the distinctive characteristics of the different cultura l groups and
ethnicities of Southeast Asia by recogn izing their subsistence strategies and the
development of their political structures and form of institutionalized social
relattons .
3. Analvz• the how making a living of the people related to the process of the
organization of the society in Southeast Asia .
 B. Conlan! Readings
ead the content and acquire further detailed information by accessing the sources pr vided. The oldest habitation discovered in the Philippines ls located at the Tabon Caves and
dates back to approximately 50,000 years BP. Items there found such as burial jars
earthenware, jade ornaments and other jewellery, stone tools, animal bones, and huma ~
fossils date back to 47,000 yea rs BP. Unearthed human rema ins are approximately 24,000
years old.
MAKING A LIVING AND ORGANIZING SOCIETY
The descendants of these earliest Homo sapiens immigrants, loosetv identified as
"Australo-Melanesians", include the Negritos, Papuans, Indigenous Australians and Hill
A. PREHISTORY Tribes (most of them have Austronesian admixture in modern times). They are associated
with the occupation of caves, rock shelters and isolated upland regions in Vietnam, Thailand
Knowledge of the early prehistory of Southeast Asia has undergone exceptionally and the Philippines or on remote islands, such as the Andaman Islands and although
rapid change as a result of archaeological discoveries made since the 1960s, although the displaced from the coasts and plains they are present in all regions for at least 30,000 years.
Interpretation of these findings has remained the subject of extensive debate. Nevertheless.
it seems clear that the region has been inhabited from the earliest times. Hominid fossil Neolithic Migrations
remains date from approximately 1,500,000 years ago and those of Homo sapiens from
approximatety 40,000 years ago. Furthermore, until about 7000 BCE the seas were some 150 The Neolithic was characterized by several migrations into Mainland and Island
feet (50 meters) lower than they are now, and the area west of Makassar Strait consisted of Southeast Asia from southern China by Austronesian, AustroasIatic, l<ra·Dai, and Hmong•
a web of watered plains that sometimes Is called Sundaland. These land connections Mien-speakers.
perhaps account for the coherence of early human development observed in the Hoabinhian
culture. which lasted from about 13,000 to 5000 or 4000 BCE. The stone tools used by The most widespread migration event, was the Austrones ian expansion, which
hunting and gathering societies across Southeast Asia during this period show a remarkable began at around 5,SOO BP (3500 BC) from Taiwan and coastal southern China. Due to the ir
degree of similarity in design and development. When the sea level rose to approximately its early invention of ocean•going outrigger boats and voyaging catamarans, Austronesians
present level about 6000 BCE, conditions were created for a more variegated environment rapidly colonized Island Southeast Asia, before spreading further into Micronesia, Melanesia,
and, therefore, for more extensive differentiation in human development. While migration Polynesia, Madagascar, and the Comoros. They dominated the lowlands and coasts of Island
from outside the region may have taken place, It did not do so in a massive or clearty Southeast Asia, intermarrying with the indigenous Negrito and Papuan peoples to varying
punctuated fashion; local evolutionary processes and the circulation of peoples were far degrees, giving rise to modern Islander Southeast Asians, Micronesians, Polynesians,
more powerful forces in shaping the region's cultural landscape. Melanesians, and Malagasy.

Paleolithic The Austroasiatic migration wave centered around the Mon and the Khmer, who
originate in North· Eastem India arrive around 5000 BP and are identified with the
Anatomically modern human hunter-gatherer migration into Southeast Asia before settlement on the broad riverine floodplains of Burma, Indochina and Malaysia.
50,000 years ago has been confirmed by the combined fossil record of the region. These
immigrants might have, to a certain extent, merged and reproduced with members of the Early Agricultu,.,.1 Societies
archaic population of Homo erectus, as the fossil discoveries in the Tam Pa Ling Cave suggest.
Territorial principalities in both Insular and Mainland Southeast Asia, characterized
Data anatysis of stone tool assemblages and fossil discoveries from Indonesia, Southern
as Agrarian kingdoms had by around 500 BCE developed an economy based on surplus crop
China, the Philippines, Sri Lanka and more recently Cambodia and Malaysia has established
cultivation and moderate coastal trade of domestic natural products. Several states of the
Homo erectus migration routes and episodes of presence as early as 120,000 years ago and
Malayan-Indonesian "thalassian" zone shared these characteristics with Indochinese polities
even older isolated finds date back to 1.8 million years ago. Java Man (Homo erectus) and nd
like the Pyu city-states in the Irrawaddy river valley, Van Lang in the Red River delta a
Homo floresiensis atte st for a sustained regional presence and isolation, long enough for
Funan around the lower Mekong. V:in Lang, founded in the 7th century BCE endured unt
no1able dNersification of the species' specifics.
258 BCE under the rule of the HOng 83ng dynasty, as pan of the Odng SO'n culture eventua 'v
nd
sustained a dense and organized population that produced an elaborate Bronze Age i u5try.
Ocean drops of up to 120 m (393 .70 ft) below the present level during Pleistocene
glacial periods revealed the vast lowlands known as Sundaland, enabling hunter-gatherer
lntenslve wet•rice cultivation In an ideal climate enabled the farming communities to
populations to freely access insular Southeast Asia via extensive terrestrial corrido~. nd
produce a regular crop surplus that was used by the ruling elite to raise, comma ai"d pa;
Modern human presence in the Niah cave on East Malaysia dates back to 40,000 years BP,
work forces for public construction and maintenance projects such as cana s an
although archaeological documentation of the early settlement period suggests only brief
occupation phases. However, author Charles Higham argues that, despite glacial periods fortifications.
modern humans were able to cross the sea barrier beyond Java and Timar, who around . d 2000 BCE, huncing and
45,000 years ago left traces in the lvane Valley in eastern New Guinea "at an altitude of Though millet and rice cultivation was int~duced ar:~ncular In forested and
2,000 m (6,S61.68 ft) exploiting yams and pandanus, hunting, and making stone tools gathering rema ined an important aspect of food provision, In P
between 43 ,000 and 49,000 years ago."
mountainous inland areas. Many tribal communities of the aborlginal Australo·Melanesian
wh '.ch are in th~ East ~a.lavsta. T~e Malays are the majorltv ln West Malaysia and Brunel,
settlers continued the lifestyle of mixed sustenance until the modern era .
~hlle thev for~mg a s1gn '.ftcant mmori.tv in Indonesia, Southern Thailand, East Malaysia and
Singapore. In c1ty•state Smgapore, Chinese are the majority, vet the city is a multicultural
Bronze Aae Southeast Asia melting pot with Malays, Indians and Eurasian also calle d t he island their home.

Earliest known copper and bronze production in Southeast Asia has been found at The Chams forming a significant minority in Central and South Viet nam, also in
the site of Ban Chiang in North•east Thailand and among the Phung Nguyen culture of Central Cambodia. While the Khmers are the majority in Cambodia, and farm ing a signi"ficant
northern Vietnam around 2000 BCE. minority in Southern Vietnam and Tha iland. The Hmong people are the mi nority in Vietna m,
Ch ina and Laos.
The Dong Son culture established a tradition of bronze production and the manufacture of
ever more refined bronze and iron objects, such as plows, axes and sickles with shaft holes, Within the Philippines, the Tagalog, Visavan (maintv Cebuanos, Wa ravs and
socked arrow and spearheads and small ornamented items. By about 500 BCE large and Hiligaynons), llocano, Bicolano, Moro (maintv Tausug, Maranao, and Maguindanao) and
delicately decorated bronze drums of remarkable quality, that weighed more than 70 kg Cent ral Luzon (mainly Kapampa ngan and Pangasinan) groups are significant. The Philippines
(150 lb) were produced in the laborious lost-wax casting process. This industry of highly is also unique in Southeast Asia, in holding the only Latino founded communities in
sophisticated metal processing has been developed locally bare of Chinese or Indian Southeast Asia due torts former political union with Mexko during the era of the Vlceroyalty
influence. Historians relate these achievements to the presence of well organized, of New Spain and also possessing a Mexican-Spanish based Creole language ca lled
centralized and hierarchical communities and a large population. Chavacano. There is also burgeoning American expat population in the Philippines.

