processes

Article
Numerical Simulation of Electrical Properties of Carbonate
Reservoirs Using Digital Rocks
Yuting Hou 1,2 , Die Liu 1,3 , Taiping Zhao 1,3 , Jinyu Zhou 1,3 , Lili Tian 1,3 , Xiaopan Kou 1,3 , Baoding Zhu 1,3 and
Xin Nie 1,4, *

1 National Engineering Laboratory for Exploration and Development of Low-Permeability Oil & Gas Fields,
Xi’an 710018, China; [email protected] (Y.H.); [email protected] (D.L.);
[email protected] (T.Z.); [email protected] (J.Z.); [email protected] (L.T.);
[email protected] (X.K.); [email protected] (B.Z.)
2 Exploration Department, PetroChina Changqing Oilfield Company, Xi’an 710018, China
3 Exploration and Development Research Institute, PetroChina Changqing Oilfield Company,
Xi’an 710018, China
4 Key Laboratory of Exploration Technologies for Oil and Gas Resources, Yangtze University,
Wuhan 430100, China
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: Rock electrical experiments are essential means of researching the conductive properties of
rocks and are fundamental to interpreting resistivity logging. Carbonate rocks have more complex
pore structures than sandstone, which results in more complex conductive properties. However,
conducting experiments on representative rock samples from carbonate reservoirs is difficult, making
it challenging to study the micro factors affecting electrical properties. Therefore, researching the
conductive properties of carbonate rocks is difficult. To address this, in this paper, three-dimensional
(3D) digital rock models with different porosities are generated, and conductive simulations are
carried out on these models using the finite element method (FEM). Firstly, a micro-computed
tomography (µ-CT) 3D image of a carbonate rock is obtained. Secondly, mathematical morphology-
based methods are used on the µ-CT image to generate cores with varying porosities and fluid
distributions. Then, the electrical properties are simulated using the FEM method, and the results are
analyzed. The results reveal that the formation factor of the reservoir is mainly influenced by the
Citation: Hou, Y.; Liu, D.; Zhao, T.; shape and structure of the pores. The Archie equation is more suitable for carbonate reservoirs with
Zhou, J.; Tian, L.; Kou, X.; Zhu, B.;
water saturation levels greater than 60%. The wettability of the rock can alter the distribution of fluid
Nie, X. Numerical Simulation of
in the reservoir space under different water saturation conditions. In pure water-wet rocks, the water
Electrical Properties of Carbonate
phase mainly occupies small pores, while the oil phase occupies larger pores. As a result, compared to
Reservoirs Using Digital Rocks.
pure oil-wet rocks, water-wet rocks have more conductive channels and better conductivity. Therefore,
Processes 2023, 11, 2214. https://
doi.org/10.3390/pr11072214
it is important to determine the wettability of the rock when calculating water saturation using the
Archie equation. The saturation index value of water-wet carbonate rock is about 2, while that of
Academic Editor: Qingbang Meng
oil-wet rock is around 3–4. This research lays a foundation for studying the electrical conductivity of
Received: 20 June 2023 carbonate reservoirs using digital rocks.
Revised: 17 July 2023
Accepted: 21 July 2023 Keywords: carbonate rocks; digital rock; electrical conductivity; mathematical morphology; finite
Published: 23 July 2023 element method

Copyright: © 2023 by the authors. 1. Introduction

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
Carbonate reservoirs contribute to more than 50% of global oil and gas reserves [1–3],
This article is an open access article
making the efficient exploration and development of these reservoirs highly significant.
distributed under the terms and
Carbonate reservoirs have very small primary porosity and poor oil and gas storage ca-
conditions of the Creative Commons
pacity. The main storage space consists of secondary pores formed through secondary
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
reformation, such as dissolution pores or fractures [4]. Compared to clastic reservoirs,
4.0/).
carbonate reservoirs have more complex pore structures and pronounced anisotropy [5,6].

Processes 2023, 11, 2214. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr11072214 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/processes

Processes 2023, 11, 2214 2 of 14

Reservoir rock electrical properties play crucial roles in reservoir evaluation, logging inter-
pretation, and reserve prediction [7,8]. The non-conductive skeleton formed by limestone
or dolomite commonly found in carbonate reservoirs means that their electrical properties
are primarily influenced by the structure of the storage space and the internal fluid proper-
ties [9]. The structure of the reservoir space in carbonate reservoirs refers to the shape and
size of the pores, the width and angle of fractures, and the wettability of the reservoir space
surface, whereas the fluid properties include water saturation and formation water salinity.
Petrophysical experiments are a common method for studying the electrical properties of
rocks. Early studies focused on understanding the electrical properties of sandstone rocks,
serving as a foundation for evaluating carbonate reservoirs [10,11]. However, obtaining
rock samples with variations in porosity, saturation, or wettability for petrophysical experi-
ments is challenging. Additionally, conducting petrophysical experiments on carbonate
rock samples with vugs or developed fractures poses difficulties [12]. Due to the complex
pore space, full saturation with water during experiments is often challenging [13].
Using numerical simulations can effectively overcome the challenges brought about
by heterogeneity in reservoirs and solve practical problems [14–20]. Digital rocks, which
are obtained using imaging instruments like micro-computed tomography (µ-CT), enable
detailed characterization of the internal structures of rocks. This technology enables
us to obtain parameters such as the size, distribution, and connectivity of the pores or
minerals [21,22]. Additionally, mathematical methods based on digital core images can
generate a large number of core samples with varying porosities or fluid distributions.
Liu (2010) [23] used mathematical morphology-based methods to determine the fluid
distribution in the pores of sandstone rocks with different wettabilities. Nie et al. (2019) [24]
established dissolution porosity models with the same pore shape for carbonate reservoirs
using mathematical morphology, laying the foundation for simulating carbonate reservoir
electrical properties. Numerical simulations based on digital core images can provide
various rock properties. Several researchers have conducted simulations to obtain the
electrical, acoustic, nuclear magnetic, and seepage characteristics of rocks based on 3D
digital cores [21,25–29]. Numerical simulation methods, such as the Kirchhoff nodal
voltage method, lattice Boltzmann method, and finite element method (FEM), are used
to simulate rock electrical conductivity using digital cores [30,31]. Zhou et al. (2013) [32]
calculated the electrical conductivity of complex sandstone using the Kirchhoff nodal
voltage method. Yue and Tao (2013) [33] used the lattice Boltzmann method to study
the electrical conductivity of rocks. Currently, FEM is the most widely used method
for simulating electrical properties. Arns (2002) [34] used FEM to study the electrical
properties of 3D digital cores of Fontainebleau sandstone and the results were in good
agreement with experimental Archie’s law, confirming the reliability of this method. Jiang
(2012) [35] utilized FEM to examine the pore structure, permeability, and wettability of
rocks in relation to their electrical conductivity. Nie et al. (2016) [36] employed FEM to
investigate the conductive properties of organic shale, focusing on the sensitivity of shale
conductivity. Zhao et al. (2022) [37] used FEM to analyze the conductivity characteristics of
fractures in shale formations. In the context of carbonate reservoirs, Nie et al. (2022) [38]
manually introduced fractures into digital cores and simulated the electrical properties of
fractured carbonate rocks, establishing the relationship between fracture properties and
resistivity. Sun et al. (2022) [39] simulated the electrical properties of fractured vuggy
carbonate reservoirs and proposed a novel saturation evaluation model.
However, few studies have focused on the relationship between the electrical prop-
erties of carbonate rocks and variations in their porosity, water salinity, water saturation,
and wettability, especially for carbonate rocks with complex pore structures. This paper
aimed to investigate the relationship between carbonate rock conductivity and porosity,
water salinity, saturation, and wettability. To achieve this, a 3D image of carbonate rock
obtained using µ-CT scanning was utilized, and mathematical morphology was employed
to establish models with different porosities and oil saturation levels. FEM was then applied
Processes 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 14

