Due Date for Submission is 6th February 2023 @1600 hrs 1

2601/202
ANALOGUE ELECTRONICS II
TERM 1, MARCH/APRIL SERIES 2023
Time: 2 hours

DIPLOMA IN ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

(POWER OPTION)
MODULE II

CAT ONE

INSTRUCTIONS TO CANDIDATES
This paper consists of THREE questions.
Answer all the THREE questions in a separate answer booklet.
All questions carry equal marks.
Maximum marks for each part of a question are as indicated.
Answer the questions in English.
Present neat and clear workings in a neat and readable handwriting.
This paper consists of 4 pages.

Check the question paper to ascertain that all the pages are properly typed and that no
questions are missing.

CAT 1 (60 Marks)

1.
a)
i. Explain how the zener diode maintains constant output despite the variations in
input voltage. (2 marks)

If the input voltage increases, the diode maintains a constant voltage across
the load by absorbing the extra current and keeping the load current
constant.
ii. Figure 1 shows a circuit diagram of a zener shunt regulator. The zener diode
used in the circuit has a breakdown voltage of 5.1V, a zener resistance, 𝑟𝑍 of
10Ω and the minimum and maximum values of zener currents are 1 mA and
15mA respectively. Determine the minimum and maximum values of the input
voltage which can be regulated. (5 marks)

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Due Date for Submission is 6th February 2023 @1600 hrs 2

Figure 1
b) Figure 2 shows a d.c over-voltage indicator using a unijunction transistor (UJT).
Explain the operation of the circuit. (4 marks)

Figure 2

 So long as the input voltage is less than the peak-point voltage (VP) of the
UJT, the device remains switched off.
 However, when the input voltage exceeds VP, the UJT is switched on and
the capacitor discharges through terminals E and B1.
 The current flowing in the pilot lamp L lights it, thereby indicating the
overvoltage in the circuit.

c) Define each of the following terms with reference to Thyristors:

i. Break over voltage: It is the minimum forward voltage, gate being open, at
which the SCR starts conducting heavily i.e., turned ON.
ii. Peak reverse voltage: It is the maximum reverse voltage that can be applied
to an SCR without conducting in the reverse direction.

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Due Date for Submission is 6th February 2023 @1600 hrs 3

iii. Forward current rating: It is the maximum anode current, gate being open,
at which SCR is turned off from ON conditions.
(3 marks)
d) With the aid of a V-I characteristic curve describe the operation of silicon controlled
rectifier (SCR).

(6 marks)
Forward Characteristics

 Anode is positive w.r.t. cathode.

 OABC is the forward characteristics of SCR at IG=0.
 If the supply voltage is increased from zero, a point reached (point A) when
the SCR starts conducting.
 Under this condition, the voltage across SCR suddenly drops as shown by
dotted curve AB and most of supply voltage appears across the load
resistance.
 If proper gate current is made to flow, SCR can close at much smaller supply
voltage.

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Due Date for Submission is 6th February 2023 @1600 hrs 4

Reverse Characteristics

 When anode is negative w.r.t. cathode.

 If the reverse voltage is gradually increased, at first the anode current
remains small (i.e. leakage current)
 At some reverse voltage, avalanche breakdown occurs and the SCR starts
conducting heavily in the reverse direction as shown by the curve DE.
2.
a) Figure 3 shows an SCR half wave rectifier circuit. The SCR has a forward breakdown
voltage of 150V when a current of 1mA flows in the gate.

Figure 3
Determine the:
i. firing angle

At the firing angle, 𝜶

𝑽𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝑩𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒌𝒅𝒐𝒘𝒏 = 𝑽𝒑𝒌 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜶

𝟏𝟓𝟎𝑽 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜶

𝟏𝟓𝟎
𝜶 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟎𝟐𝟎
𝟒𝟎𝟎
ii. average output voltage
𝑽𝒑𝒌
𝑽𝒂𝒗 = (𝟏 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜶)
𝟐𝝅
𝟒𝟎𝟎
= (𝟏 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐𝟐. 𝟎𝟐𝟎 ) = 𝟏𝟐𝟐. 𝟔𝟖 𝑽
𝟐𝝅
iii. output power

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Due Date for Submission is 6th February 2023 @1600 hrs 5