Pottery Culture
C. SUBSISTENCE STRATEGIES
Between 1,000 BCE and 100 CE the Sa Huynh culture nourished along the south-central
coast of Vietnam . Ceramic jar burial sites that included grave goods have been discovered at Subsistence means to support life. For example, subsistence farming literally mean s
various sites along the entire territory. Among large, thin·walled, terracotta jars, farming for the purpose of supporting life. It is easy to imagine that different geographica l
ornamented and colorized cooking pots, glass items, jade earrings and metal objects had and cultural areas will create different strategies to support their own way of life. These
been deposited near the rNers and at the coast. various strategies are called subsistence strategies, or methods used to support life. In
Southeast Asia it consist s of foraging, swidden agriculture, t rad itional wet rice cultivation
The Buni culture is the name given to another early independent centre of refined pottery and mechanized farming.
production that has been well documented on the basis of excavated burial gifts, deposited
between 400 BCE and 100 CE in coast al north·western Java . The objects and artifacts of the 1. fora1in1 is the process of gathering food from uncultivated plants or undomesticated
Buni tradition are known for their originality and remarkable quality of incised and animals. You can th ink of it as a " Hunter/Gatherer'' type of lifestyle. A foraging
geometric decors. Its resemblance to the Sa Hu)'nh culture and the fact that it represents the subsistence strategy requires large amounts of edible plant growth to sust ain Itself and
earliest Indian Roulettes Ware recorded in Southeast Asia are subject of ongoing research . plentiful prey to hunt for meat. Foragers need to live a nomadic lifestyle. They must
move constantly to follow the growing season in different geographical regions and the
migration patterns of their animal•based food source. This subsistence strategy only
8. THE PEOPLE OF SOUTHEAST ASIA: " RACES" AND ETHNICITIES supports small groups due to t he limited food source in each area, the need to
constantly move, and the need to tind shelter from the environment. In a foraging
The Aslians and Negritos were believed as one of the earliest inhabitant in the subsistence, people in the same foraging group maintain a bond of sharing equally with
region. They are genetically related to the Papuans in Eastern lndonesla, East Timor and each other.
Australian Aborigines. In modern times, the Javanese are the largest ethnic group in 2. Swldden acriculture or shlftln& cultivation has been practised in the uplands of
Southeast Asia, with more than 100 mill ion people, mostly concentrated in Java, Indonesia . Southeast Asia for centuries and is estimat ed to support up to 500 million people -
The second largest ethnic group in Southeast Asia is Vietnamese (Kinh people) with around most of whom are poor, natural resource reliant uplanders. Recen tly, however,
86 million populations, mainly inhabiting in Vietnam, thus forming a significant minority in dramatic land-use transformations have generated social, economic and ecological
neighboring Cambodia and Laos. The Thais is also a significant ethnic group w ith around 59 impacts that have affected the extent, practice and outcomes of sw idden In the region.
million populations form ing the majority in Thailand . In Burma, the Burmese account for While certain socio-ecological trends are clear, how these broader land-use cha nges
more than two-thirds of the ethnic stock in this country. impact upon local livelihoods and ecosystem services remains uncertain. .
3. Traditional wet rice cultivation is the growing of rice in flooded fields called padr fields
Indonesia is clearly dominated by the Javanese and Sundanese ethnic groups, with in Indonesia . Its traditional form is found throughout Southea~t Asia ~outher~ ~hi~a,
hundreds of ethnic minorities inhabited the archipelago, including Madurese, Minangkabau, Japan, north and South Korea, Indonesia and many other tropica l region s. O~igma Y,
Bugis, Balinese, Oayak, Batak and Malays. While Malaysia is split between more than half rice is not a water plant. Only after an adaption over thousands of years, so phiStlcat ed
Malays and one•quarter Chinese, and also Indian m inority in the West Malaysia however wet rice sorts were bred artificially. There are several advantases fo r wet ri~e ove r dry
Dayaks make up the majority in Sarawak and Kadazan-dusun makes up th e majority in Sa bah rice . The annual flood s due to the monsoon get an integrated part into the nee
 production circle . Many kinds of weeds and crop pests don't drive wel l In the water. sovereign unit . The most preeminent polities today are Westphalian st ates and nati on-states
commonly referred to as nations '
There is a significant difference between ra infall farming and Irrigation farming. 80% of
the world s rice production is based on wet rice farm ing. The water is not standing but
1

in a steady, slow flow . For a kilogramm of rice, between 3,000 and 5,000 liters water A polity can encapsulates a vast multitude of organization s, many of which fo rm the
are required. If the water flows too slowly, algaes grow and harm the plants; does It fundamental apparatus of contemporary states such as the ir subord inate civil and local
flow too fast, nutrients flush out. Most of the rice sorts in Southeast Asia are wet rice. government authorities. Polities do not need to be in control of any geographic areas, as not
all political entities and governments have controlled the resources of one fixed geographic
Practically most of the rural landscapes are coined by rice paddies. In practice, the
area . The historical Steppe Empires originating from the Eurasian Steppe are th e most
cultivation looks like that: The first step is the seeding into mildly watered soil !here it
prominent example of non-sedentary polities. These polities differ from st ates because of
becomes evident that rice is not an original wet plant, for the seeds wouldn 't grow in
their lack of a fixed, defined territory. Empires also differ from states in that the ir territories
the water. The fields have to be ploughed then, traditionally with water buffalos,
are not statically defined or permanently fixed and consequently that their body politic was
nowadays more and more with tractors. Third, after some weeks, the seedlings have to
also dynam ic and fluid. It is useful then to think of a polity as a political community.
be transferred from the plant field into the rice paddies. The growth now depends
much on the irrigation. Problematic is If there is not enough rain or other water supply,
A polity can also be defined either as a faction within a larger (usually state) entity,
or if there is too much rain who floods the fields . Most of the rice sorts in Southeast
or at different times as the entity itself. For example, Kurds in Iraqi Kurd istan are parts of
Asia are wet rice. Practically most of the rural landscapes are coined by rice paddies.
their own separate and distinct polity. However, t hey are also members of th, sovefl'!il n
4. Mechanized agriculture is the process of using agricultural machinery to mechanize the
state of Iraq which is itself a polity, albeit one which is much less specific and as a result
work of agriculture, greatly increasing farm worker productivity. In modern times,
much less cohes ive. Therefore, it is possible for an individual to belong to more than one
powered machinery has replaced many farm jobs formerly carried out by manual
polity at a time.
labour or by working animals such as oxen, horses and mules.

Southeast Asia as a region varies widely in its cultures, history, and political
Bands, "AutonomoUS'" Vlliaps, Chll!fdoms, States
institutions. Due to this variety of regime types and the large variance of theoretically
relevant explanatory factors, Southeast Asia presents political scientists with a "natural
Bands - Bands have been found primarily among foragers, especially self-sufficient
laboratory." levels of socioeconomic modernization, paths to state and nation-building,
pedestrian foragers. The total number of people within these societies ra rely exceeds a few
ethnic heterogeneity, colonial heritage, the structure of governing coalitions and elite
dozen. Bands are essentially associations of families living together. They are loosely allied
formations, the shape and extent of interest and civil society organizations, as well as
by marriage, descent, friendship, and common interest. The primary integrating mechanism
institutional factors like type of government or electoral system all differ widely. This chapter
for these societies is kinship. Bands are extremely egalitarian--all families are essen tial ly
provides an overview of Southeast Asia' s demographic, cultural, and religious characteristics;
equal. There is no econom ic class diffl'!fentiation. However, there are often clear status
outlines its pre-colonial, colonial, and postcolonlal political development; and argues that
differences based on gender and age.
the region's eleven countries fall into three broad regime categories: Cambodia, Malaysia,
Singapore, and-most recently-Myanmar are examples of "electoral authoritarianism ."
No band level societies survive today with their traditional form of political
Brunei Darussalam, Laos, Vietnam, and Thailand after 2014 are closed autocracies that lack
organization intact. However, they did until the last half of the 19th century in out-of-the-
multiparty elections. Finally, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Timor- Leste make up the
way regions of northern Siberia, the desert and sub-arctic regions of North America and
region 's defective democracies, all stable but suffering from different constellations of
Greenland, the tropica l lowlands of Central and South America, the Australian desert interior
problems, including intermittent mass mobilization, corruption, and incomplete stateness.
and tropical north, as well as a few isolated areas of Southeast Asia. While it is easy to think
of these people and their traditional way of life in the past as oddities, it is importan t to keep
in mind that the distant ancestors of all people on earth lived in bands at one time. Befo re
D. VARIETIES OF POLITIES
the end of the last ice age, around 10,000 years ago, it is likely that very few societies had
A polity is an identifiable political entity-any group of people who have a collective more complex levels of political Integration .
identity, who are organized by some form of institutionalized social relations, and have a
"Autonomous• Villages - The 'village' is a powerful unit of analysis in both a
capacity to mobilize resources. A polity is an identifiable political entity-any group of
people who have a collective identity, who are organized by some form of instit utionalized materia l and a metaphorical sense. The traditional village 'community' is o~en paraded as a
social relations, and have a capacity to mobilize resources. A polity can be any other group paragon of virtue, and the modern village as a corrupted version of the original. Yet the
of people organized for governance (such as a corporate board), the government of a notion of the traditional v illage as egalitarian, self-sufficient, autonomous, subsistence -
country, or country subdivision. oriented, corpo rate, peaceful and moral is often at odds with the historic evidence. As su~~·
15
it presents difficulties when the image is used to construct visions of what 'development
th
In geopolitics, a polity can be manifested in different forms such as a state, an doing, and should be doing, in rural areas of the developing world. This paper looks at e
empi re, an international organization, a political organization and other identifiable, evidence from Southeast Asia regarding the origins and structure of village 'commun ities' m
resource-manipulating orga nization al structures. A polity like a state does not need to be a the region, and examines some of the implication s for development.
 Chiefdoms · Chiefdoms are similar to bands and tribes In being mostly classless . . It Is perhaps most clear In what was, afte r all, the master imagt of pollt'lca l life
societies. However, chiefdoms differ In having a more or less permanent, fulltime leader kmgsh1 p. The wh~le of the negara - court life, the traditions that organized it , the extractions
with real authority to make major decisions for their societies. These leaders are usually tha t .supported 1t, the privileges that accompanied it - was essentially directed toward
referred to by anthropologists as ch iefs. Sometimes there is an advisory council as well, but deftnmg what power was; and what power was what kings were. Particular kmgs came and
there is no bureaucracy of professional administrators. The government is essentially just went, 'poor passing facts ' anonymized in titles, immobilized in ritual, and annihilated in
the chief. bonfires. But what they represented, t he model-and-copy conception of order, remained
unaltered, at least over the period we know much about. The driving aim of higher polrtics
was to construct a state by constructing a king. The more consummate the k.i ng, the more
A chiefdom Is a form of hierarchical political organization in non-industrial societies
exemplary the centre. The more exemplary the centre, the more actual the realm.
usually based on kinship, and in which formal leadership is monopolized by the legitimate
l
senior members of select families or 'houses'. These elites form a political-ideologica
Geertz used the Balinese case to develop an abstract model of the Theatre state
aristocracy relative to the general group.
applicable to all the South East Asian lndic polities. To succinctly summarize his theory,
NPower served pomp, not pomp power." Other anthropologists have contested the
State - State level political systems first appeared In societies with large-sca le
ahistorical, static nature of the model. They point out that he has depoliticized a political
intensive agriculture. They began as chiefdoms and then evolved into more centralized,
institution by emphasizing culture wh ile ignoring its material base.
authoritarian kingdoms when their populations grew into tens of thousands of people.
While chiefdoms art societies in which everyone is ranked relative to the chief, states are
socially stratified into largely distinct classes in terms of wealth, power, and prestige.
Bureaucracies versus Ollcarchles

