LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

Title: CE 371- Hydraulics Course

Topic III: Flowing Fluids and Pressure Variation

Time frame: 7 hours

INTRODUCTION

Many phenomena that affect us in our daily lives are related to pressure in flowing fluids. For example,
one indicator of our health, blood pressure, is related to the flow of blood through veins and arteries.
The atmospheric pressure readings reported in weather forecasts control atmospheric flow patterns
related to local weather conditions. Even the rotary motion generated when we stir a cup of coffee gives
rise to pressure variations and flow patterns that enhance mixing.

The relationship between pressure and flow velocity is also important in many engineering applications.
In the design of tall structures, the pressure forces from the wind may dictate the design of individual
elements, such as windows, as well as the basic structure to withstand wind loads. In aircraft design,
the pressure distribution is primarily responsible for lift and contributes to the drag of the aircraft. In
the design of flow systems, such as heating and air conditioning, the pressure distribution is responsible
for flow in the ducts.

The force balance between pressure and weight in a static fluid was presented in Topic 2, which lead to
an equation for pressure variation with depth. In this Topic 3 the pressure variation in flowing fluids
will be addressed. The concepts of pathlines and streamlines help visualize and understand fluid motion.
The definition of fluid velocity and acceleration leads to an application of Newton’s second law relating
forces on a fluid element to the product of mass and acceleration. These relationships lead to the
Bernoulli equation, which relates local pressure and elevation to fluid velocity and is fundamental to
many fluid mechanic applications. This Topic 3 also introduces the idea of fluid rotation and the concept
of irrotationality.

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this session, the students will be able to:

1. Distinguish between steady, unsteady, uniform, and nonuniform flows.

2. Distinguish between convective and local acceleration.
3. Describe the steps to derive the Bernoulli equation from Euler’s equation.
4. Apply Euler’s equation to predict pressure.
5. Apply the Bernoulli equation to pressure and velocity variations.
6. Evaluate the rotation and vorticity of a fluid element

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Pretest.

Instruction: Test your knowledge about the course to know your readiness and
preparation. Answer what is required in the test stem.

1. Distinguish between steady, unsteady, uniform and non-uniform flows. Give examples.
2. What are different techniques to visualize and describe flow patterns?
3. Explain the importance of Euler and Bernoulli’s equations.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES:

TOPICAL DISCUSSIONS

3.1 Descriptions of Fluid Motion

Engineers have developed ways to describe fluid flow patterns and to identify important characteristics
of the flow field. This terminology allows engineers to communicate ideas essential to the design of
systems such as bridge piers, air-conditioning ducts, airfoils, and structures subjected to wind loads.

Streamlines and Flow Patterns

To visualize the flow field, it is desirable to construct lines that show the flow direction. Such a
construction is called a flow pattern, and the lines are called streamlines. The streamline is defined
as a line drawn through the flow field in such a manner that the local velocity vector is tangent to the
streamline at every point along the line at that instant. Thus, the tangent of the streamline at a given
time gives the direction of the velocity vector. A streamline, however, does not indicate the magnitude
of the velocity. The flow pattern provided by the streamlines is an instantaneous visualization of the
flow field. An example of streamlines and a flow pattern is shown in Fig. 3.1a for water flowing
through a slot in the side of a tank. The velocity vectors have been sketched at three different locations:
a, b, and c. The streamlines, according to their definition, are tangent to the velocity vectors at these
points. Also, the velocities are parallel to the wall in the wall region, so the streamlines adjacent to the
wall follow the contour of the wall. The generation of a flow pattern is a very effective way of
illustrating the geometric features of the flow field. Whenever flow occurs around a body, part of it will
go to one side and part to the other as shown in Fig. 3.1b for flow over an airfoil section. The streamline
that follows the flow division (that divides on the upstream side and joins again on the downstream
side) is called the dividing streamline. At the location where the dividing streamline intersects the
body, the velocity will be zero with respect to the body. This is the stagnation point

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Figure 3.1 Flow through an opening in a tank and over an airfoil section

Figure 3.2. Predicted streamline pattern over the Volvo ECC prototype. (Courtesy J. Michael
Summa, Analytic Methods, Inc.)