Processes 2023, 11, 2214 3 of 14

to establish models with different porosities and oil saturation levels. FEM was then ap-
plied to simulate the conductivity characteristics of carbonate reservoirs, enabling an anal-
to simulate
ysis the conductivity
of the impact of differentcharacteristics
parameters onofthe
carbonate reservoirs,
conductivity enablingrocks.
of carbonate an analysis of
the impact of different parameters on the conductivity of carbonate rocks.
2. Data and Methods
2. Data and Methods
2.1.
2.1. μ-CT
µ-CTBased
Based3D 3DDigital
Digital Rock
Rock
To
To investigate the impact of
investigate the impact ofdifferent
different micro
micro factors
factorson
onthetheconductivity
conductivitycharacteristics
characteristics
of
of carbonate reservoirs, this study utilized a 3D carbonate digital rock
carbonate reservoirs, this study utilized a 3D carbonate digital rock image
image obtained
obtained by by
μ-CT
µ-CT scanning. The image, sourced from Imperial College London, was segmented into
scanning. The image, sourced from Imperial College London, was segmented into
matrix
matrix andand pore
pore space
space [40].
[40]. The
The sample
sample was was aa cube
cube with
with dimensions
dimensions of of 400
400 ×× 400
400 ×× 400
400
voxels,
voxels, aa resolution
resolution of of 2.85
2.85 μm/voxel,
µm/voxel,aaporosity
porosityof of23.3%,
23.3%,and
andan anaverage
averagepermeability
permeability of of
1102
1102 ××10 10−3−μm
3 µm2 in three
2 in threedirections.
directions.
To
To improve
improve the the reliability
reliabilityof ofthe
theresearch
researchandandincrease
increasethethe number
number of of research
research sam-
samples,
ples, the main sample was divided into 8 sub-samples, labeled
the main sample was divided into 8 sub-samples, labeled as samples 1 to 8, as samples 1 to 8, as shown
shown
in
in Figure
Figure1.1.InInFigure
Figure1, 1,thethe
red, green,
red, green, and blue
and axes
blue areare
axes the the
x-, y-,
x-, and z-directions,
y-, and re-
z-directions,
spectively.
respectively. EachEachsub-sample
sub-sample measured
measured 200200
× 200 × 200×voxels
× 200 in size.
200 voxels in The
size.porosity of each
The porosity of
sample is provided
each sample in Table
is provided 1. Samples
in Table 1. Samples 1 and 3 were
1 and chosen
3 were chosen asas
the
thekey
keyresearch
researchsamples
samples
to
to investigate
investigate the the electrical
electrical properties
properties because
because sample
sample11 hadhad the
the lowest
lowest porosity,
porosity, while
while
sample
sample 33had hadmoderate
moderateporosity.
porosity. It It is
is important
important toto note
note that
that the
the data
dataused
usedin inthis
thisresearch
research
may
may limit
limit the
the representativeness
representativeness of of this
this study.
study. The
The results
results and
and conclusions
conclusions presented
presented in in
this
this paper
paper areare mainly
mainly applicable
applicable to to pore-type
pore-type carbonate
carbonate reservoirs
reservoirs with
with moderate
moderate to to high
high
porosity levels.
porosity levels.

Figure
Figure 1.
1. The
Theentire
entiredigital
digitalcarbonate
carbonate core
core sample
sample scanned
scanned by
by X-ray
X-ray CT.
CT.

Table
Table 1. Statistics
Statistics of
of the
the porosity
porosity of carbonate digital core sample.

Sample
Sample 11 22 33 44 55 66 77 8 8 Entire
Entire
Porosity (%)
Porosity (%) 17.63
17.63 19.44
19.44 25.72
25.72 21.19
21.19 19.34
19.34 21.83
21.83 26.49
26.49 34.45
34.45 23.26
23.26

2.2.
2.2. Establishment
EstablishmentofofDifferent
Different Porosity
Porosity and
and Oil
Oil Saturation
Saturation Models
Models Based
Based onon Mathematical
Morphology
Mathematical Morphology
After
After the
the binarization
binarization operation,
operation, the
the 3D
3D digital
digital core
core image consisted only
image consisted only of
of the
the skele-
skel-
eton and pores. It essentially became a 3D data volume consisting of 0 and 1, allowing
ton and pores. It essentially became a 3D data volume consisting of 0 and 1, allowing it to be it
to be processed
processed usingusing mathematical
mathematical morphology.
morphology. Mathematical
Mathematical morphology
morphology is a method
is a method used to
used to analyze
analyze and recognize
and recognize images byimages by utilizing
utilizing structural
structural elementselements with morphologies
with specific specific mor-
phologies
to measure toand
measure
extractand
theextract the corresponding
corresponding shapes in anshapes in an
image. image. It involves
It primarily primarilyfour
in-
volves four basic operations:
basic operations: dilation,
dilation, erosion, erosion,
opening, opening,
and closingand
[41].closing [41].
Dissolution pores and caves in carbonate reservoirs are created by the dissolution of
soluble minerals, resulting in pore spaces. The dilation and erosion operations in math-
ematical morphology align with the physical processes of carbonate porosity formation.
Processes 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 14