The processes of state formation in the agrarian states of Southeast Asia lend
As system the difference between oligarchy and bureaucracy is that oligarchy is a
themselves to fruitful comparative analysis using Eliasian concepts. However, in the difficult
government run by only a few, often the wealthy while bureaucracy is structure and
physical environment of a region endowed w ith plentiful land relative to population, the
regulations in place to contro l activity usually in large organizations and government
control of labor was more important than control of territory, as demonstrated by the cases
operations. The signal performances of Southeast Asian countries in attaining economic
of Siam and Java. Moreover, the re ligious, ceremonial and symbolic significance of kingship
growth and political stability are frequently explained by cultural and policy factors. Recent
remained very important even when the coercive power of the centre was weak. Courts
research suggests, however, that the role of the stat! is extensive and central to economic
made absolutist claims, but their dominance depended on symbolic power and on complex
and political goals. The present approach to the comparative evaluation of state ca pacities
intrigues and networks of patronage. Elias is useful to analyze these endogenous processes
attempts to account for the variations and nuances of the performance of Southeast Asian
of state formation. However, the modern states of the region were forged by colonialism,
states. The structure of ~itical support and available means of social control provide
nationalist movements and the more recent technocratic developmentalist programmes of
relatively greater capacity to state elites in Singapore and Malaysia, and less ca pacity to
authoritarian elites. Rapid economic transformation and industrialization have brought new
state elites in the Philippines and Indonesia; Thailand is an intermediate case.
classes and new tensions to test the adequacy of state structures, now far removed from the
elite territorial competition of the past.
The pre-nineteenth century "theater" state
Democratic States versus Authortt.irtan States
In political anthropology, a theatre state is a political state directed towards the The word democracy comes from the Greek words 'demos,' which refers to the
performance of drama and ritual rather than more conventiona l ends such as warfa re and people, and 'kratos,' which means power. Thus, a democratic statt is one 1n which power
welfare. Power in a theatre state is exercised through spectacle. The term was coined by emanates from the people. One might say, then, that authoritarianism is the opposite of a
Clifford Geertz in 1980 in reference to political practice In the nineteenth-centur y Balinese democracy. In an authoritarian regime, all power is concentrated in one person alone, often
Negara, but its usage has since expanded. Hunik Kwon and Byung-Ho Chung, for example,
referred to as the dictator.
argue that contemporary North Korea is a theatre state. In Geertz's original usage, the
concept of the theatre state contests the notion that precolonial society can be analyzed in One of the most basic featu res of a democracy that sets it apart from
t he conventional discourse of Oriental despotism. authoritarianism is the proce ss by which leaders are chosen. Because a democracy Is meant
th
to uphold the power of the people, leaders are chosen such that they truly represent e
Negara : The Theatre State in Nineteenth-Centu ry Ball is a 1980 book written by people's in terests. This is done through fair and honest elections, whereby citizens may
anthropologist Clifford Geertz. Geertz argues that the pre-colonial Balinese state was not a
collectively express their choice of leaders through the ballot.
"hydraulic bureaucracy.. nor an oriental despotism, but rather, an organized spectacle. The
noble rulers of the island were less Interested in administering the Uves of the Balinese than In an authoritarian state such mechanisms are rendered either obsolete or futile
in dramatizing their rank and hence political superiority through large public rituals and Dictato rs want to cling to powe;, and so the very notion of an election is c~unter to t~ar
th
ceremonies. These cultural processes did not support the state, he argues, but were the desire . Thus, authoritarian states often do away w ith elections endrely, takingth e choice
state. engage e el~toral
away from the people to begin w ith. In more insidious cases, dictators
process but dishonestly. By rigging the system, wh ile offering their citizens the Illus/on°
 choice, the staged elections only serve to legitimize the dictator's continued rule, as it
continues to seem as if the dictator enjoys the support of the public.

2. Identify some of the races and ethnicities in Southeast Asia w ith the ir locanon
SOURCES:
and any information about them by completing the table below :

1. https:lfasiasocietv-org/ed ucatipn/i ntroductjon-5outheast-asla

Ethnic Group Location Any Information About Them
2. httos·//eo wikioedia org/wiki/Hi5tqry of Southeast Asia
3. http://www.aslenreisender.de/ricg.html
4. https:{lwww2.paloma r.gdu/a nthro/p9 litjca l/po l 2. htm
5. https://study.com/academy/less9n/pol1tical- organ izat1on s•bands-tnb es-cbiefdoms-
illIDJJ.tml
6. hrtps://www.britan nica.com/topic:/historv•of-So uthea5t-A5ia

3. Complete the diagram by indicating the development and advantages of the

way of life of the people living the societies having the kind of subsis tence
strat~ connecting on It.
C. Ou1l:011M11•B•nd A11Hlffltnls
subsistenr Strategies Development and Advant•1• of the Way of Life
fter reading the content, answer the following questions and perform the suggeste activities.

CHALLENGE YOUR SELF

1. Construct a timeline illustrating sequence of the major event that happened

during the prehistoric period in Southeast Asia from Paleolithic period lo the
age of Pottery Culture. Make a short explanation bellow on It.

Construct your timeline here:

Mechanized
Write your explanation on the space below:
Agriculture
 CHAPTER 3: INDIGENOUS COMMUNAUTIES
4. Define t he following concepts by using your own words :

a. Bands INTRODUCTIO N

According t o _un,ted Nations (UN), Indigenous communalities, people and nations

are those which, having a historical continuity w ith pre-i nvasion an d pre-colonial societies
tha~ d.eveloped on ~heir territo ries, consider themsetves di stinct from other sectors of th e
b. Stat e societies now prevai ling on those territorie s, or parts of them.

. Indigenous people are _inheritors and practitioners of unique cultures and ways of
relating to people and the environment. They have retained social, cultural, economic and
political characteristics that are distinct from those of the dominant societies ,n which the
c. Theate r state live. Despite the ir cultural differences, Indigenous people from around the world shar!
common problems related to the protection of their rights as distinct peoples.

The explanation of communal components takes us into the cerebral-spinal

dimens ion of community, its immanence. We refer to its dynamics, to the underlying and
d. Oligarchies active energy between and among human beings and of human beings with each and every
one of the elements of nature. It means that when we speak of organi zation, rules,
communal principles, we are not referring just to the physical space and material existence
of human beings, but to their spiritual existence, to their ethical and ideological code and,
therefore, to their political, social, legal, cultural, economic, and civil behavior.
e. Authoritarian State
The essence of the phenomenon is explained under the concept of communality,
which for me defines the immanence of the community. To the extent tha t communality
defines other key concepts for understanding indigenous reality, it should be underst ood not
as something in opposition to, but as simply different from Western society. Coming to
understand its elements requires taking into account certain notions: the communal,
TRY THIS OUT collective, complementarily and completeness.