Another example of streamlines is shown in Fig. 3.2. These are the streamlines predicted for
the flow over a Volvo ECC prototype. Flow patterns of this nature allow the engineer to assess
various aerodynamic features of the flow and possibly change the shape to achieve better
performance, such as reduced drag. Having introduced the general concepts of flow patterns, it
is convenient to make distinctions between different types of flows. These concepts can be best
introduced by expressing the velocity of the fluid in the form

where s is the distance traveled by a fluid particle along a path, and t is the time, as shown in
Fig. 3.3. Flows can be either uniform or nonuniform. In a uniform flow, the velocity does
not change along a fluid path; that is,

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Figure 3.3. Fluid particle moving along a pathlines.

It follows that in uniform flow the fluid paths are straight and parallel as shown in Fig. 3.4 for
flow in a pipe. In nonuniform flow, the velocity changes along a fluid path, so

Figure 3.4. Uniform flow in a pipe.

For the converging duct in Fig. 3.5a, the magnitude of the velocity increases as the duct
converges, so the flow is nonuniform. For the vortex flow shown in Fig. 3.5b, the magnitude
of the velocity does not change along the fluid path, but the direction does, so the flow is
nonuniform.

Figure 3.5. Flow patterns for nonuniform flow. (a) Converging flow. (b) Vortex flow.

Flows can be either steady or unsteady. In a steady flow the velocity at a given point on a fluid
path does not change with time:

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The flow in a pipe, shown in Fig. 3.4, would be an example of steady flow if there was no
change in velocity with time. An unsteady flow exists if

If the flow in the pipe changed with time due to a valve opening or closing, the flow would be
unsteady; that is, the velocity at any point selected on a fluid path would be increasing or
decreasing with time. Although unsteady, the flow would still be uniform. By studying the flow
pattern, one can generally decide whether the flow is uniform or nonuniform. The flow pattern,
as represented by streamlines, gives no indication of the steadiness or unsteadiness of the flow
because the streamlines are only an instantaneous representation of the flow field.

Pathlines and Streaklines

Besides the streamline described earlier, there are two other approaches commonly used to
visualize flow fields; namely, the pathline and streakline.

The pathline simply is the path of a fluid particle as it moves through the flow field. In other
words, if a light were attached to a fluid particle, a time exposure photograph taken of the
moving light would be the pathline. For an example of a pathline, consider a two-dimensional
flow that initially has horizontal streamlines as shown in Fig. 3.6. At a given time, t0, the flow
instantly changes direction, and the flow moves upward to the right at 45° with no further
change. The flow is unsteady because the velocity at a point changes with time. A fluid particle
is tracked from the starting point, and up to time t0, the pathline is the horizontal line segment
shown on Fig. 3.6a. After time t0, the particle continues to follow the streamline and moves up
the right as shown in Fig. 3.6b. Both line segments constitute the pathline.

The streakline is the line generated by a tracer fluid, such as a dye, continuously injected into
the flow field at the starting point. Up to time t0, the dye will form a line segment as shown in
Fig. 3.6c. Up to this time, there is no difference between the pathline and the streakline. Now
the flow changes directions, and the initial horizontal dye line is transported, in whole, in the
upward 45° direction. After t0 the dye continues to be injected and forms a new line segment
along the new streamline, resulting in the streakline shown in Fig. 3.6d. Obviously, the pathline
and streakline are very different. In general, neither pathlines nor streaklines represent
streamlines.

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Figure 3.6 Streamlines, pathlines, and streakline for an unsteady flow field.

in an unsteady flow. Both the pathline and streakline provide a history of the flow field, and the
streamlines indicate the current flow pattern. In steady flow the pathline, streakline, and
streamline are coincident if they pass through the same point.

Laminar and Turbulent Flow

Laminar flow is a well-ordered state of flow in which adjacent fluid layers move smoothly
with respect to each other. A typical laminar flow would be the flow of honey or thick syrup
from a pitcher. Laminar flow in a pipe has a smooth, parabolic velocity distribution as shown
in Fig. 3.7a.

Turbulent flow is an unsteady flow characterized by intense cross-stream mixing. For

example, the flow in the wake of a ship is turbulent. The eddies observed in the wake cause
intense mixing. The transport of smoke from a smoke stack on a windy day also exemplifies a
turbulent flow. The mixing is apparent as the plume widens and disperses.