Processes 2023, 11, 2214 Dissolution pores and caves in carbonate reservoirs are created by the dissolution 4 ofof
14
soluble minerals, resulting in pore spaces. The dilation and erosion operations in mathe-
matical morphology align with the physical processes of carbonate porosity formation.
The
Thedilation
dilationoperation
operationenlarges
enlargesthe thetarget
targetimage,
image,increasing
increasingthe theporosity
porosityofofthe thesample,
sample,
while
whilethetheerosion
erosionoperation
operationreduces
reducesthe thetarget
targetimage,
image,decreasing
decreasingthe theporosity.
porosity. Previous
Previous
studieshave
studies haveshown
shownthat thatdilation
dilationandanderosion
erosionoperations
operationscan cangenerate
generatedifferent
differentporosity
porosity
levelswhile
levels whilemaintaining
maintaining similar
similar pore
pore structures
structures [24].[24].
The The opening
opening operation
operation involves
involves per-
performing
forming the the erosion
erosion operation
operation followed
followed by bythethe dilation
dilation operation,which
operation, whichsimulates
simulatesthe the
process of water
process of water flooding. Conversely, the closing operation entails performing
Conversely, the closing operation entails performing the dila- the dilation
operation
tion followed
operation followedby the
by theerosion operation,
erosion effectively
operation, compensating
effectively compensating for narrow
for narrow regions
re-
in theinimage.
gions Figure
the image. 2a represents
Figure a 2Dasection
2a represents 2D sectionof the original
of the 3D 3D
original digital core,
digital where
core, where the
pore
the space
pore is represented
space is represented by 0by(black) andand
0 (black) the the
skeleton (solid
skeleton matrix)
(solid is represented
matrix) is represented by 1
(white).
by Mathematical
1 (white). Mathematical morphology
morphologyoperates within
operates the pore
within space.space.
the pore Figure 2b illustrates
Figure 2b illus-a
section image created by the erosion operation applied to the original
trates a section image created by the erosion operation applied to the original 3D digital3D digital core using
a sphere with a radius of 1 pixel as the structural unit. Figure 2c,d depicts
core using a sphere with a radius of 1 pixel as the structural unit. Figure 2c,d depicts the the slice images
generated
slice imagesbygenerated
the dilation byoperation of the
the dilation original 3D
operation digital
of the core using
original spheres
3D digital with
core radii
using
of 1 andwith
spheres 2 pixels
radiiasofthe structural
1 and 2 pixelsunits,
as therespectively.
structural units, respectively.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure
Figure2.2.Sections of carbonate
Sections digital
of carbonate corescores
digital with with
different porosities:
different (a) original
porosities: image (Por
(a) original =
image
17.6%);
(Por = (b) erosion
17.6%); (b)operation (Por = 9.9%);
erosion operation (Por(c)=dilation
9.9%); operation (Por
(c) dilation = 27.3%);(Por
operation (d) dilation
= 27.3%);operation
(d) dila-
(Por = 33.3%).
tion operation (Por = 33.3%).

The
Theopening
openingoperation
operation has
has the
the capability to create
capability to create core
core models
modelswithwithdifferent
differentwettabil-
wetta-
bility and
ity and saturation
saturation [42].
[42]. Figure
Figure 3 represents
3 represents a cross-sectional
a cross-sectional viewview of fluid
of the the fluid distribu-in
distribution
tion in water-wet
water-wet carbonate
carbonate rocks withrocks with varying
varying water saturation
water saturation levels. Structural
levels. Structural ele-
elements with
ments with radii ranging from 1 to 5 pixels were chosen, and the opening
radii ranging from 1 to 5 pixels were chosen, and the opening operation in mathematical operation in
mathematical morphology was performed within the pore space. The removed
morphology was performed within the pore space. The removed pore space simulates the pore space
simulates the pores
pores occupied occupied
by water by water
following following
water flooding.water flooding. By
By comparing thecomparing theopening
results of the results
ofoperation
the opening
withoperation with
the original the original
image, image,
the images the images
in Figure in Figure
3b–f were 3b–f were
obtained. obtained.
In these figures,
the gray region represents the skeleton, red represents oil, and blue represents water.
Processes 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 14

Processes 2023, 11, 2214 5 of 14

In these figures, the gray region represents the skeleton, red represents oil, and blue rep-
resents water.

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

Figure
Figure3. 3.
Sections of water-wet
Sections carbonate
of water-wet digitaldigital
carbonate cores with
coresdifferent water saturation
with different levels: (a)levels:
water saturation Sw
= 0%; (b) Sw = 5.3%; (c) Sw = 11.7%; (d) Sw = 16.3%; (e) Sw = 24.3%; (f) Sw = 34.4%.
(a) Sw = 0%; (b) Sw = 5.3%; (c) Sw = 11.7%; (d) Sw = 16.3%; (e) Sw = 24.3%; (f) Sw = 34.4%.