1. Chose a particular social structure based on subsistence strategy and This module will present dominant classifiers of determining the cultural structures
establish your imagination that you are living on that certain kind of of different cultural group and races in different parts of the region of Southeast Asia. Th ey
society. Write an imaginary diary of what you have experienced in a day. will be classified In terms of tracing their origin based on the common Language Tree t heir
Try to be specific of the details on your status, family background, event perspective and over view on gender and sex.
of happenings and your way of living based on the structure of the
society you have chosen .

SPEClFIC LEARNING OUTCOMES

The follow ing are the specific learning outcomes expected to be realized by the
learner after the completion of this module :

1. Relate the relevant issues related to ind igenous people of Southeast Asia.
2. Trace the group of languages related through descent from a comm on ancestral language
or parental language of different cultural group in Southeast Asia. . .
3. Determine how language and culture affect the social processes such as cultural d,ffu51 on
in the different Southeast Asian indigenous communalities.
4. Contrast aspects of fam ily and kinship from the point of view of gender among cultural
groups and indigenous people of Southeast Asia.
LEAR.NL"IG ACTIVITrES B. Content Readings
A. Preparatory Activity ead the content and acquire further detailed Information by accessing the sour ces rovided

nlock t he difficulties by performing this preparatory activity first. Get the understan ing of the following mal

INDIGENOUS COMMUNALITIES

1. Indigenous
A. INDIGENOUS PEOPLE IN SOUTHEAST ASIA

Indigenous people are inheritors and pra ctitioners of unique cultu res and ways of relating to
people and the environment. They have retained social, cultural, economic and polltical
characteristics that are distinct from those of t he dom inant societies in which they live .
2. Language
Despite their cultural differences, indigenous peoples from around the world share common
problems related to the protection of the ir rights as distinct peoples.

The explanation of communal componen ts takes us into the cerebral -spinal dimension of
community, its immanence. We re:fer to its dynamics, to the underlying and active energy
between and among human beings and of human beings with each and every one of the
3. Social Process
elements of nature. It means that whe:n we speak of organization, ru les, communal
principles, we are not referring just to the physical space: and material existence of human
beings, but to their spiritual existence, to t heir ethical and ideological code and, therefore,
to their political, social, legal, cu lt ural, economic, and civil behavior.

4. Social Relations The essence of t he phen omenon is explained under the concept of communality, which
defines the immanence of the commun ity. To the extent that communality defines other
key concepts for understanding indigenous reality, it should be understood not as
something in opposition to. but as simply different from Western society. Coming to
understand its e:lements requires takmg into account certain notions: the communa l,
collective. complementarily and completeness.
S. Gender Role
We are using the term Indigenous People w ith a meaning that is differe nt from that given in
many dictionaries, or how it Is understood by many governments. Over t he past de:cades,
the concept of Indigenous Peoples has evolved beyond the original meaning found in
dictionaries, and it is now well established in international law. That is why we are writi ng it
w ith capital initial letters.

It is a fore ign term for most of us, and it is often difficult to translate into our own languages.
Some governments in Southeast Asia use names to refer to us collectively · like · et hnic
minorities ... Hhill tribes#, Hnative people" . There are also t he names given by outsiders, some
of which are not appreciated by many of us, since they often imply notions of cu ltura l
inferiority, being '" primitive .. or "backward" . Exa mples are chuncheat (meaning "ethnicity",
or literally '"nationa l people" in Cambodia) or sakai (literally meaning "slave") used In
Thailand for some hunter-gatherer groups. We ourselves though prefer to use the names
wh ich our ancestors have given us.

We have our own distinct langu age, cu lture, customary laws, and social and p~litical
institutions that are very different from those of the dominant ethno•lingulstfc groups in our
countries. Self·identification is crucia l for us. When we call ourselves Indigenous People we
do not mean to claim to be the only people native to our countries. In most cases we are th e
 "aboriginal" or Hnattve" people of the lands we live in, and other people have come to settle Slno-Tibetan 1s one of the largest language fa milies in the world, with more than 400
there later. But we have also lived side-by-side with other peoples, nanve to their own lands, languages, also known as Trans-Himalayan. This includes both the Chinese and the 1ibeto-
who however do not ca ll themselves Indigenous People. These are usually the dominant Burman Language.
people, who have the economic and political power m our countries.

In some cases, we are forced to leave our lands because of violent confl icts, and to
move to another country, lik:e to Thailand, Vietnam or Laos. In these countries, we are
clearly not t he first inhabitants, the original or native people. But we strive to continue with
our way of life and keep our traditions and practices altve and we still re main Indigenous
People.

Most of our people are small in numbers. Some have populations of j ust a few
thousand or even just a few hundred. Wh ile we fin d an enormous diversity among
Indigenous Peoples, common to us all are t he strong cultlJra l attachment to and the
dependence of our livelihoods on land, forests or the sea and the natural resources therein.
Our ways of life, spirituality and identity is very much attached to our territories, and
displacement from our territories does not just Imply the loss of livelihood, but of our
identity and therefore Is a threat to our very existence as people.

B. COMMON LANGUAGE TREE

Awtroneslan language are a language family w idely spoken throughout Taiwan, Malay
Peninsula, Maritime Southeast Asia, Madagascar and the islands of the Pacific Ocean There
There are thousands of spoken languages in the world and most can be traced back
are also a few speakers in continental Asia. They are spoken by about 386 million people.
in history to show how they are related to each other. By finding patterns like these,
different languages can be grouped together as m<!mbers of a language fam ily. When
Auatroaalatlc
linguists talk about the historical relationship between languages, they use a tree metaphor.

A language family is a group of languages related through descent from a common Mu nda Mon-Khmer
ancestral language or par<!ntal language, called the proto-language of that family . The te rm
"family" reflects the tree model of language origination in historical linguistics, which makes Nortt, Nof'them MK E ■ 11em MK Southem MK
use of a metaphor compar ing languages to people In a biologlcal family tree, or in a Central
I

~
subsequent modification, to species In a phylogenetic tree of evolutionary taxo nomy.
South I
Khasi Mon
Peanc
Lingu ists therefore describe the daughter languages w ithin a language family as being Pataung ic AsJian
Kh mu lc Khmer Nicobarese
genetically related.
Mang
V"tet- M u ong Bahnanc
The Sino-Tibetan, Austrones lans, the Austro-Aslatlcs and the Tai: Originally one family?
Kab.Jlc
"fNC J-TlUET \ N