An instantaneous velocity profile for turbulent flow in a pipe is shown in Fig. 3.7b. A near
uniform velocity distribution occurs across the pipe because the high-velocity fluid at

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Figure 3.7. Laminar and turbulent flow in a straight pipe. (a) Laminar flow. (b) Turbulent flow.

the pipe center is transported by turbulent eddies across the pipe to the low-velocity region near
the wall. Because the flow is unsteady, the velocity at any point in the pipe fluctuates with time.
The standard approach to treating turbulent flow is to represent the velocity as a time-averaged
average value plus a fluctuating quantity, the time-averaged value is
designated by in Fig. 3.7b. The fluctuation velocity is the difference between the
local velocity and the averaged velocity. A turbulent flow is often designated as
“steady” if the time-averaged velocity is unchanging with time.

In general, laminar pipe flows are associated with low velocities and turbulent flows with high
velocities. Laminar flows can occur in small tubes, highly viscous flows, or flows with low
velocities, but turbulent flows are, by far, the most common.

3.2 Acceleration

Acceleration of a fluid particle as it moves along a pathlines, as shown in Fig. 3.8, is the rate of
change of the particle’s velocity with time. The local velocity of the fluid particle depends on
the distance traveled, s, and time, t. The local radius of curvature of the pathline is r. The
components of the acceleration vector are shown in Fig. 3.8 b. The normal component of
acceleration an will be present anytime a fluid particle is moving on a curved path (i.e.,
centripetal acceleration). The tangential component of acceleration at will be present if the
particle is changing speed.

Using normal and tangential components at, the velocity of a fluid particle on a pathline (Fig.
3.8a) may be written as

Figure 3.8. Particle moving on a pathline. (a) Velocity. (b) Acceleration

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where V(s, t) is the speed of the particle, which can vary with distance along the pathline, s,
and time, t. The direction of the velocity vector is given by a unit vector et. Using the definition
of acceleration,

4.1

To evaluate the derivative of speed in Eq. (4.1), the chain rule for a function of two variables
can be used.

4.2

In a time dt, the fluid particle moves a distance ds, so the derivative ds/dt corresponds to the
speed V of the particle, and Eq. (4.2) becomes

4.3

In Eq. (4.1), the derivative of the unit vector det/ dt is nonzero because the direction of the unit
vector changes with time as the particle moves along the pathline. The derivative is

4.4

where en is the unit vector perpendicular to the pathline and pointing inward toward the center
of curvature (1). Substituting Eqs. (4.3) and (4.4) into Eq. (4.1) gives the acceleration of the
fluid particle:

4.5

The interpretation of this equation is as follows. The acceleration on the left side is the value
recorded at a point in the flow field if one were moving with the fluid particle past that point.
The terms on the right side represent another way to evaluate the fluid particle acceleration at
the same point by measuring the velocity, the velocity gradient, and the velocity change with
time at that point and reducing the acceleration according the terms in Eq. (4.5).

Convective, Local, and Centripetal Acceleration

Inspection of Eq. (3.5) reveals that the acceleration component along a pathline depends on two
terms. The variation of velocity with time at a point on the pathline, namely is
called the local acceleration. In steady flow the local acceleration is zero. The other term
, depends on the variation of velocity along the pathline and is called the convective
acceleration. In a uniform flow, the convective acceleration is zero. The acceleration with
magnitude, which is normal to the pathline and directed toward the center of rotation,
is the centripetal acceleration*.

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The concept of convective acceleration can be illustrated by use of the cartoon in Fig. 3.10. The
carriage represents the fluid particle, and the track, the pathline. It is assumed that the track is
stationary. One way to measure the acceleration is to ride on the carriage and read

Figure 3.10 Measuring convective acceleration by two different approaches.

* The centripetal acceleration is also a convective acceleration because the acceleration is due
to a change in velocity direction as the fluid particle moves along the pathlines. Here it will be
identified simply as the centripetal acceleration.

the acceleration off an accelerometer. This gives a direct measurement of . The

other way is to measure the carriage velocity at two locations separated by a distance Ds and
calculate the convective acceleration using

Both methods will give the same answer. The centripetal acceleration could also be measured
with an accelerometer attached to the carriage or by calculating V2/ r if the local radius of
curvature of the track is known. Example 4.1 illustrates how to find the fluid acceleration by
evaluating the local and convective acceleration.