2.3.
2.3.Finite
FiniteElement
ElementMethod
Method
The
Thenumerical
numericalsimulation
simulationmethodmethodprovides
providesa asolution
solutiontotothe thechallenges
challengesfaced facedinin
quantitatively
quantitativelydetermining
determiningthe thestructure
structureofofrockrockreservoir
reservoirspaces
spacesusing
usingconventional
conventionalrock rock
experimentation.By By
experimentation. treating
treating the the
rockrock
as a as a composite
composite material
material consisting
consisting of multiple
of multiple com-
components,
ponents, FEM was FEMutilized
was utilized
in thisinstudy
this study to simulate
to simulate the 3Dthe 3D digital
digital rock’s rock’s resistivity.
resistivity. De-
Developed by Garboczi (1998) [25], this method was specifically
veloped by Garboczi (1998) [25], this method was specifically designed to calculate the designed to calculate the
effective linear properties of random materials with their microstructures
effective linear properties of random materials with their microstructures represented in represented in 2D
2Doror
3D3D digital images.
digital images. TheThe
digital core,
digital serving
core, as aas
serving unique
a uniquedigital image,
digital contains
image, essential
contains es-
information
sential such as
information theas
such mineral components
the mineral componentsand theirandspatial distribution.
their spatial distribution.
Thefundamental
The fundamentalconceptconceptunderlying
underlying FEM is is the
theexistence
existenceofofaavariational
variationalprinciple
principle for
linear electrical conductivity problems, where the model is divided
for linear electrical conductivity problems, where the model is divided into non-overlap- into non-overlapping
finite
ping elements.
finite elements.In In
thethecase
caseofofa a3D3Ddigital
digitalcore
core model,
model, no division isisrequired
no division requiredasasthe the
voxels serve as natural elements. For a given microstructure, subject to applied fields oror
voxels serve as natural elements. For a given microstructure, subject to applied fields
otherboundary
other boundaryconditions,
conditions,the theresulting
resultingvoltage
voltagedistribution
distributionisissuch suchthat
thatthethetotal
totalenergy
energy
dissipatedisisextremized.
dissipated extremized.This Thismeans
meansthat thatthe
thegradient
gradientofofthe theenergy
energywithwithrespect
respecttotothe the
voltage variables is zero. In the program, the goal is to minimize the
voltage variables is zero. In the program, the goal is to minimize the real energy dissipa- real energy dissipation
perper
tion unitunit
timetime
or power.
or power.Thus, the solution
Thus, the solutionfor the
forvoltage at each
the voltage unit point
at each is transformed
unit point is trans-
into finding the extremum value of the overall energy
formed into finding the extremum value of the overall energy of the system in of the system in order toorder
calculate
to
the effective conductivity of the entire 3D digital core. The energy
calculate the effective conductivity of the entire 3D digital core. The energy En must be En must be minimized,
which is achieved
minimized, which is byachieved
setting the bypartial
settingderivatives
the partial of the energyofwith
derivatives the respect
energy to withtherespect
variable
u (node voltage) to zero:
m variable um (node voltage) to zero:
to the
∂En
𝜕𝐸𝑛 =0 (1)
∂u m =0 (1)
When Equation (1) is solved, and the𝜕𝑢 sum of the squares of the gradient vectors formed
by the partial derivatives of the energy En with respect to the voltages of m nodes is below
a predefined error threshold, it can be considered that Equation (1) is approximately valid.
This implies that the voltage distribution and effective electrical conductivity of the 3D
Processes 2023, 11, 2214 6 of 14

digital core are determined. Further details about this method can be found in the reference
by Garboczi (1998) [25].
Each pixel in the digital core represents a different phase: solid grains, water, and oil. A
digital core consists of matrix and fluid. The matrix is assumed to be nonconductive and is
represented by zero in the digital core. Under varying water saturation levels, there are two
types of fluid present in the pore space: water and oil. In the electrical property simulation,
the conductivities of water and oil are assumed to be σw = 1 and σo = 0, respectively. Each
pixel in the digital rock can represent either the matrix, water, or oil, depending on the
simulated drainage process observed in the morphology. The conductivity of each cube is
determined by the phase it represents. We applied an external electric field E and used FEM
to determine the voltage distribution in the 3D digital core. From this, we could calculate
the resistivities of the rock for different water saturation levels.

2.4. Archie’s Law

To study the conductivity parameters of a rock, the use of the Archie equation is
essential. Archie (1942) [10] established the relationship between the resistivity of brine
and the resistivity of water-saturated sandstone rock:

R0 a
F= = m (2)
Rw φ

where F denotes the formation factor; R0 is the water-saturated rock resistivity in ohms;
Rw is the brine resistivity in ohms; a is the tortuosity factor; m is the cementation exponent
of the rock; and φ denotes the porosity. The value of F should not change with the brine
resistivity in a sandstone rock.
Archie’s law also reveals the relationship between the water saturation and resistivity
of a rock. The resistivity index I is defined as follows:

Rt b
I= = n (3)
R0 Sw

where Rt is the oil-bearing rock resistivity in ohms; R0 is the resistivity of water-saturated

rock in ohms; Sw is the water saturation; b is a lithology-related constant; and n is the
saturation exponent, which depends on the fluid distribution in the pore space.

3. Numerical Simulation Results and Discussion on the Conductivity of

Carbonate Reservoirs
The matrix pores in carbonate reservoirs are typically very small, and their electrical
conductivity is significantly influenced by secondary dissolution pores and caves. Therefore,
in this paper, certain carbonate digital core samples with dissolved pore and cave structures
were selected for analysis. Reservoir simulations were conducted, considering various
microscopic factors such as porosity, formation water salinity, wettability, and saturation.

3.1. Effect of Porosity on Reservoir Conductivity

Whether describing the laws of a core physical experiment or analyzing microscopic
influencing factors, it is evident that the distribution and changes in the m value are
primarily controlled by the rock’s pore structure, despite being influenced by various
factors. Therefore, the m value can be defined as the pore structure index. In complex
carbonate reservoirs, the distribution and variations of the Archie parameter m are mainly
controlled by three different “elements,” i.e., matrix pores, fractures, and solution pores and
holes, which comprise multiple pore structures and their interrelationships. Specifically,
these distributions and variations are directly related to the geometrical parameters of
the microstructures of their throats and cavities as well as their interrelationships. When
considering the macroscopic characteristics of rock pore structures (at the macroscopic
scale), porosity and permeability are the main influencing factors affecting the distribution
 rather than pore size.
The fit equations provided us with the m values for each sample. For samples 1 to 8,
the m values ranged from 2.181 to 2.301 in all three directions. For sample 1, the m values
ranged from 2.352 to 2.675. For sample 3, the m values ranged from 2.003 to 2.201. In nor-
mal sandstone reservoirs, the typical m value is around 2. The results indicated that the
Processes 2023, 11, 2214 7 of 14
m values of carbonate sample 3 were similar to those of sandstone. Figure 7 shows the
pore–throat network model of the two samples. The balls represent pores and the sticks
represent throats. The colors from green to red indicate the radii of pores and throats get-
and
ting changes in theFigure
bigger. From m value7 itinwas
complex reservoirs.
easy to Therefore,
observe that the m
the pores of value
sample can generally
3 were well be
expressed
connected aslikea afunction of formation
sandstone rock, whileporosity
sample 1andhadpermeability [13].
many fewer connected pores. Figure
Erosion
8 reveals and dilation
the distribution operations
of pore size andwere performed on
the coordination digital
number of core samples
the pores 1 and 3,
of samples
respectively, resulting in core models with the same pore shape and tortuosity
1 and 3. It was obvious that sample 3 had more bigger pores and fewer small pores than but different
porosity
sample 1,sizes.
and Conductivity simulations
the mean coordination were then
number conducted
of sample 3 wasin also
the x-, y-, and
higher z-directions
than that of
for core samples 1 to 8. Additionally, conductivity simulations were performed
sample 1. This quantitively revealed that sample 3 had a better pore structure than forsample
samples
11.and
Processes 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW
3 with different
Therefore, the m valueporewas
sizes obtained
affected after erosion
significantly by and dilation.
the pore The simulation
structure. Normally, results
8 ofthe
14
are presented
better the pores inare
Figures 4–6 below.
connected, the smaller the m value.