T WETO -IJUKi\ tAN S lAl\lF.SE-C HI N F.M·: Horth

Katu

Pacoh
So
I
Cen tral Bru
.,.,,.,.
MaJ1ong

West

t
Austro-Aslat1, Language Family consists of 169 languages spoken in SoulheaS Asia, ,n
th
countries located between China and Indonesia. A few are spoken to the weS t of ,s' area ~
th
J ingp b u-Nu11 ~hJ 1.f .u l~1 the Nicobar Islands and in India . The austro- part of the name comes from e Latin wo
NU11 h ,..l)•an n,ar. Y u nll:ll l
'south.'
 language is an expression of who w e are as Indivi duals, co mmunit1es, m1tlons . Culture ref en
Tai to dynamic social system s and sh ared patterns of be havio r, belief s, know ledge. attitudes and
~
Southwest Branch
va lues. Cu lt ure provides t he enviro nment in wh ich languages develop, even as it influences
how they are used and interpreted . For example, In many European culture s a .. good day'" is
Central Branch North Branch
Thal Nung Northern Zhu-,g a sunny day, while ln many African cultu res a • good day" 1s a rainy day. Different culturally
Lao Southtm Zhuang SHk shared values pr0'1/1de the conte)(t for interpreting the term for " goo~ .
Shan Tay(Tllo) Eut• m Bouytl
Black Tai Vay Language and culture are intertw ined. A particular language usually points out to a
WhbTal Mont
Red Tai speciflc group of people. When you interact with another language, it means t hat vou are
Ahom also interacting w ith the culture that speaks th e language You cannot understand one's
cu ltu re w ithou t accessi ng it s language directly.
T~i or Zh uang-Ta i languages, are a branch of the Kra-Qal language fam ily. The Ta i languages
include the most widely spoken of the Tai-kad ai languages, Incl uding Standard Thai or Whe n you learn a new language, it not only involves learning ,ts alphabet, the w ord
Siamese, the national language of Thailand; Lao or Laotian. the nationa l language of Laos; arrangement and the ru les of grammar, but also learning about t he specific society's
Myanmar's Shan language and Zhuang, a major language in t he Southern Ch inese province cu stoms and behavior. When learning or teaching a language, it is Important that t he cultu re
of Guangxi. where the language belongs be referenced, because language is very much ingrained in t he
culture.
language patterns in Southeast Asia are highly complex and are rooted in four major
language families: the Sino-Tibetan, Tai, Austro-As iatic, and Austronesian (Malayo-
Polynesian). Languages derived from t he Sino-Tibetan group are found largely in Myanmar, Origins and Diffusions
while form s of the Ta i group are spoken in Thai land and Laos. Austro-Asiatic languages are
spoken in Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam . The languages of Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Cultural diffusion Is the spread of cult ural t rends across locations. Beliefs, practi ces,
Philippines are rooted in an Austronesian and Polyneslan stoc k. Despite this broad and ideas get shared from person t o person, and sometimes ev en around the world t hrough
generalization, it must be noted that innumerable separate languages as well as dialects are this diffusion, as happens with vira l videos.
used in the region. Th is linguistic diversity is especially conspicuous in fragmented areas
such as the Philippine s and Indonesia and in highland and remote areas on the mainland, Many cultural practices are spread by a type of cultural diffusion called expansion
and it has been a retarding factor in national integration and development. Notable in th is diffusion. This is whe n a trend is spread from it s originating place, outward. There are
regard is Myanmar. several forms of th is type of diffusion : contagious, h ierarchical, and stimulus diffu sion.
Contagious diffusion, or when a cultura l trend is transmitted from person t o person from an
Dominant languages do exist in most of the nations. Burmese and Thai are spoken original source to numerous others, sim ilar to a virus . As cultural trends gam in popu larity
by large groups of people in Myanmar and Thailand, respectively. Similarly, Khmer is the and draw our attention, profit may become a motive in perpetua ting the tre nd. Anothe r
prima ry language in Cambodia, as is Vietnamese In Vietnam . Within the Philippines, Pllipino form of expansion diffus ion is hierarchical diffus ion, or when a cultural t rend is spread from
{Filipino) and English are the official languages, but Tagalog and Visayan also are important. one segment of society to another, in a pattern. Consider how hip hop culture emerged from
Malay and Indonesian are, respectively, the official languages of Malaysia and Indonesia; within urban areas, but is now known in all regions of society includ ing suburban and rural
the se languages are quit e similar and are mutually intelligible. Indonesian is a good e)(ample areas, as well. Finally, sti mulus diffusion is when a cu ltural trend spread s, but is chan ged by
of a tr ue national language and is spoken w idely across the archipelago. Thus, unlike in those adopting the idea .
M yanmar, language actually has been a unifying element in the country.
Expansion diffusion and its various forms are not the only way tha t Ideas and
Numerous language s also have been introduced into the region by Immigrant
practices are passed along to others. Another way that culture spreads is by relocation
popu lations. Perhaps most significant are the variety of dialects spoken by the Chinese
diffusion, when a person m igrates from the ir home and shares their culture 'llith a new
communities in many Southeast Asian countries . The most commonly used are Cantonese,
location.
Hokkien, Hakka, and Teochew, reflecting the southern Chinese coastal origins of many of the
immigrants. The largest concentration of Chinese speakers is in Singapore, where they
The countries of Southeast As ia have a d osely interrelated cultural history, shaped
constitute the maj ority population. Concentrations of ethnic Chinese also live In most of the
by the passage of cultu res and religions that accompanied the historic t rade routes. caught
larger urban areas of the reg ion.
between the economic demands of the Roman and Chinese Empires, the countries of
Indonesia, Malaysia, Thalland, Vietnam, and Laos came to be increasingly exposed to new
Ulnguace iiilnd Culture cultures from both east and west, which were to have a long lasting effect on their artistic
traditions. Buddhism spread east from India and left a cle ar legacy in the art and
architectu re of these societie s.
On a practka l level, language has to do with sounds, symbol s and gestures that a
community puts in order and associates so that they can communicate . On a deeper level,
 Around four thousand years ago people speaking languages belonging to the some ~atril!neal commun ities. South and Southeast Asia compris e cou ntries fr om
Austroneslan family (originating in southern China and Taiwan} began to trickle into island Afghanistan tn the west to the Philippines in the east.
Southeast Asia. Cultural changes began to affect Southeast Asia around two thousand years
ago with influences coming from two d irections . Today, look at and contrast aspects of family and kinship from the point of view of
gender among some populations of Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Nepal, Pakistan,
The loca l cultures in the region are diverse, distinct and vibrantly unique, but the the Philippines and Thailand.
legacy of the Indian and Chinese traders and soldiers that have crisscrossed the area for
millennia is undeniable. In this post specifically, I will focus on the Indian traders who
imbued the fore bearers of millions of today's Southeast Asians with the hallmarks of their Was the bllateral kinship system the norm before the comlnc of the Great Traditions?
cultures: written language, cuisine, dance, architecture, religion . Over the past two millennia,
these all have combined to create a complete package of high culture that has seeped into Bilateral descent is a system of famity lineage in which the relatives on the mother's side and
today's popular culture. What's more, it is the classical culture of southern India that has father's si de are equally important for emotiona l ties or for transfer of property or wealth. It
been most influential. is a family arrangement where descent and inheritance are passed equa\ty through both
parents. Families who use this system trace descent through both paren ts simultaneously
Southeast Asia, and the diverse cultures of the hundreds of millions of people that and recogn ize multiple ancestors, but unlike with cognatic descent It is not used to form
live there, is a true melting pot of cultures. While the states of classical India did imbue the descent groups.
Southeast Asian kingdoms with many of its traditions, they were not the only contributors.
While bilateral descent is increasingly the norm in Western culture, trad itionally it ls
As the name Indochina implies, the Han Chinese state also had an impact on the onty found among relatively few groups in West Africa, India, Australia, Indonesia, Melanesia,
development of the states to its south, most notably the Dai Viet Empire that rose in the Red Malaysia, the Philippines, and Polynesia . Anthropologists believe that a tribal structure
River valley. However, Chinese and Indian traditions contributed mostly to the high culture based on bilateral descent helps members live in extreme envi ronments because It allows
of the Southeast Asian states. Oftentimes, the complex cosmologies and exotic ways of individuals to rely on two sets of families dispersed over a wide area .
faraway empires had little effect on the peasants that made up the bulk of the populace.
Local traditions and folk customs made up the core of mass culture and despite the Under bilateral descent, every tribe member belongs to two clans, one through the
millennia long process of Indian cultural infusion, they still do. lather (a patrician) and another through the mother (a matriclan). For example, among the
Himba, clans are led by the eldest male in t he clan. Sons live with their fathe r's clan and
when daughters marry they go to live with the clan of their husband. However, inheritance
C. KINSHIP AND GENDER of wealth does not follow the patrician but is determined by the matriclan i.e. a son does
not inherit his father's cattle but his maternal uncle's instead. Javanese people, the largest
According to the Dictionary of Anthropology, kinship system includes socially ethnic group in Indonesia, also adopt a bilateral kinship system .
recognized relationships based on supposed as we ll as actual genealogical ties. These
relationships are the result of social interaction and recognized by society. While Gender ts a Does kinship still matter in today's globalized, increasingly mobile world ? Do family
term that refers to social or cultural distinctions associated with being male or female. structures continue to influence the varied roles that men and women play in different
Gender identity is the extent to which one Identifies as being either masculine or feminine . cultures? Answering with a resounding 'yest', Linda Stone offers a lively introduction to and
working knowledge of kinship. She firmly links these concepts to cross-cultural gender
As their relationship, it represents a model of social relations, we made the studies, Illuminating the malleable nature of gender roles around the world and over time.
assumption that it is in studies of kinship can be found specifics of gender relations. To Stone considers current evolutionary research on kinship and gender, and offers new case
confirm this hypothesis, we turned to the work of the famous anthropologist, a studies addressing international adoptions and polygynous marriage. An entirety new
representative of comparative sociology Radcliffe-Brown . According to the observations of chapter explores the globalization of kinship in the 21st century. The result is a broad and
Brown, in a society can be identified quite certain set of actions and interactions of people captivating exploration of anthropological approaches to family and gender.
who are conditioned by the relations of kinship or marriage, and that in a grV'en society,
these actions and interactions are linked in such a way that we can analytically describe The Relatlvely Ht1h Position of Women
them as a system. It is a system of kinship, the examination of which will help to understand
the mechanism of some form of social life. The 11 countries of Southeast Asia include over SSO million people. Despite grea t
linguistic and cultural diversity, the region is characterized by the relatively favorable
Asia harbors a variety of kinship systems of three principal types: patrilineal, position of women in comparison with neighboring East or South Asia. This has been
matri lineal and bilateral. South As ia is predominantly patrilineal, with two important pockets explained by several factors : traditionally, kinship was traced though both maternal and
of matrilineal in the south- west and the north-east of the subcontinent and significantly paternal lines; a daughter was not a financial burden because of the widesp read practice of
bilateral Sri- Lanka. Southeast Asia, is predominantly bilateral, in which both parents are bride price; a married couple often lived with or near the wife's parents; women had
th
re levant for reckoning kinship, with a significant presence of matriliny among the prominent roles In indigenous ritual; the ir labor was essential in agricu ltural, and ey
Minangkabau of West Sumatra and the people of Negri Sembilan in Malays,a, as well as dominated local markets. Over time, however, the rise of centralized sta tes and th e spread
of Imported philosophies and religions (Confucianism, Daoism, Buddhism, Islam, and advances ~ro~ oting gender equallty, it is diffic ult t o change the preference for sons
Christianity) Increasingly privileged males and stressed female subordination. Although su ch especially 1n Vietnam w ith its st rong Confucian herita ge. '
influences were most noticeable among the elite, the st rength of local trad itions wa s always
a moderating force . v to genera lize about the economic position of Sout heast Asian women
It is not eas_
because of the ~ap 1~ development between Timar Lorosae, Cambodia and Laos (among the
.. In t he nineteenth ce_ntury Southeast As ia's economic resources and strategic poorest countries m the wo rl d), and prosperous Singapore and Brunei Darussa lam.
posUlon b_etween India and China led to Increasing European Involvement. By the 1890s the Nonetheless, t he continuing acceptance of the idea that a woman can generate and control
entire region except for Siam (Thailand) was under European control. In some areas women he r own income is still evident, although women receive less pay tha n men for the sa me
were recruited a~ cheap wage labor on plantations (tea, sugar, tobacco, rubber) and in wo rk and the optlons for unskilled workers are limited. In poorer countnes and
processing factones . At the village level colonial regimes strengthened the male position as impoverished reg ions this is apparent in the prevalence of prostitutio n and the disturbing
head of the household and "reformed" customary laws that had given women considerable traffick ing of women. From the mid-1960s, however, as Sout heast Asian countries graduattv
autonomy. Similar t rends can be found in Slam, the only non-colonized country, where legal shifted to export-oriented economi es, lower-paid wom en have become essential to factory
codification strengthened patrillneality. These developments encouraged a preference for work. In conseque nce, women have been more active in labor movements. As overseas
s_ons rat her than daughters. Nonetheless, women were still influential in community life, at domestic workers. they have also been increasingly important to national economies,
remitting large amounts of money to their fam ilies. Because of wor ld-wide shortages,
times even leading anti-colonial rebell ions. Increasing female literacy (especially In the
qualified women ca n find employment abroad in skilled occupations such as nursing.
Philippines) and exposure t o Western feminism encouraged elite women to confront Issues
of gender inequality.
Obtaining vocational skills and academic qualifications is far more possible than
hitherto as Southeast As ian women gain grea t er access t o education. With the exce ption of
From the late nineteent h century nationalist movements developed across
Cambodia and Laos, the numbers of women progressing to post -secondary tra ining is also
Southeast Asia. Male leaders focused on political independence, but educated women were
risinB,; and in Brunei, Malaysia, Thailand and the Philippines there are more fe male
equally concerned wit h polygamy, divorce, domestic abuse and the financial respons ibilities
graduates than males; the rates for Vietnam and Indonesia are almost equa l. The exp ansion
of fathers. For the most part, however, politicized women accepted the male argument that
in education has contributed to the blossoming of female-orien ted Non-Governmenta l
attention to "female" concerns should be delayed until after independence was attained. Yet
Organizations (NGOs) since the 19805, which have given the knowledge and organization
despite active involvement in anti•colonlal movements, sometimes as fighters, but more
skills that equip them t o argue for issues.
often as strike organizers, journalists, couriers and clandestine agents, women were viewed
as auxillaries rather than partners . Such attitudes were still evident in the Independence
Despite the region' s economic. political and cultural diY'l!rs ity, Southeast As ian
movements that exploded after the surrender of the Japanese, who occupied most of
countries generally fare w ell in measures of human development. The heritage of relatively
Sou theast As ia between 1942 and 1945.
favorable gender relations and the resilience and pragmatism of local societies indicate that
Southeast Asian women can look t owards a promising future .
The end of World War II signaled the demise of European colonialism in Southeast
As ia. Theoretically, the Independent states that emerged over the next 15 years were
comm itted to gender equality, but this has rare ly been translated Into reality In recent
"Paradise Is to Ue ;rt Mother's Feet"
vears t he number of women holding public office has increased, especially in local
government, but only In the Philippines has female representation In national government
The Prophet Muhammad said, "Paradise is at the fe et of the mother." This is
risen above 10 per cent. When women do manage to enter the political arena, they often
variously interpreted to mean t hat the mother is responsible for teaching her ch ildren th eir
find themselves marginalized In a male-dominated culture, w ith real power rema ining In
rel igious obligations and good behavior that will w in them Paradise; or It may mean that we
men's hands. The few Individuals who have attained the highest political offices (such as
earn Paradise by serving our mother throughout her life. Either way, it shows the great
President In the Philippines and Indonesia) have done so because thev are the daughter or
esteem, honor and respect that Islam has for mothers. While the fourth Commandment In
wife of a famous man. They have not become advocates of women's issues, for this would
the Bible is "Honor thy fathe r and t hy mother", the Bible does not mention the mother
risk alienating their male colleagues or the male electorate.
separately as deserving good t reatment.
Greater female involvement In politics Is Impeded by the way candidates are
Southeast Asian women are known for the ir vital econom ic roles. Be sid es being
recru ited as well as entrenched attitudes th at see women' s primary role as that of w ife and
w ives and mot hers, they have always engaged in Income-earning activ ities. The undertaken
mother. Gender stereotypes that favor males over females are often reinforced in school
of a wide range of tasks has contributed to their econom ic independence and a large
textbooks and are sometimes encouraged by relig ious teachings. For example, Buddh ists still
measure of autonomy and power. Th is Is true of most Tha l, Malaysian, Indonesian and
believe that reb irth as a woman rather than a man indicates that less merit was accrued in
Filipino women. In societies like t he Atjehnese, where men are away from home for much of
past lives. Southeast Asi an Islam has traditionally been very tolerant, but over the last 20
the time, women manage both agricultural and fam ily affa irs.
years there has been greater stress on "correct" dress (notably head covering! and public
behavior. Although all Southeast Asian countries except Laos and Vietnam have signed the In general women are int egral to the peasant economy. Speaking of Malaysia ao
d
Convention on the Elim lnation of Al l Forms of Discrim ination against Women and have made 5t nd
Indonesia. Mande;son emphasizes that women alone are responsible for e abflshlng a
 tend ing nurseries, tran splanting seedlings, weed ing, harvesting, and w innowing and
a. l anguage and Culture
thrashing the paddy. She mention s women's role in the cultivation of other crop s such as
rubber and in the production of copra . Women are almost entirely responsi ble for the
commerc ial production of vegetables, for domestic animal s and for silviculture. The
1