3.3 Euler’s Equation

In Topic 2 the hydrostatic equations were derived by equating the sum of the forces on a fluid
element equal to zero. The same ideas are applied in this section to a moving fluid by equating
the sum of the forces acting on a fluid element to the element’s acceleration, according to
Newton’s second law. The resulting equation is Euler’s equation, which can be used to predict
pressure variation in moving fluids.

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Consider the cylindrical element in Fig. 3.11a oriented in an arbitrary direction with cross-
sectional area in a flowing fluid. The element is oriented at an angle with respect to the
horizontal plane (the x-y plane) as shown in Fig. 3.11b. The element has been isolated from the
flow field and can be treated as a “free body” where the presence of the surrounding fluid is
replaced by pressure forces acting on the element. Assume that the viscous forces are zero.

Here the element is being accelerated in the direction. Note that the coordinate axis z
is vertically upward and that the pressure varies along the length of the element. Applying
Newton’s second law in the direction results in

4.6

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Figure 3.11. Free-body diagram for fluid element accelerating the direction. (a) Fluid
element. (b) Orientation of element in coordinate system

where the minus sign occurs because the component of weight is in the negative
direction. From the diagram in Fig. 3.11b showing the relationship for angle α with respect to
and Dz, one notes that so the force due to gravity can be expressed as

The weight of the element is substituting the mass of the element and the
forces on the element into Eq. (4.6) yields

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3.7

For an incompressible flow, g is constant and Eq. (4.7) reduces to

3.8

Equation (4.8) is Euler’s equation for motion of a fluid. It shows that the acceleration is equal
to the change in piezometric pressure with distance, and the minus sign means that the
acceleration is in the direction of decreasing piezometric pressure.

In a static body of fluid, Euler’s equation reduces to the hydrostatic differential equation, Eq.
(4.5). In a static fluid, there are no viscous stresses, which is a condition required in the
derivation of Euler’s equation. Also, there is no motion, so the acceleration is zero in all
directions. Thus, Euler’s equation reduces to which yields Eq. (3.4).

Euler’s equation can be applied to find the pressure distribution across streamlines in rectilinear
flow. Consider the flow with parallel streamlines adjacent a wall shown in Fig. 3.12. In the
direction normal to the wall, the n direction, the acceleration is zero. Applying Euler’s equation
in the n direction gives so the piezometric pressure is constant in the
normal direction. *

The application of Euler’s equation to find the pressure required to accelerate a column of liquid
is illustrated in Example 4.2.

Figure 3.12. Normal direction to parallel stream surfaces.

Example 4.3 shows how to apply Euler’s equation for predicting pressures in a decelerating
tank of liquid.

* Euler’s equation in this case is applicable in the normal direction because the component of shear stress in this
direction is zero for Newtonian fluids

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3.4 Pressure Distribution in Rotating Flows

Situations in which a fluid rotates as a solid body are found in many engineering applications.
One common application is the centrifugal separator. The centripetal accelerations resulting
from rotating a fluid separate the heavier elements from the lighter elements as the heavier
elements move toward the outside and the lighter elements are displaced toward the center. A
milk separator operates in this fashion, as does a cyclone separator for removing particulates
from an air stream

where the partial derivative has been replaced by an ordinary derivative since the flow is steady
and a function only of the radius r. From Eq. (4.5), the acceleration in the radial direction (away
from the center of curvature) is

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and Euler’s equation becomes

For a liquid rotating as a rigid body,

Substituting this velocity distribution into Euler’s equation results in,

Integrating Eq. (4.11) with respect to r gives

This equation can also be written as

These equivalent equations describe the pressure variation in rotating flow. The equation for
pressure variation in a rotating flow is used in Example 4.4 to predict the surface profile of a
liquid in a rotating tank.

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Example 4.5 illustrates the application of the equation for pressure variation in rotating flows
to a rotating manometer.

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3.5 The Bernoulli Equation Along a Streamline

Derivation

From the dynamics of particles in solid-body mechanics, one knows that integrating Newton’s second
law for particle motion along a path provides a relationship between the change in kinetic energy and
the work done on the particle. Integrating Euler’s equation along a pathline in the steady flow of an
incompressible fluid yields an equivalent relationship called the Bernoulli equation.