(a) (b) (c)

(a) (b) (c)
Figure 4. Cross-plots of formation factor and porosity of digital core samples 1–8. (a) x-direction;
Figure
Figure
Processes 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW
4. Cross-plotsof
5. Cross-plots offormation
formationfactor
factorand
andporosity
porosityof of digital
digital core
core samples
sample 1–8.
1. (a) (a) x-direction;
x-direction;
8 of (b)
14
(b) y-direction; (c) z-direction.
(b) y-direction;
y-direction; (c) z-direction.
(c) z-direction.

(a) (b) (c)

(a) (b) (c)
Figure 6. Cross-plots of formation factor and porosity of digital core sample 3. (a) x-direction; (b)
Figure
Figure Cross-plotsofofformation
5. Cross-plots
5. formation factor
factor andand porosity
porosity of digital
of digital core core sample
sample 1. (a)1.x-direction;
(a) x-direction;
(b)
y-direction; (c) z-direction.
(b) y-direction;
y-direction; (c) z-direction.
(c) z-direction.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 6.
Figure 6. Cross-plots
Cross-plotsofofformation factor
formation andand
factor porosity of digital
porosity core core
of digital sample 3. (a)3.x-direction;
sample (b)
(a) x-direction;
y-direction; (c) z-direction.
(b) y-direction; (c) z-direction.
(a) (b)
The analysis and comparison revealed that the correlation between the formation
Figure 7. Pore-throat network model of digital rock samples. (a) sample 1; (b) sample 3.
factor (F) and porosity (φ) in Figure 4 was poor. However, in Figures 5 and 6, the correla-
30
tions for samples 1 and 3 were both 30
above 0.99, indicating a very high correlation. This
phenomenon highlighted the relatively discrete F–φ relationship in Figure 4, which was
25 25
primarily influenced
Sample 1 by pore structure factors such as pore morphology
Sample 1
and tortuosity
Sample 3
20 rather than pore size. 20 Sample 3
Percentage (%)

Percentage (%)

15 15

10 10

5 5
Processes 2023, 11, 2214 8 of 14

(a) (b) (c)

(a) Figure The
5. Cross-plots of formation
fit equations (b)factor
provided and porosity
us with of digital
the m values for core
eachsample
(c)1. For
sample. (a) x-direction;
samples 1 (b)
to 8,
y-direction;
the m (c)
values z-direction.
ranged from 2.181 to 2.301 in all three directions. For sample 1, the m values
Figure 5. Cross-plots of formation factor and porosity of digital core sample 1. (a) x-direction; (b)
ranged from
y-direction; (c)2.352 to 2.675. For sample 3, the m values ranged from 2.003 to 2.201. In
z-direction.
normal sandstone reservoirs, the typical m value is around 2. The results indicated that
the m values of carbonate sample 3 were similar to those of sandstone. Figure 7 shows
the pore–throat network model of the two samples. The balls represent pores and the
sticks represent throats. The colors from green to red indicate the radii of pores and throats
getting bigger. From Figure 7 it was easy to observe that the pores of sample 3 were well
connected like a sandstone rock, while sample 1 had many fewer connected pores. Figure 8
reveals the distribution of pore size and the coordination number of the pores of samples
1 and 3. It was obvious that sample 3 had more bigger pores and fewer small pores than
sample 1, and the mean coordination number of sample 3 was also higher than that of
(a) sample 1. This quantitively(b) revealed that sample 3 had a better pore(c) structure than sample
(a) 1. Therefore,
Figure the m
6. Cross-plots ofvalue (b)
wasfactor
formation affected
andsignificantly by the
porosity of digital pore
core (c)
structure.
sample Normally,(b)
3. (a) x-direction; the
better
Figurethe
y-direction; pores
(c) are of
connected,
z-direction.
6. Cross-plots formation the smaller
factor the m of
and porosity value.
digital core sample 3. (a) x-direction; (b)
y-direction; (c) z-direction.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 7. Pore-throat network model
modelofof
ofdigital
digitalrock
rocksamples.
samples.(a)
(a)sample
sample1; (b)
(b)sample 3.3.
Figure7.7. Pore-throat
Figure Pore-throat network
network model digital rock samples. (a) sample 1;1;(b) sample3.
sample
30 30
30 30

25 25
25 Sample 1 25
Sample 1
Sample
Sample 3 1
20 20 Sample31
Sample
Sample 3
Sample 3
Percentage (%)

20
Percentage (%)

20
Percentage (%)

Percentage (%)

15 15
15 15

10 10
10 10

5 5
5 5

0 0
0
0–5 6–10 11–15 16–20 21–25 26–30 31–35 36–40 41–45 46–50 51–55 56–60 61–70 71–81 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 27 30
0–5 6–10 11–15 16–20 21–25 26–30 31–35 36–40 41–45 46–50 51–55 56–60 61–70 71–81 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 27 30
Pore radius (µm) Coordination number
Pore radius (µm) Coordination number

(a)(a) (b)
(b)

Figure 8. Pore size and coordination number distribution of digital rock samples 1 and 3. (a) pore
radius distribution; (b) coordination number distribution.