Javanese household is a woman s doma in, where her control over strategic resources is near
complete . She also takes the decisions in household matters.
b. Origin and Diffusi on
Throughout Southeast Asia women are thought to be 'good with money and
generally superior to men in financial management and business dealings. What a woman
actually gains from these qualities depends upon her resources and the class to which she
belongs. Many women are at least assured of the regular income that Is necessary to meet
their families' needs. About the power and aut onomy that they might derive from th is, Ann
Stoler observes about a part of Java that while among poor households women 's earnings c. K.in ship and Gender
give them a position of considerable importance within the household, for the wealthier
women their incomes provide a material basi s for acquiring social power.

SOURCES:

1. https://www. un. o rg/d eve lo pment/ des a/indigenouspeo pies/ a bout -u s.h tm I 3. Trace the lineage of t he common language t ree of the given cultural group by
2. https ://www iwgia.org/ imagesl pu blicati ons//0511 ASEAN BRIEFI NG PAPER eb pd f completing the diagram and filling-in the boxes of the parent languages.
3. https:/Jwww.brita nnigi .co rn / pl ace / Sout heast-As ia/Li ngu1stic-compgsiti pn
4. https ://www.daytranslations.com /blog/language-an d-culture/ a.
S. htt ps:/fas iasociety .org/ ed ucation / int ro d uctlon-sou the ast-asia
6. https://en.w ikipedia .org/wiki/History of Southeast Asia

J].
C. Outcomes-Based Assessments
Lao

fter reading the content, answer the following questions and perform the suggested ac ·vities.

b.

CHALLENGE YOUR SELF J].

1. Relate your knowledge on the different significant issues concerning indigenous people
in Southeast Asia. Write your answer on the space provided below.

Pearle

C.

J].

2. Explain the connecting ideas and relatedne ss of the following combined concepts. Write
your answer on the space provided.
D
febuano and Tagalog
 Kinship System Emotional T\es
d. Transfer at Property Position of Women
or Wealth
D.
OUT niy TH IS
D. bilateral
fa marupan North India

4. How language and culture affect the social processes such as cultural diffusion
in the
I
--•· - ,..
different Southeast Asian indigenous communalities? Write your answer
provided below.
on the space 1;rectly."
Expound th is statement by constructing an essay. Cite several readmgs and
articles as support and bases of your essay.
2. Collect and compile at least five issues related to gender equality
and
women's right comprising in a particular Southeast Asian country. Write
a
reflection and personal reaction about the issues you have compiled. Try
to
relate it on your impression towards the dominant culture of the country
where the issues are happening.

s. contrast different aspects of family and kinship system from the point
of view of gender
by fill ing-in the table below.