The tangential component of acceleration is given by Eq. (4.15), namely

For a steady flow, the local acceleration is zero and the pathline becomes a streamline. Also, the
properties along a streamline depend only on the distance s, so the partial derivatives become ordinary
derivatives. Euler’s equation now becomes

Moving all the terms to one side yields

* Another term, dynamic pressure, which is closely associated with kinetic pressure, is equal to the difference between the
total pressure (pressure at a point of stagnation) and the static pressure. Under conditions where the Bernoulli equation applies,
kinetic and dynamic pressure are equal. However, in high-speed gas flow, where compressibility effects are important, the two
may have significantly different values

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Figure 3.13. Piezometric and velocity head variation for flow through a venturi section

The concept underlying the Bernoulli equation can be illustrated by considering the flow through the
inclined venturi (contraction-expansion) section as shown in Fig. 3.13. This configuration is often used
as a flow metering device. The reduced area of the throat section leads to an increased velocity and
attendant pressure change. The streamline is the centerline of the venturi. Piezometers are tapped into
the wall at three locations, and the height of the liquid in the tube above the centerline is ρ/g. The
elevation of the centerline (streamline) above a datum is z. The location of the datum line is arbitrary.
The constant in the Bernoulli equation is the same at all three locations, so

Even though the elevation, pressure head, and velocity head vary through the venturi section, the sum
of the three heads is the same. The higher velocity at the throat leads to a higher velocity head at this
location and a corresponding decrease in pressure head. The elevations of the liquid in the piezometers
above the datum are the piezometric heads. So as the velocity increases, the piezometric head decreases
as the velocity head increases, maintaining a constant sum through the venturi.

The fact that the Bernoulli equation has been derived for an inviscid fluid does not limit its application
here. Even though the real fluid is viscous, the effects of viscosity are small for short distances. Also,
the effects of viscosity on pressure change are negligible compared to the pressure change due to
velocity variation.

Application of the Bernoulli Equation

The Bernoulli equation is often used to calculate the velocity in venturi configurations given the
pressure difference between the upstream section and the throat section, as shown in Example 4.6.

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Example 4.7 shows the application of the Bernoulli equation to the efflux of a liquid from a tank. This
analysis is important to the engineer in calculating the draining time

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Application of the Bernoulli Equation to Velocity Measurement Devices

The Bernoulli equation can be used to reduce data for flow velocity measurements from a stagnation
tube and a Pitot-static tube.

Stagnation Tube

A stagnation tube (sometimes call a total head tube) is an open-ended tube directed upstream in a flow
and connected to a pressure sensor. Because the velocity is zero at the tube opening, the pressure
measured corresponds to stagnation conditions.

Consider the stagnation tube shown in Fig. 3.14. In this case the pressure sensor is a piezometer. The
rise of the liquid in the vertical leg is a measure of the pressure. When the Bernoulli equation is written
between points 0 and 1 on the streamline, one notes that z0 ≡ z1. Therefore, the Bernoulli equation
reduces to

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Figure 3.14. Stagnation tube.

The velocity at point 1 is zero (stagnation point). Hence, Eq. (4.19) simplifies to

This equation will be referred to as the stagnation tube equation. Thus, it is seen that a very simple
device such as this curved tube can be used to measure the velocity of flow.

Pitot-Static Tube

The Pitot-static tube, named after the eighteenth-century French hydraulic engineer who invented it,
is based on the same principle as the stagnation tube, but it is much more versatile than the stagnation
tube. The Pitot-static tube, shown in Fig. 3.15, has a pressure tap at the upstream end of the tube for
sensing the stagnation pressure. There are also ports located several tube diameters downstream of the
front end of the tube for sensing the static

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Figure 3.15. Pitot-static tube.

pressure in the fluid where the velocity is essentially the same as the approach velocity. When the
Bernoulli equation, Eq. (4.18a), is applied between points 1 and 2 along the streamline shown in Fig.
4.15, the result is

Here where V2 = V is the velocity of the stream and ρz,1 and ρz,2 are the piezometric pressures at points
1 and 2, respectively.