3.2. Effects of Formation Water Salinity on Reservoir Resistivity under Different Porosity
Conditions
Sample 1 underwent a dilation operation, resulting in the creation of multiple core
models with varying porosities. These models were then used with FEM to simulate
the impact of formation water salinity on reservoir resistivity under different porosity
conditions. The results of the simulation are presented in Figure 9. The figure highlights
the following key points:
 3.2. Effects of Formation Water Salinity on Reservoir Resistivity under Different Porosity
Conditions
Sample 1 underwent a dilation operation, resulting in the creation of multiple core
Processes 2023, 11, 2214
models with varying porosities. These models were then used with FEM to simulate the 9 of 14
impact of formation water salinity on reservoir resistivity under different porosity condi-
tions. The results of the simulation are presented in Figure 9. The figure highlights the
following key points:
1. There was a logarithmic relationship between the resistivity of pure carbonate matrix
1. There was a logarithmic relationship between the resistivity of pure carbonate matrix
reservoirs and the conductivity of formation water;
reservoirs and the conductivity of formation water;
2.2. Under the same formation water conductivity conditions, the reservoir resistivity
Under the same formation water conductivity conditions, the reservoir resistivity de-
decreased as porosity
creased as porosity increased;
increased;
3. In pure carbonate matrix reservoirs, the curves under various porosity conditions
3. In pure carbonate matrix reservoirs, the curves under various porosity conditions
were all parallel to each other, indicating that the rate of resistivity reduction had little
were all parallel to each other, indicating that the rate of resistivity reduction had
relationship with the size of the pores if the porosity was high.
little relationship with the size of the pores if the porosity was high.

100 100 100

10 10 10
R (Ω·m)
R (Ω·m)

R (Ω·m)
Porosity= 17.6% 1 Porosity= 17.6% Porosity= 17.6%
1 1
Porosity= 27.3% Porosity= 27.3% Porosity= 27.3%
Porosity= 33.3% Porosity= 33.3% Porosity= 33.3%
Porosity= 43.0% Porosity= 43.0% Porosity= 43.0%
0.1 0.1 0.1
1 10 1 10 1 10
Formation water conductivity (S/m) Formation water conductivity (S/m) Formation water conductivity (S/m)

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 9.
Figure 9. Cross-plots
Cross-plots of
of resistivity
resistivityand
andformation
formationwater
water conductivity of digital
conductivity corecore
of digital sample 1 with
sample 1 with
different porosities. (a) x-direction; (b) y-direction; (c) z-direction.
different porosities. (a) x-direction; (b) y-direction; (c) z-direction.
3.3. The
3.3. The Effect
Effect of
of Saturation
Saturationon onReservoir
ReservoirConductivity
Conductivity
The influencing factors and changerules
The influencing factors and change rulesofofthe
thesaturation
saturation index
index(n) (n)
in heterogeneous
in heterogeneous
reservoirs, such as carbonate rocks, have been the focus of attention forlong
reservoirs, such as carbonate rocks, have been the focus of attention for a time.
a long Early
time. Early
studies with rock electrical tests showed that the n value can change
studies with rock electrical tests showed that the n value can change with factors such with factors such as as
rockwettability,
rock wettability, formation
formation water
watersalinity,
salinity,and
andporosity.
porosity.It It
is is
generally
generally believed
believed thatthat
calcite
calcite
tends to be more oil-wet than water-wet, which significantly affects the current transmis-
tends to be more oil-wet than water-wet, which significantly affects the current transmission
sion characteristics of carbonate reservoirs and the recovery of oil and gas, resulting in an
characteristics of carbonate reservoirs and the recovery of oil and gas, resulting in an
increase in the n value. While there is a consensus on the influencing factors of the n value,
increase in the n value. While there is a consensus on the influencing factors of the n value,
there are different views on the range of its distribution. For example, Donaldson and
there are different views on the range of its distribution. For example, Donaldson and
Siddiqui (1987) [11] measured the saturation index of oil-wet Berea sandstone as high as
Siddiqui (1987) [11] measured the saturation index of oil-wet Berea sandstone as high as 8,
8, while Morgan and Pirson (1964) [43] showed that the saturation index value varied from
while Morgan and Pirson (1964) [43] showed that the saturation index value varied from 2.5
2.5 to 25, ranging from strongly water-wet to strongly oil-wet. Such variations make it
to 25, ranging from strongly water-wet to strongly oil-wet. Such variations make it difficult
difficult to understand the changes in the n value. These different interpretations not only
to understand
increase the changes
the uncertainty in in the n value.
determining theThese
Archie different
parameterinterpretations
n for practical notinterpreta-
only increase
the uncertainty in determining the Archie parameter n for practical interpretations,
tions, but they also challenge the applicability of the Archie equation in carbonate rocks but they
also challenge the applicability of the Archie equation in carbonate rocks
and other strata. Therefore, based on extensive research results, it was necessary to sort and other strata.
Therefore, based on extensive research results, it was necessary to sort
out and demonstrate this key problem based on the actual state of a reservoir. The follow-out and demonstrate
this
ing key problem
analysis based to
attempted on analyze
the actualthestate
rule of
of athe
reservoir. Theindex
saturation following analysis
n through attempted
numerical
to analyze
simulations. the rule of the saturation index n through numerical simulations.
Based
Based on core sample
on core sample3,3,we weconducted
conducted a simulation
a simulation of water
of water flooding
flooding in oil-saturated,
in oil-saturated,
water-wet
water-wet rocks within the
rocks within thepore
porespace.
space.WeWeestablished
established core
core models
models withwith different
different water
water
saturation levels using an opening operation. The conductivity of the formation water used
in the simulation was 1 S/m, while the conductivity of the skeleton was 0 S/m.
Figure 10 shows a cross-sectional diagram depicting the relationship between the
resistivity index (I) and water saturation (Sw) obtained from the numerical simulation of
digital core sample 3. By analyzing the changing trend of the I–Sw curve in Figure 10, the
following characteristics could be observed:
1. A non-Archie characteristic was observed because there was a turning point when Sw
was about 60%. When the water saturation levels in Figure 10 were above and below
60% (orange dashed line), two different curve trends appeared;
2. When the water saturation level was less than 60%, the saturation index (n) values in
the x-, y-, and z-directions were found to be 3.48, 3.28, and 3.6, respectively. These
values of n were much higher than those of normal sandstone, indicating a deviation
 2. When the water saturation level was less than 60%, the saturation index (n) values in
the x-, y-, and z-directions were found to be 3.48, 3.28, and 3.6, respectively. These
values of n were much higher than those of normal sandstone, indicating a deviation
from typical behavior. This could be attributed to the water-wet wettability, where
as the water saturation increased, water filled the smaller pores and pore surfaces
Processes 2023, 11, 2214 10 of 14
first, creating a conductive path and causing a rapid drop in resistivity;
3. When the water saturation level was greater than 60%, the saturation index (n) values
in the x-, y-, and z-directions were calculated to be 2.25, 1.54, and 1.97, respectively.
from typical
These values behavior. This could
were relatively closebe
to attributed to the water-wet
2, which aligned more withwettability,
the Archie where
parame-as
thevalues
ter water saturation increased,
for sandstone. water
This was filled at
because thehigh
smaller
waterpores and pore
saturation surfaces
levels, first,
the con-
creatingpath
ductive a conductive path
within the and
core causing
became a rapid
more drop
stable, in resistivity;
resembling that of homogeneous
When the water saturation level was greater than 60%, the saturation index (n) values
3. sandstone.
in the x-, y-, and z-directions were calculated to be 2.25, 1.54, and 1.97, respectively.
In summary, the saturation index (n) value in a carbonate reservoir varied with the
These values were relatively close to 2, which aligned more with the Archie parameter
water saturation (Sw) level. Furthermore, the Archie equation was found to be more suit-
values for sandstone. This was because at high water saturation levels, the conductive
able for calculating the water saturation in carbonate reservoirs where the water satura-
path within the core became more stable, resembling that of homogeneous sandstone.
tion (Sw) level was greater than 60%.