Kinship System Emotional Ties Transfer of Property Position of Women

or Wealth

patrlllneal

matrlllneal

CHAPTER 4: TRADITIONAL CULTURE IN SOUTHEAST ASIA

INTRODUCTION
 The map of Southeast Asia does not do full Justice to the incredible diversity - of
Unlock the difficulties by performing th is preparatory activrty fi rst. Get the understanding
ethnicity, religion, culture and lifestyle - found throughout th is region . The region w as a key
of the follow ing ma in concep ts before you proceed to the nex:t pan of this modu le b-t
node on ancient trade routes that spanned the globe, a cultural crossroads frequented by writing your understanding in the space provided after the terms.
traders, wandering ascetic s, invaders and kingmakers who brought with them new beliefs,
customs and tastes. People here have absorbed centuries worth of outside influences, 1. Culture
combining them with native traditions to make them their own.

Traditional culture is shared experiences that are transferred from generation to

generation. They can exist at the level of a nation or community and can transcend borders.
This module will provide the guide to the learners for them to distinguish the difference
between the concepts of tradition and culture before giving focus on the trad itional cultural 6. Cultural Practice
structure of Southeast As ia.

Without going too deep into the definitions of both terms, we can tell you that
tradition is used to describe beliefs and behaviors that are passed on from generation to
generation, while culture is used to describe the characteristics of a certain society at a
particular point In time. 7. Tradition

To compare culture and tradition further, culture is a more general term that Is seen
as a who le and that describes human behavior, as well as character of people who have
been raised with particular cultural beliefs. It is also a body of knowledge that conta ins art,
language, clothing and, among all else, traditions. At the same time, tradition is a more
specific te rm used to describe an event/ritual that is often practiced by individuals or a
8. Costume
human behavior on certain occasion. It is also a set of rituals that a group of people practices.

Aside from the none-visible traditional culture which is spiritual beliefs, some of the
tangble culture will also be featured by this module, such as; building, houses, field and
gard,ns, dress, food practices, and dance of some cultural group in Southeast Asia.
9. Socio-cu ltura l

SPECIFIC LEARNING OUTCOMES

The following are the specific learning outcomes expected to be realized by the
learner after the completion of th is module:

1. Describe the way of living of Southeast Asian counties in terms of the structure
of their houses, similarities in dress in relation to their environmental condition.
2. Analyze the recurring i mportance of the physical features present in the location
of the different indigenous communalities and ethnic groups in Southeast Asia
to their traditional culture.
3. Appra ise the value or quality of the traditional culture in Southeast Asia by
expressing their insight towards a certain cultural practice of a particular cultural
group .

LEARNIN G ACTJVlTTES
B. Consent Readings
A. Preparatory Activity ead the con tent and acquire further detailed information by accessing the sources prov, ed.

.8 I Culture und Socit:ly in Southca, t Aslu

 The old neighborhood of water village w 1t h shabby houses on stilts, built of wood
and woven bamboo, lnpawkhon, ln le Lake, Myanmar. River hou ses on stilts, w ith longta 11
TRADITIONAL CULTURE IN SOUTHEAST ASIA boats, Mangrove forest, Krabi river, Thailand, Southeast Asia. Sti lt houses are houses ra ised
on piles over the surface of the soil or a bodv of water. Stilt houses are buih primarily as a
protection against flooding; they also keep out vermin. The shady space under the house
can be used for work or storage.
A. BUILDING AND DRESS CUSTOMS

Traditional houses in Southeast Asia are typically constructed using prefabricated of

ready-made housing components . This construction technique is feasible due mainly to the
geography and climate of the region, namely proximity to the sea and high annual rainfall,
and has been passed down through generations by the local people. However, a shift of
socio-econom ic pattern from traditional agriculture to monetary-based agriculture and later
to manufacturing industry has changed the Sou theast Asian planning pattern and
construction system as the adopted p lan ning laws, building codes and regulations borrowed
from the West have forbidden housing development based on traditional concepts, because
the regulations promote heavy weight construction using bricks and re inforced concrete as
the main materials. This causes an increase in the incidence of flood-prone areas and land
erosions, due to the large number of land clea rings and reclamatio ns for housing and
commercial industry, as well as the construction of highways. These issues are often ra ised
today as problems of uncontrolled development of urban growth as concern for the
environment is not considered . New technology has it possible to apply traditional
construction techniques to urban housing. and further studies are important to ensure its
potential for future u ses. Th is change could promote the potentlal of using the traditional Civilizations are known to have developed around water bodies across t he wor ld as
system as an alternative const ruction system towards sustainable urban development in it was necessary to meet various everyday requ irement s such as drinking wate r, irrigation,
Southeast Asia . and fishing etc. Eve n in modern times, cities and popu lation centers have been em erged
near waterbodies w ith commerce and sustainability become the main advantages. However,
Southeast Asian architectu re, buildings of Myanmar (Burma}, Thailand, Laos, there are communities that live on the water rather than next to it . Known as floating
Cambodia, Vietnam, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, and the Philippines. Most of Southeast villages or boat commun ities, these settlements on the surface of inland water bodies we re
Asia's great temples w ere built by the 13th century. The Indian royal t emple, which developed due to various reasons such as ethnic and occupational in different parts of
dominated Southeast Asian culture, typically stood on a terraced plinth, upon which Southeast Asia .
towered shrines could multiply. Construction was ideally of stone but could be brick
sculpted with stucco. Exteriors displayed carved rhythm ic moldings and figures . In about 770 1. Tonie Sap, Cambodia - One of the freshwater lakes in cambodia, Tonie Sap, houses
the Javanese Shailendra dynasty began its series of superb stonecut monuments, hundreds of floating villages. The floating village in th is region is a result of the size of
cul minating in the huge Mahayana Buddhist Borobudur and the Hindu Lara Jonggrang (c. the lake which fluctuates in seasons.
90D-'330). About 800 the Cambodian king Jayavarman II built a brick mountain for a temple 2. Mo1en. Thailand - Living in boats in the waters surrounding South East As ia, th ese sea
group. This plan was furthered when foundations were laid for Angkor, a scheme based on a gipsies, known as Mogens, were fi rst brought to notice after the 2005 tsu nami since
grid of reservoirs and canals . Successive kings built more temple mountains there, none of them was victims of the natural calam ity . The nomadic community in habi t the
cu lminating in Angkor Wat. Among Southeast Asia' s most impressive sites Is the city of waters off Burma, Thailand, Malaysia, and Borneo.
Pagan In Myanmar, with many brick and stucco Buddhist temples and stupas built 1056- 3. Day-asan - Day-asan Floating Village In Surigao City, Philippines is a fish ing vil lage
1287. Burmese stupas (e .g., Shwe Dagon Pagoda) typically have a spreading, bell-shaped known for its houses on wooden stilts on t he surface water.
base topped by a dome and pointed sp ire . The many monasteries of Myanmar and Thailand, 4. Ha-Lons Bay - Located in Vietnam, the Ha-Long or Halong Bay's floating viii~&•
like those of Laos and Vi etnam, have been repeatedly enlarged and rebuilt . The arch itecture comprises of four villages where people sustain through fishing and fish cult1vanon
of the modified Hinduism of Bali is vigorously fantastical, with gilt paint and colored glass.
activi ties.
S. Yawn1hwe - Lo ca ted on the lake ~f lnle, the floating village of Vawnghwe ~a;n~ec:~~~e;
of 17 hamlets that has a population of around 70,000 people. Th e lake 0

Woterwoy, and Houses on Stilt

6.
second largest la ke in Myanmar featuring an esti~ated surface
Ko Panyi - located in Phang Nga Province of Thailand, Ko Pany, is an
~:ea 0
~nldl:n~::~ fishmg

village that is built on stilts.

Similarities in Dress
 O~r traditional attir~ is. influenced from India . Our culture is a part of lndosphere .
Our clothings b_
ased on India hke sari. The shoulder sash in Southeast Asia, selendang or The Mekong Region,. as it passes through China, Burma, Laos, 'Thailand, Cambodia
and Vie tnam, the ':'1ekong RNer bursts with color and life. Sixty million people live in the
Malay and saba1 or Cambodia and Thailand may have been derived from the Indian garment
lower Mekong Basm and their livelihoods and cultures are intimately co nnected with the
called a sari, the end of wh ich ls worn over one shoulder, as most Southeast Asia countries
river's natural ,cycles. As o~e of the world' s most diverse and produ ctive inland fisheries, the
were ruled by lndianlzed, Hindu or Buddhist kingdoms. The Southeast Asian male garment Is Mekong supplies people with about 80% of their protein needs.
influenced from dhoti !India). Almost all Southeast Asian were influenced from India except
North Vietnam. Before K1nh !Vietnamese) settled in Central and South Vietnam, there was
Yet this beautiful, dynamic and thriving river system is under threat and the next
an indianized kingdom called Champa. Modern Vietnam is a part of Sinosphere which decade is critical for the fu t ure of t he Mekong. The people living along the banks of the river
influenced from China .
and its tributaries see the Mekong as a resource to be nourished and sustained for future
generations. But the region's governments and greedy foreign interests s~m intent on
The similarities of Southeast Asian traditional clothes is- they all wear chong -kben constructing scores of dams on the Mekong mainstream and tributaries. China is building a
which derived from Indian Dhoti, and Sabai which derived from Indian Sari, and wear Sarong cascade of fourteen dams on the Upper Mekong in Yunnan Province, which will have
as a skirt. The only different is Thailand has the most advance textile's pattern and devastating impacts on downstream communities. Laos, in its bid to become "the battery of
complicates embroidery work, stylish fashion the most in comparison to other Asian Southeast Asia", hopes to develop more than sixty dams on Mekong tributaries, and 1s even
countries. The cartoon below is Southeast Asian clothing: considering nine projects on the mainstream . The dams would mean death by a thousand
cuts to the river's rich fisheries and the people who depend upon them. But there is hope.
The Mekong River is still a thriving ecosystem, and it is not too late to protect it .