By connecting a pressure gage or manometer between the pressure taps shown in Fig. 3.15 that lead to
points 1 and 2, one can easily measure the flow velocity with the Pitot-static tube. A major advantage
of the Pitot-static tube is that it can be used to measure velocity in a pressurized pipe; a simple stagnation
tube is not convenient to use in such a situation.

If a differential pressure gage is connected across the taps, the gage measures the difference in
piezometric pressure directly. Therefore Eq. (4.22) simplifies to

where Dp is the pressure difference measured by the gage.

More information on Pitot-static tubes and flow measurement is available in the Flow Measurement
Engineering Handbook (2).

Example 4.8 illustrates the application of the Pitot-static tube to measuring liquid velocity in a pipe
using a manometer.

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Example 4.9 shows the Pitot-static tube application with a pressure gage.

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Application of the Bernoulli Equation to Flow of Gases

In the flow of gases, the contribution of pressure change due to elevation difference is generally very
small compared with the change in kinetic pressure. Thus, it is reasonable when applying the Bernoulli
equation to gas flow (such as air) to use the simpler formulation

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IV. Self- Evaluation

Direction. Here is some situations and problems that you can do to challenge your
communication and analytical skills.

1. The pattern produced by smoke rising from a chimney on a windy day is analogous to
a pathline or streakline? Explain from the definition of each.

2. At time a dye streak was started at point A in a flow field of liquid. The speed of the
flow is constant over a 10 s period, but the flow direction is not necessarily constant.
At any particular instant the velocity in the entire field of flow is the same. The
streakline produced by the dye is shown above. Draw (and label) a streamline for the
flow field at t = 8s. Draw (and label) a pathline that one would see at t = 10 s for a
particle of dye that was emitted from point A at t = 2 s.

3. The nozzle in the figure is shaped such that the velocity of flow varies linearly from
the base of the nozzle to its tip. Assuming quasi–one-dimensional flow, what is the
convective acceleration midway between the base and the tip if the velocity is 1 ft s at
the base and 4 ft/ s at the tip? Nozzle length is 18 inches.

4. If the piston and water (ρ = 62.4 lb-mass/ft3) are accelerated upward at a rate of 0.5g,
what will be the pressure at a depth of 2 ft in the water column?

5. This closed tank, which is 4 ft in diameter, is filled with water (ρ = 62.4 lbm/ft3) and is
spun around its vertical centroidal axis at a rate of 10 rad/ s. An open piezometer is
connected to the tank as shown so that it is also rotating with the tank. For these conditions,
what is the pressure at the center of the bottom of the tank?

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5. A pressure of 10 kPa, gage, is applied to the surface of water in an enclosed tank. The
distance from the water surface to the outlet is 0.5 m. The temperature of the water is
20o C. Find the velocity (m/s) of water at the outlet. The speed of the water surface is
much less than the water speed at the outlet.

6. The flow-metering device shown consists of a stagnation probe at station 2 and a static
pressure tap at station 1. The velocity at station 2 is twice that at station 1. Air with a
density of 1.2 kg m3 flows through the duct. A water manometer is connected between
the stagnation probe and the pressure tap, and a deflection of 10 cm is measured. What
is the velocity at station 2?

V. REVIEW OF CONCEPTS

The streamline is defined as a line drawn through the flow field in such a manner that the local
velocity vector is tangent to the streamline at every point along the line at that instant.

At the location where the dividing streamline intersects the body, the velocity will be zero
with respect to the body. This is the stagnation point.

In a uniform flow, the velocity does not change along a fluid path

In nonuniform flow, the velocity changes along a fluid path

In nonuniform flow, the velocity changes along a fluid path

An unsteady flow exists if the flow in the pipe changed with time due to a valve opening or
closing, the flow would be unsteady; that is, the velocity at any point selected on a fluid path would be
increasing or decreasing with time.

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The pathline simply is the path of a fluid particle as it moves through the flow field.

The streakline is the line generated by a tracer fluid, such as a dye, continuously injected into
the flow field at the starting point.

Laminar flow is a well-ordered state of flow in which adjacent fluid layers move smoothly with
respect to each other.

Turbulent flow is an unsteady flow characterized by intense cross-stream mixing.