𝑽𝒂𝒗 𝟐 𝟏𝟐𝟐. 𝟔𝟖𝟐

𝑷𝒂𝒗 = = = 𝟕𝟓. 𝟐𝟓𝑾
𝑹 𝟐𝟎𝟎
(6 marks)
b) With the aid of a diagram explain the principle of operation of the following devices.
i. Unijunction transistor

a) With Emitter Open

 When the voltage VBB is applied with the emitter open, the device is
said to be in OFF state due to the reverse biased pn junction between
E and 𝐁𝟏 .
 Majority of the voltage 𝐕𝐁𝐁 is deposited across E and 𝐁𝟏 (also called
stand-off voltage 𝐕𝟏 ).
b) With Emitter at Positive Potential
 When a positive voltage less than the stand-off voltage, 𝐕𝟏 is applied to
the emitter, no conduction takes place.
 But as soon as the input voltage at emitter exceeds the stand-off voltage
V1, the pn-junction becomes forward biased and the current 𝐈𝐄 starts
increasing.
 The current 𝐈𝐄 continues to increase with increase 𝐕𝐄 until a peak voltage
𝐕𝐏 is reached that causes breakdown of the pn junction between E
and 𝐁𝟏 .
 The decrease in resistance causes an increase in the number of charge
carriers and significant increase in current 𝐈𝐄 causing the UJT to conduct
 The ujt is said to be ON or regarded as fired.

ii. Triac

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Due Date for Submission is 6th February 2023 @1600 hrs 6

(6 marks)
c) State two applications for each of the devices in (2b) above
Unijunction transistor

1) Oscillators
2) Trigger Circuits
3) Pulse and voltage sensing circuits
4) UJT relaxation oscillators.

Triac
1) Lighting control - especially domestic dimmers.
2) Control of fans and small motors.
3) Electronic switches for general AC switching and control
(2 marks)
d) State two advantages of a silicon controlled switch (SCS) over a silicon controlled
rectifier (SCR)
1) The SCS has faster switching times than the SCR
2) The SCS can be switched off by gate control
(2 marks)
e) Figure 4 shows a circuit diagram of an alarm system employing a silicon controlled
switch. Describe its operation. (4 marks)

Figure 4

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Due Date for Submission is 6th February 2023 @1600 hrs 7

When the temperature/light sensor (i.e., through a reduction in resistance)

plenty of voltage is delivered to the cathode gate of the SCS thereby turning
on the SCS.

The top transistor of the SCS is ready to conduct, current flows through
alarm relay thereby activating the alarm siren.

The alarm can be turned off via the reset button. Pressing the reset button
causes current to flow to the anode gate terminal via the 100kΩ causing the
SCS to turn off and the SCS ceases to conduct completely.

3.
a) With the aid of a well labeled circuit diagram, describe the operation of a Triac.
(4 marks)

 The V-I characteristics for Triac in the 1st and 3rd quadrants are
essentially identical to those of an SCR in the 1st quadrant.
 The Triac can be operated with either positive or negative gate control
voltage but normally the gate voltage is set to positive.
 The supply voltage at which the Triac is turned ON depends upon the gate
current.
 The greater the gate current, the smaller the supply voltage at which the
Triac is turned on.
b) Figure 5 shows an equivalent diagram of a special semi-conductor device.

,
Figure 5

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Due Date for Submission is 6th February 2023 @1600 hrs 8

i. Identify the device

Shockley diode/gun diode
ii. Describe its operation.

It does not have a gate trigger

(5 marks)
c) With the aid of a V-I characteristic curve describe the operation of a Diac.

 The V-I characteristic curve of the DIAC will be in the shape of a Z

because they conduct in both the positive and negative polarity.
 Initially, the resistance of the DIAC s high and is called the blocking state.
 Once the applied voltage reaches the breakdown voltage, the resistance of
the DIAC drops abruptly, it starts conducting, leading to a sharp
decrease in voltage and increase in current, giving the conduction state
 Each DIAC has a specific holding current value; holding current is the
minimum amount of current that required to keep the device in the ON
state. For most DIACs the breakdown voltage is about 30V.
(4 marks)
d)

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Due Date for Submission is 6th February 2023 @1600 hrs 9

i. A 7.2 V zener is used in the circuit in figure 6; the load current is to vary from
12 to 100 mA. Find the value of series resistance R to maintain a voltage of
7.2 V across the load. The input voltage is constant at 12V and the minimum
zener current is 10 mA.