People throughout Southeast Asia are facing threats from dams. Vietnam is building
dam cascades on several Mekong tributaries, the impacts of which are being experienced by
ethnic minorities living in Vietnam and by the c.ambodian villagers living downstream,
Cambodia is also hoping to build dams on Mekong tributaries and the mainstream . Burma
has plans to construct dams on some of its most beautiful and pristine rTVers, including the
Salween River, the region's last major undammed rive r. In Sarawak, Malaysia, plans are
rushing forward to build as many as 51 dams on the traditional lands of indigenous
commun ities.

International Rivers is work.Ing with a growing movement in the reg ion to challenge
dam plans and promote more sensible option s for meeting the region 's energy and
development needs.

The seas of Southeast Asia play an important role in the economy of the surrounding
countries. The region 's constantly expanding coastal population and development has made
great demands on marine resources, with growing evidence seen in the further degradation
of the marine environment and contin ued exploitation of living as well as non•living
Throughout the whole region of Southeast Asia, traditional costumes have remained resources. Integrated coasta l area management has never been considered in the past while
strongly represented In their respective countries. Whilst all seem to have some similarities, environmental protection measu res and policies have largely been at local or national levels.
there are distinctive differences that single each out. As the region moves Into the modern Implementation of regional study programs less than 10 years ago and ratification of
world and becomes more and more Westernized, it is remarkable that they remain so international as well as regional agreemen ts aimed at protecting the marine environment in
strongly represented, but they do . Whilst traditional costumes are worn by both men and recent times indicate a more enlightened approach to the problem.
women, it is certainly the women who are more prone to keeping up with tradition and
wearing them . In some parts they are used mainly for ceremonial reasons, but in others they
are worn daily as part of everyday clothing. This Is probably no stronger than in Vietnam. Fields and Gardens

Southeast Asia has gardening traditions that date back many thousands of years.
The Recurring Importance of Seas and Rives Tropical Southeast Asia is the home of plants such as palms and arums and'. or course,
orch ids all used in tropical and subtropical gardens for a lush, jungle look, for vov,d colorful
Rivers play a central role in the fives of millions of people in Southeast Asia . They foliage ~r far exquisite perfumed flowers . The best gardens to see in South Ea st Asia include
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provide fish, fresh water, fertile silt, transportation, recreation, and many other essential many outstanding botanical gardens in Singapore, Malaysia and Thaila nd and also ~se. at
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functions . Rivers and their catchments - the lifeblood of the region - are increasingly large resort hotels which are as well known for their beautiful gardens as for th eor pnSme
threatened by Ill-conceived development schemes . beaches.
 th is the study of this splrltual pract1c~. Themes of spiritual essence \n nat\Jre, animals and
. The cli~ate In Southeast Asia has _gifted the region with an abundance of greenery ob1ects are especially prevalent in As,an Indigenous cultures. ·
and bnght, tropical flowers, the best of which can be enjoyed in its botanical gardens.
. . In Southeast As ia, Malaysia, an Indigenous group called the Orang A.sit , practice
l. Penb~a Bota~kal Gardens,. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur's cherished an1m1sm along with .some smaller groups within the Asli that practice Islam and Ch ristianity
botanical park ts the total tourist package. Found within the Tun Abdul Razak Heritage as well. Semangat 1s the term used to describe the essence and spirit fou nd in nature
Parle, the botanl~I garden consists of a mosaic of different, smaller gardens, each of Therefore, ind igenous groups in Mchoose to hunt and harvest only what they need from the
them landscaped into postcard-ready perfection. environment, and to honor all of the plants, animals, life tools, and natural occurrences that
2. Royal Gardens in_Siem Reap, Cambodia. Known as the jumping-off point to the temples allow them t o do so.
of Angkor Wat, Siem Reap IS famous for its bustling night market and its lively bars and
cafes. Tucked within the town center, however, is a pocket of peace and serenity. In modern times, the term both spread to other religious traditions and broadened
3. Natio~al Kandawavi. Botanical Gardens, Myanmar. Also known as the Maymyo to refer to a wider range of experience, including a range of esoteric traditions and religious
Botanical Garden, this 177 hectare park In the city of Pyin U Lwln merges raw and traditions. Modern usages tend to refer to a subjective experience of a sacred dimension
untouched forest land with man-made botanical gardens and recreational areas. and the "deepest values and meanings by which people \Ive", often in a context sepa rate
4. Sin1apore Botanic Gardens. Image courtesy of Singapore Tourism Board; photography from organized religious institutions, such as a belief In a supernatural (beyond the known
by Darren Soh. Singapore Botanic Gardens. Established in 1859, Singapore's Botanic and observable) realm, personal growth, a quest for an ultimate or sacred meaning, religious
Gardens stands to date as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, the only tropical garden to experience, or an encounter with one's own •inner dimeMion."
receive th is distinction.
5. Tra Que Vegetable Vlllage, Hoi An, Vietnam. The scenic farming community of Tra Que In Southeast Asia, diversity is less pronounced since Islam strongly predominates in
spells a different botanical experience for its visitors. Instead of manicured gardens, the Malaysia, Indonesia, Brunei and the southern Philippines, and Catholic Christianity in the
village features a unique learning and culinary expedition Into traditional Vietnamese major part of t he Philippines. In mainland Southeast Asia, on the other hand, Therava da
food and farming. Buddhism is the established religion of all states except Vietnam, where both Mahayana
Buddhism and Confucianism predominate. Vet Hindu•Buddhist religion prevails in Bali, and
tribal religions have persisted almost everywhere in the more remote areas. Moreover, the
B. SPIRIT BELIEFS great religions have been influenced by earlier tribal beliefs. It is the task of the historian to
describe and, if possible, to elucidate the religious developments in order to enable us to
Spiritual beliefs include the relationship to a superior being and are related to an look at the pre~t conditions against their historical background. Spirits are a fundamental
existential perspective on life, death, and the nature of reality . Religious beliefs Include element of Southeast Asian animism, even in its h.erarchical variation recent ly. Thev are
practices/rituals such as prayer or meditation and engagement with religious community often seen as the owners and protectors of the land from the village level to larger politica l
members. rea lms whether they are former human beings (or possibly future ones in Buddhist con texts),
or non-human beings.
The meaning of spirituality has developed and expanded over time, and various
connotations can be found alongside each other. Despite the varied histories and religions of Sout heast Asian societies, a reading of
many historical and ethnographic accounts reveals a common unde rstanding that the world
Trad itionally, spirituality referred to a rel igious process of re-formation which "aims inhabited by humans was intersected by a spiritual or invisible realm.
to recover the original shape of man", oriented at "the image of God" as exemplified by the
founder,; and sacred texts of the religions of the world. The term was used within early
Christianity to refer to a life oriented toward the Holy Spirit and broadened during the Late C. FOOD PRACTICES
Middle Ages to Include mental aspects of life.
In social science, food practices or foodways are the cultural, social, and economic
Sometimes when you find your,;elf In the true presence of the natural world, you practices relating to the production and consumption of food. Foodways often refer,; to the
can't help but feel a sense immeasurable calm and peace. For some this might be found intersection of food in culture, tradtt1ons, and history. Food practices are here defined as
when walking your dog on a sunnv morning or while hiking through a rainforest in Hawaii, or any activity in which food is involved, ranging from food preparation, gifting food, sharing
maybe while sitting by a roaring mountain river surrounded by towering pine trees above. meals,.or cleaning up, referred to by Symons 11994) as the human food cycle.
For the people of the world practice Animism, this special sense of peace and calm is
attributed to the idea that all non-human things, including plants and animals have a More than 3/4 of the Southeast Asia population is agriculture-based. Tw ice as much
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spiritual essence, and more specifically it is the belief that these things are actually filled fish is consumed in this region compared to other forms of animal protein, reflecting e
th
with spirits themselves. long coastlines and river environments of Southeast Asia. The staple food throughout e
region is rice, which has been cultivated for thousands of years. Rice serves as th e basic
This spiritual belief is thought to be one of the oldest and most commonly used in a staple food for more than half of the world's population today.
variety of cultures and practices, so Anthropologists and Sociologist take special Interest in