Acceleration of a fluid particle as it moves along a pathline, is the rate of change of the
particle’s velocity with time

The variation of velocity with time at a point on the pathline, namely is called the local
acceleration.

The other term, depends on the variation of velocity along the pathline and is called the
convective acceleration.

The acceleration with magnitude r, which is normal to the pathline and directed toward the
center of rotation, is the centripetal acceleration.*

Euler’s equation for motion of a fluid shows that the acceleration is equal to the change in
piezometric pressure with distance, and the minus sign means that the acceleration is in the direction of
decreasing piezometric pressure.

Bernoulli equation states that the sum of the piezometric pressure and kinetic pressure is
constant along a streamline for the steady flow of an incompressible, inviscid fluid.

A stagnation tube (sometimes call a total head tube) is an open-ended tube directed upstream
in a flow and connected to a pressure sensor.

The Pitot-static tube, named after the eighteenth-century French hydraulic engineer who
invented it, is based on the same principle as the stagnation tube, but it is much more versatile than the
stagnation tube.

Rotation is defined as the average rotation of two initially mutually perpendicular faces of a
fluid element.

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VI. POST TEST

Carefully read each of the problems and analyze. Prepare calculations and submit. This
will comprise your Major exams.

1. At time = 0, dye was injected at point A in a flow field of a liquid. When the dye had been
injected for 4 s, a pathline for a particle of dye that was emitted at the 4 s instant was started.
The streakline at the end of 10 s is shown below. Assume that the speed (but not the
velocity) of flow is the same throughout the 10 s period. Draw the pathline of the particle
that was emitted at t = 4 s. Make your own assumptions for any missing information.

2. In this flow passage the velocity is varying with time. The velocity varies with time at
section A-A as

At time it is known that at section A-A the velocity gradient in the s direction is 2 m s per meter.
Given that t0 is 0.5s and assuming quasi–one-dimensional flow, answer the following questions
for time t = 0.50 s.

a. What is the local acceleration at A-A?

b. What is the convective acceleration at A-A?

3. A pipe slopes upward in the direction of liquid flow at an angle of 30° with the horizontal.
What is the pressure gradient in the flow direction along the pipe in terms of the specific
weight of the liquid if the liquid is decelerating (accelerating opposite to flow direction) at
a rate of 0.3g?

4. The closed tank shown, which is full of liquid, is accelerated downward at 2/3g and to the
right at 1g. Here L = 2.5 m, H = 3 m, and the liquid has a specific gravity of 1.3. Determine
pC-pA and pB – pA.

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5. A U-tube is rotated about one leg, as shown. Before being rotated the liquid in the tube fills
0.25 m of each leg. The length of the base of the U-tube is 0.5 m, and each leg is 0.5 m
long. What would be the maximum rotation rate (in rad/s) to ensure that no liquid is
expelled from the outer leg?

6. Kerosene at 20oC flows through a contraction section as shown. A pressure gage connected
between the upstream pipe and throat section shows a pressure difference of 20 kPa. The
gasoline velocity in the throat section is 10 m/s. What is the velocity (m/s) in the upstream
pipe?

7. A glass tube is inserted into a flowing stream of water with one opening directed upstream
and the other end vertical. If the water velocity is 4 m/s, how high will the water rise in the
vertical leg relative to the level of the water surface of the stream?

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8. A device used to measure the velocity of fluid in a pipe consists of a cylinder, with a diameter
much smaller than the pipe diameter, mounted in the pipe with pressure taps at the forward
stagnation point and at the rearward side of the cylinder. Data show that the pressure
coefficient at the rearward pressure tap is –0.3. Water with a density of 1000 kg/m3 flows
in the pipe. A pressure gage connected by lines to the pressure taps shows a pressure
difference of 500 Pa. What is the velocity in the pipe?

VII. REFERENCES

C.T. Crowe et. Al, Engineering Fluid Mechanics, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2009, 111 River
Street, Hoboken, NJ.

J.F. Cruise, M.M. Sheriff, V.J Singh, “Elementary Hydraulics” International Student Edition,
Copyright 2007, Thopmson, Canada

Roberson, John, et al. 1997. Hydraulics Engineering 2 nd edition, John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

All Hydraulics Engineering and Hydraulics books

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Engr. Richard A. Badiola