100 100

X direction X direction
10
I

10

I
Y direction Y direction

Z direction Z direction

1 1
0.1 1 0.1 1
Sw Sw

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 10.
10. Relationship
Relationshipbetween
betweenresistivity index
resistivity and
index water
and saturation
water of digital
saturation corecore
of digital samples. (a)
samples.
sample 1; (b) sample 3.
(a) sample 1; (b) sample 3.

3.4. The Effect of Wettability

In summary, on Reservoir
the saturation index Conductivity
(n) value in a carbonate reservoir varied with the
waterBased on 3D(Sw)
saturation digital core
level. sample 3, the
Furthermore, theopening operationwas
Archie equation was utilized
found to betomore
simulate the
suitable
for calculating
oil-wet the water
rock process saturation
of oil floodingin carbonate reservoirs
water-saturated where
rock and thethe water saturation
water-wet (Sw)
rock process
level
of wasflooding
water greater than 60%.
oil-saturated, water-wet rock in the pore space. Rock models with dif-
ferent water saturation levels were established accordingly. The water-wet core models
3.4. The
with Effectwater
various of Wettability
saturationon Reservoir
levels wereConductivity
obtained using a structural element of 7–18 pix-
Based
els for on 3D
opening thedigital core
sphere, sample
while the 3, the opening
oil-wet operation
core models werewas utilizedby
obtained toemploying
simulate the a
oil-wet rock
structural processofof1–5
element oil pixels
flooding
forwater-saturated
the same procedure.rock and the water-wet
Additionally, rock process
assuming the con-of
water flooding
ductivity of theoil-saturated, water-wet
contained formation rocktoinbe
water the poreand
1 S/m space.
theRock models with
conductivity different
of the frame-
water
work to saturation
be 0 S/m,levels were established
the resistivity indices inaccordingly. The z-directions
the x-, y-, and water-wet core models with
of different rock
various water saturation levels were obtained using a structural element
samples were obtained using numerical simulation calculations based on FEM. Moreover, of 7–18 pixels for
opening the sphere, while the oil-wet core models were obtained by employing a structural
element of 1–5 pixels for the same procedure. Additionally, assuming the conductivity of
the contained formation water to be 1 S/m and the conductivity of the framework to be
0 S/m, the resistivity indices in the x-, y-, and z-directions of different rock samples were
obtained using numerical simulation calculations based on FEM. Moreover, it was observed
that a non-Archie phenomenon occurred when the water saturation level obtained from
Section 3.3 fell below 60%. Therefore, for the purpose of simulation and comparison, the
core model with a water saturation level greater than approximately 60% was selected.
Figure 11 illustrates a cross-sectional diagram depicting the relationship between the
resistivity index and water saturation resulting from the numerical simulation of rock
samples exhibiting different wettabilities. By observing the changing trend of the oil-wet
and water-wet I–Sw curves in Figure 11, we could observe that:
1. Under the same water saturation condition, the resistivity of oil-wet rock was signifi-
cantly larger than that of water-wet rock. This difference was particularly pronounced
at lower water saturation levels;
2. The saturation index of oil-wet rocks was significantly larger than that of water-wet
rocks. The values of the saturation exponent for oil-wet rocks in the x-, y-, and
 The reason for the aforementioned phenomenon was that wettability could affect the
distribution of relevant fluids in the reservoir pores under various water saturation con-
ditions. In water-wet conditions, the water phase primarily occupied the small pores,
while the oil phase occupied the larger pores. As a result, the water-wet phase possessed
Processes 2023, 11, 2214 more conductive channels and superior electrical conductivity compared to the oil-wet 11 of 14
phase. It is therefore crucial to determine the wettability of the rock when calculating the
water saturation using the Archie equation. The value of the saturation index for water-
wet rocks was typically around 2, whereas for oil-wet rocks, it ranged from 3 to 4. Conse-
z-directions were 3, 4.15, and 3, respectively, whereas for water-wet rocks, they were
quently, the saturation index value fell between 2 and 4 depending on the wettability. This
2.44, 1.8, and 2.2, respectively.
finding aligned with previous experimental research by Zeng et al. (2013) [13].

