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DNA: THE CODE OF LIFE

1. Revision of the structure of the cell

Nuclear membrane – double membrane with pores (nuclear pore)

Nucleoplasm – contains free nucleotides

Nucleolus – manufactures ribosomal RNA

Chromatin network – contains DNA

Cytoplasm – a jelly-like fluid in a cell where most cellular reactions

take place

Ribosome – a complex molecule that serves as the site for protein

synthesis

FUCTIONS OF NUCLUES

 carries genetic material

 regulates metabolism of the cell

2. Nuclear acids
 Polymers present in living cells that consist of many nucleotides linked in a chain.

TYPES OF NUCLEAR ACIDS

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3. Structure of nucleic acids

 Nucleic acids are made up of small units or building blocks called Nucleotides
 A single nucleotide consists of :
 Phosphate group
 Sugar
 Nitrogenous base

4. Nitrogenous bases
 In DNA there are four nitrogenous bases:
o Adenine that pairs with thymine
o Guanine that pairs with Cytosine
 In RNA Thymine is replaced by Uracil

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DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)

1. Brief history
 Theoretical model was put forward by Watson and Crick
 Watson and crick discovered DNA nitrogenous bases and that it is double helix
 Franklin and Wilkins provided the X-ray photograph of DNA

2. Location of DNA
 DNA that is found in the nucleus is called Nuclear DNA
 DNA that is found outside the nucleus is called Extra-nuclear DNA
 Extra nuclear DNA :
o Chloroplastic DNA
o Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)

STRUCTURE OF DNA

 DNA is found tightly intertwined

forming the major part of
Chromosomes
 Chromosomes are long thread-like
structures composed of DNA
 In a non-dividing cell chromosomes
are not visible but a Chromatin
network is visible
 Chromatin network is a mass of
thread-like structures
 A segment of DNA that codes for a
particular protein or controls an
inherited characteristic is called a
Gene

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3. Structural components of DNA

 The natural shape of DNA is a double helix

 The sugar molecule in DNA is deoxyribose
 The backbone of DNA structure is made up a Sugar and Phosphate
 In DNA the nitrogenous bases are paired
 The pair of nitrogenous bases in a DNA molecule are held together by Weak hydrogen bond

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4. Functions of DNA

 Carrying hereditary characteristics from parents to their offspring

 Controls the synthesis (manufacturing) of proteins
 Acts as template for formation of mRNA

5. Gens and non-coding DNA

 But not all DNA codes protein synthesis or transmission of characteristics
 DNA that does not code for protein synthesis is referred to as non-coding DNA
 Over 98% of our Genome (complete set of DNA of an organism) is non-coding DNA
 The non-coding DNA with no known functions is referred to as Junk DNA
 Recently scientists have found that Non-coding DNA actually has functions

6. Function of non-coding DNA

 Regulates and controls the expression of genes in the coding DNA
 Protects the genes from mutations during transcription
 Controls copying genes during transcription

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DNA REPLICATION

 The process of making an identical copy of DNA (chromosome)

 This increases the number of chromosomes so that they can be shared between the cells resulting
from cell division
 Occurs within the nucleus
 Occurs before mitosis and meiosis
 The process is controlled by enzymes

1. THE CELL CYCLE

 DNA replication occurs during interphase of the cell cycle
 Interphase is the period between consecutive cell divisions

 Chromatid is thread-like strands that make up a chromosome

 Chromatids are held together by the centromere

2. SIGNIFICANCE/IMPORTANCE OF DNA REPLICATION

 Doubles genetic information so it can be shared between the resulting daughter cells during cell
division
 Ensures that each daughter cell has identical DNA composition to the mother cell
 Ensures that each daughter cell contains the same number chromosomes as the mother cell

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PROCESS OF DNA REPLICATION

 DNA molecule unwinds (1)

 Hydrogen bonds break/the DNA strands unzip (2)
 Each strand serves as a template (3)
 Free nucleotides attach to the template strands
 With complementary nitrogen bases pairing (4)
 Two identical DNA molecules are formed (5)
 This process is controlled by enzymes

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DNA PROFILING

DNA profile is the unique pattern formed by the DNA fragments of an individual

 DNA profile is sometimes referred to as DNA fingerprint but is not the same as fingerprints
which appear on a person’s hands
 The DNA profile of people are not the same except for identical twins
 DNA profile can be made using DNA from:
o Body tissue
o Hair
o Body fluids such as blood, semen or saliva