Figure 6
The voltage across R is supposed to remain constant:
𝑬𝟏 = 𝑽𝑹 + 𝑽𝒁
𝑽𝑹 = 𝑬𝟏 − 𝑽𝒁
𝑽𝑹 = 𝟏𝟐 − 𝟕. 𝟐 = 𝟒. 𝟖 𝐕
 Hence, 𝑽𝑹 remains constant, at 4.8 V despite the load current
changing from 12 to 100 mA.
 It is worth noting that the zener diode absorbs the extra current so
that 𝑽𝑹 remains constant. If 𝑽𝑹 is constant and R does not change,
𝑰𝑹 will be constant.
 However, it reaches a point, 𝑰𝒁𝒎𝒂𝒙 where the zener current cannot
absorb more current. Thus, zener operates between two extreme
points 𝑰𝒁𝒎𝒊𝒏 − 𝑰𝒁𝒎𝒂𝒙 .
When 𝑰𝑳 is minimum,𝑰𝑳(𝐦𝐢𝐧), 𝑰𝒁 will be maximum, 𝑰𝒁(𝐦𝐚𝐱) but 𝑰𝑹 is
constant

𝑰𝑹 = 𝑰𝑳(𝐦𝐢𝐧) + 𝑰𝒁(𝐦𝐚𝐱)
Similarly, when 𝑰𝑳 is maximum,𝑰𝑳(𝐦𝐚𝐱), 𝑰𝒁 will be minimum, 𝑰𝒁(𝐦𝐢𝐧) but
𝑰𝑹 is constant.
𝑰𝑹 = 𝑰𝑳(𝐦𝐚𝐱) + 𝑰𝒁(𝐦𝐢𝐧)
𝑰𝑹 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝐦𝐀 + 𝟏𝟎𝐦𝐀 = 𝟏𝟏𝟎𝐦𝐀
The value of resistor, R is:
𝑽𝑹 𝟒. 𝟖 𝐕
𝑹= = = 𝟒𝟑. 𝟔𝟒 𝛀
𝑰𝑹 𝟏𝟏𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑
(4 marks)

ii. Determine the (a) range of 𝑅𝐿 and 𝐼𝐿 that will result in 𝑉𝑅𝐿 maintained at 10V,
(b) maximum wattage (3 marks)

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Voltage across R is supposed to remain constant:

𝑽𝑹 = 𝑬𝟏 − 𝑽𝒁
𝑽𝑹 = 𝟓𝟎 − 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟒𝟎 𝐕
Since we are given the value of 𝑹 = 1k 𝛀, thus; 𝑰𝑹 is,
𝑽𝑹 𝟒𝟎
𝑰𝑹 = = = 𝟒𝟎𝐦𝐀
𝑹 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
Since,

𝑰𝑹 = 𝑰𝑳(𝐦𝐢𝐧) + 𝑰𝒁(𝐦𝐚𝐱)
𝑰𝑳(𝐦𝐢𝐧) = 𝟒𝟎𝐦𝐀 − 𝟑𝟐𝐦𝐀 = 𝟖𝐦𝐀

Resistance across the load is maximum, 𝑹𝑳(𝒎𝒂𝒙) at 𝑰𝑳(𝐦𝐢𝐧)

𝑽𝒁 𝟏𝟎𝐕
𝑹𝑳(𝒎𝒂𝒙) = = = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓𝒌𝛀
𝑰𝑳(𝐦𝐢𝐧) 𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑

Resistance across the load is minimum 𝑹𝑳(𝒎𝒊𝒏)when 𝑰𝑹 → 𝟎𝑨. Thus,

𝑰𝑹(𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅) → 𝑰𝒁 .

𝑽𝒁 𝟏𝟎𝐕
𝑹𝑳(𝒎𝒊𝒏) = = = 𝟐𝟓𝟎 𝛀
𝑰𝑹 𝟒𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑
, 𝑰𝑳(𝐦𝐚𝐱) is obtained at 𝑹𝑳(𝒎𝒊𝒏)

𝑰𝑳(𝐦𝐚𝐱) = 𝑰𝒁 = 𝟒𝟎𝐦𝐀

Thus, the range is 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝛀 < 𝑹𝑳 ≤ 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓𝒌𝛀 , and 𝟖𝐦𝐀 < 𝑰𝑳 ≤ 𝟒𝟎𝐦𝐀

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