10 10 10

water-wet water-wet water-

I
I

y = 0.9585x-4.158

I
y = 1.0823x-3.009 y = 0.9646x-3
oil-water R² = 0.991 oil-water R² = 0.9835 wet R² = 0.9972

y = 0.9946x-2.446 y = 0.9874x-1.809 y = 0.9644x-2.202

R² = 0.9926 R² = 0.982 R² = 0.9885
1 1 1
0.2
Sw
2 0.2 Sw 2 0.2
Sw 2

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 11. Relationship between resistivity index and water saturation of digital core sample 3 with
Figure 11. Relationship between resistivity index and water saturation of digital core sample 3 with
different wettabilities. (a) x-direction; (b) y-direction; (c) z-direction.
different wettabilities. (a) x-direction; (b) y-direction; (c) z-direction.
3.5. Limitations of the Results and Future Study Suggestion
The reason for the aforementioned phenomenon was that wettability could affect
In this study,
the distribution ofwe utilized
relevant mathematical
fluids morphology-based
in the reservoir pores under methods,
variousspecifically di-
water saturation
lation, erosion, and opening operations, to generate digital core models with
conditions. In water-wet conditions, the water phase primarily occupied the small pores, different de-
grees the
while of dissolution and fluid saturation.
oil phase occupied DuringAs
the larger pores. thea process, all of
result, the the pore surfaces
water-wet were
phase possessed
more conductive channels and superior electrical conductivity compared to thecon-
dissolved at the same time and to the same degree, and the saturation model did not oil-wet
sider the
phase. It isisolated pores.
therefore Therefore,
crucial there were
to determine limitations and
the wettability potential
of the uncertainties
rock when as- the
calculating
sociated with these assumptions.
water saturation using the Archie equation. The value of the saturation index for water-wet
In the simulation process, we assumed that the conductivity of the contained for-
rocks was typically around 2, whereas for oil-wet rocks, it ranged from 3 to 4. Consequently,
mation water was constant throughout the simulations, while the conductivity of the rock
the saturation index value fell between 2 and 4 depending on the wettability. This finding
matrix was assumed to be zero. In reality, the conductivity of the formation water can
aligned with previous experimental research by Zeng et al. (2013) [13].
vary due to factors such as salinity variations and dissolved ions. Incorporating more re-
alistic
3.5. fluid models
Limitations of thethat account
Results and for theseStudy
Future variations could provide a more accurate repre-
Suggestion
sentation of reservoir conductivity.
In this study, we utilized mathematical morphology-based methods, specifically di-
lation, erosion, and opening operations, to generate digital core models with different
degrees of dissolution and fluid saturation. During the process, all of the pore surfaces
were dissolved at the same time and to the same degree, and the saturation model did not
consider the isolated pores. Therefore, there were limitations and potential uncertainties
associated with these assumptions.
In the simulation process, we assumed that the conductivity of the contained formation
water was constant throughout the simulations, while the conductivity of the rock matrix
was assumed to be zero. In reality, the conductivity of the formation water can vary due
to factors such as salinity variations and dissolved ions. Incorporating more realistic fluid
models that account for these variations could provide a more accurate representation of
reservoir conductivity.
Therefore, in this study, the obtained values are provided for reference purposes only
and do not necessarily reflect the behavior of carbonate rocks in practical scenarios. When
applying these findings, it is important to conduct field calibrations to ensure accurate
results.
This study specifically examined carbonate reservoirs with medium to high porosity;
therefore, the conclusions are constrained and applicable only to this range. This study
focused on the influence of porosity, formation water salinity, wettability, and saturation on
reservoir conductivity. However, there are other factors that can impact the electrical prop-
erties of carbonate reservoirs, such as pore connectivity, pore size distribution, mineralogy,
and fractures. These factors should be considered and their effects on conductivity should
be evaluated.
In future studies, more rock samples with a wider range of porosity and pore geometry
should be involved, and a more accurate saturation model considering the connectivity of
Processes 2023, 11, 2214 12 of 14

the pores should be used to make sure the models are more realistic. And, other factors
affecting rock conductivity should be comprehensively studied.

4. Conclusions
In this paper, we established digital core models with varying pore sizes and utilized
FEM to investigate the electrical properties of dissolved pore carbonate reservoirs. We
also analyzed the application of the Archie equation in these reservoirs. The following
understandings and conclusions were derived from our study:
1. Based on CT scan images, models of different degrees of dissolution can be obtained
using mathematical morphology-based dilation and erosion operations. Additionally,
models of different fluid saturation levels can be obtained using the opening operation;
2. The formation factor and porosity of the reservoir are primarily influenced by the
shape and structure of the pores;
3. There is a non-Archie phenomenon because there is a turning point when the water
saturation level is approximately 60%;
4. The wettability of rock can alter the distribution of fluids in the reservoir space
under varying water saturation conditions. In water-wet rocks, the water phase
predominantly occupies small pores, while the oil phase occupies larger pores. As
a result, water-wet rocks have more conductive channels and higher conductivity
than oil-wet rocks. Therefore, determining the wettability of the rock is crucial when
calculating water saturation using the Archie equation. The saturation index value for
water-wet rocks is typically around 2, whereas for oil-wet rocks, it ranges from 3 to 4;
5. In this study, the obtained values are provided for reference purposes only and do
not necessarily reflect the behavior of carbonate rocks in practical scenarios. When
applying these findings, it is important to conduct field calibrations to ensure accurate
results. In future studies, more accurate models should be used and other factors
affecting rock conductivity should be comprehensively studied.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, X.N. and T.Z.; methodology, X.N. and J.Z.; software, Y.H.
and D.L.; validation, L.T., X.K., and B.Z.; formal analysis, D.L.; investigation, D.L.; resources, X.N.;
writing—original draft preparation, Y.H. and D.L.; writing—review and editing, Y.H. and X.N.;
visualization, D.L.; supervision, J.Z.; project administration, J.Z.; funding acquisition, Y.H. and X.N.
All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This study was financially supported by the open foundation of National Engineering
Laboratory for Exploration and Development of Low-Permeability Oil & Gas Fields and the National
Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 41504094).
Data Availability Statement: The data can be acquired by contacting the corresponding author.
Acknowledgments: The authors express their gratitude to Imperial College for providing the car-
bonate digital rock sample, as well as to Jie Zhang and Chuanrui Sun for their assistance in providing
and processing the data. Additionally, the authors would like to extend their appreciation to the three
reviewers for their valuable comments and suggestions on this manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. The funders played
no part in the study design, data collection, analysis and interpretation, writing of the manuscript, or
decision to publish the results.

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