USES OF DNA PROFILES

 Determine genetic disorders

 Paternity tests
 Determine identity of dead persons
 To investigate crimes
 To establish matching tissues for organ transplant
 Determine the probability or cause of genetic disorders

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Why DNA profiling may NOT be reliable

 Small segment of DNA is analyzed

 Human error during DNA profiling process
 Suspect was framed by leaving DNA evidence at the scene/swopping specimens at the lab
 The DNA evidence of the accused was at the scene before the crime was committed
 Suspect had an identical twin who has the same DNA profile

RIBONUCLEIC ACID (RNA)

1. TYPES OF RNA
 Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) – forms part of the structure of the ribosome
 Messenger RNA (mRNA) – picks up amino acids in the cytoplasm and carries them to the ribosome
during protein synthesis
 Transfer RNA (tRNA) – acts a messenger by carrying the genetic code from DNA in the nucleus to
the ribosome in the cytoplasm to be used to synthesize proteins

2. LOCATION OF RNA
 Can be found the nucleus (mRNA)
 Also in the cytoplasm (rRNA & tRNA)

3. STRUCTURE OF RNA

 It is single stranded
 Shorter strand
 Made up of nucleotides
 The sugar is Ribose
 Thymine is replaced by
Uracil

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4. STICK DIAGRAM OF mRNA AND tRNA

PROTEIN SYNTHESIS

Protein synthesis is the process whereby proteins are manufactured in living cells and is controlled by
DNA and RNA

STAGES OF PROTEIN SYNTHESIS

 Protein synthesis involves:

o Transcription of DNA
o Translation of RNA to proteins

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PROCESS OF PROTEIN SYNTHESIS

TRANSCRIPTION (in the nucleus)

1-DNA unwinds, weak hydrogen breaks forming two single strands, 2-One strand acts as a template to build
the complementary strand (mRNA), 3-Using free RNA nucleotides from the nucleoplasm, they arrange
according to the base sequence of the DNA template, in a complementary way, A – U and C – G, Sugar-
phosphate bonds form between nucleotides to form required mRNA, Process controlled by enzymes

MOVEMENT OF mRNA OUT OF THE NUCLEUS

4-The mRNA leaves the nucleus through the nuclear pores into the cytoplasm where it attaches to the
ribosome

TRANSLATION (in the cytoplasm on the ribosome)

5- The mRNA strand from the nucleus becomes attached to a ribosome with its codons exposed, each tRNA

molecule carrying a specific amino acid according to its anticodon, matches up with the codon of the

mRNA, so that the amino acids are placed in the correct sequence, 6 -adjacent amino acids are linked to
Effects of mutations on protein synthesis
form a protein

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Effect of mutation on the structure of a protein

 If the sequence of nitrogen bases on DNA changes, therefore the codons on the mRNA will be
different and will code for a different amino acid.
 A different amino acid will be brought in by tRNA
 This will lead to a change in the sequence of amino acids in the polypeptide chain
 resulting in the formation of a different protein

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN DNA AND RNA

 Both contain sugar alternating with phosphate

 Both contain nitrogenous bases: Adenine, Guanine and Cytosine
 Both play a role in protein synthesis

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DNA AND RNA

DNA RNA
Double stranded molecule/paired bases Single stranded molecule/unpaired bases
Contains deoxyribose sugar Contains ribose sugar
Contains the nitrogenous base Contains the nitrogenous base
thymine uracil
Longer Shorter
Helix shape No Helix

KEY TERMS

 Base triplet – three consecutive nitrogenous bases on the DNA strand

 Codon – three consecutive nitrogenous bases on the mRNA strand
 Anticodons – three exposed nitrogenous bases on a single tRNA
 Amino acids – monomers or building blocks of proteins
 Peptide bond – holds amino acids together
 Polypeptide chain – three or more bonded amino acids
 Gene – consists of a group of triplet bases that code for the synthesis of a protein
 Template strand – strand of DNA upon which another strand of DNA is built
 Complimentary strand – new strand developed according to the template strand
 Complementary base pairs – nitrogenous bases that always pair with each other and are joined
by weak hydrogen bond in a DNA molecule

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