Unit 1: The Social Science and Political Science Disciplines

I. Social Sciences
social science is any branch of academic study or science that deals with human
behavior in its social and cultural aspects. The social sciences emerged when several
philosophers determined to use the scientific method to study specific aspects of human
behavior. The purpose of the social sciences is to study systematically all aspects of
the human condition and human behavior, using a methodology borrowed from the
physical sciences wherever possible. This insistence on systematic and methodical
study distinguishes the social sciences from philosophy, art, and literature. These
disciplines also comment and reflect on all facets of the human condition. Artists, poets,
and philosophers express their insights into human behavior by availing themselves of
such tools as intuition, imagination, authority, tradition, rational thought, and common
sense. The social sciences emerged when several philosophers determined to use the
scientific method to study specific aspects of human behavior.
Social Sciences:
- Anthropology
- Economics
- Psychology
- Sociology
- Geography

II. Social World

Science may be briefly defined as a method of rational inquiry dependent on the
empirical testing of facts. This method, rather than a particular body of content, gives
scientists a unique way of looking at things. The purpose of the scientific method is to
obtain evidence that is verifiable and subject to replication. Science makes no judgment
about even the most seemingly obvious “facts” until original suppositions are
overwhelmingly supported by proof.
III. The Scientific Method
In defining the social sciences, the key to remember is that they study data
systematically and methodically. In other words, they use the scientific method. This
method uses both qualitative and quantitative approaches, the one describing, defining,
and concerned with meanings, the other focusing on counting and measuring
phenomena. The basic technique of the scientific method is a special kind of
observation called scientific observation. This kind of observation differs from simply
looking around. Scientific observation must proceed systematically: scientists must
select and define a problem and then make an organized plan for collecting data.
Scientific observation must be accurate and precise; scientists must subject collected
data to careful checking, rechecking, and cross-checking, as well as to careful
measurement. Scientific observation should take place under controlled conditions;
features of the environment should remain constant, so that when other features
change, researchers can be sure which specific cause is determining which effect. This
requirement is difficult to achieve in the social sciences because research on people
cannot always be performed in a laboratory. Control is challenging even in the natural
sciences because many phenomena can only be observed at a distance. Finally,
scientific observation must be made by a trained observer. Only such a person knows
which data are relevant and which are only peripherally important. To repeat, then, the
vocabulary of science includes concepts, theories, and research.
 Concepts are generalized and abstract ideas representing entire categories of people,
objects, or processes. They serve as a way to classify items within the same category,
simplifying thought and communication. Examples include society, nation, art, education,
and voting. Social scientists use concepts to generalize about aspects of human
interaction, interpreting and analyzing reality. These concepts form the technical
vocabulary of the
 Theories in the social sciences are structured sets of concepts and generalizations
aimed at explaining and predicting relationships among phenomena. These formulations
help scientists comprehend human interactions. The use of concepts is essential for
observing and analyzing reality, and without theories, the accumulation of knowledge
would be impossible. Unlike laws that describe unchanging relationships among events,
theories in the social sciences are not absolute and are subject to change or rejection
based on new evidence. In casual conversation, the term "theory" may imply a guess,
but in scientific terms, a theory holds significant weight due to its foundation in
supporting evidence.
 Research tests and bolsters, or refutes, theories. Research may be defined as
systematic scientific inquiry conducted under controlled conditions in which data are
carefully observed to determine the relationship between one factor (for example,
income) and one or more other factors (for example, child-rearing techniques).
 Variables. The factors whose relationship social scientists try to uncover are called
variables. These are characteristics that differ (vary) in each case—from person to
person, from group to group, from time to time, from place to place, and from situation to
situation. Age, education, income, religion, and political affiliation are some of the most
frequently used variables in social scientific research. Social scientists use
measurements, usually of a statistical nature, to determine the value of a variable in a
specific case.
o Variables are of two kinds: independent or dependent. Independent variables
are those that exert influence on dependent variables. The relationship between
variables can be one of cause and effect, with the independent variable causing
an effect on the dependent variable. Alternatively, the relationship may involve
correlation, indicating a connection between two or more variables. It is crucial to
distinguish between correlation and causation. Correlation implies a coincidental
relationship where variables change together, while causation indicates that one
phenomenon is the cause of another.
The steps of the scientific method
1. Selecting and Defining a Topic
Investigators begin by having a defined idea of what should be investigated.
Investigators also determine if a causal relationship is suspected between
variables, though proving causation is challenging. As a result, researchers often
focus on establishing correlations between phenomena.
2. Reviewing the Literature
After selecting the topic, the researcher must review all the existing literature on
the subject to ensure that it has not already been investigated. If it has, the
researcher might have to alter the topic, perhaps focusing on a facet of it that has
not been investigated previously. A review of the literature is an important step in
the scientific method. It connects new research with old, allows the accumulation
of ideas, and directs scientists to the right variables to pursue.
3. Forming a Hypothesis
The hypothesis is a testable statement about a chosen topic, predicting a
relationship between variables. It can stem from a researcher's hunch or
educated guess, such as speculating that religion influences voting behavior.
Subsequent steps in the scientific method can validate, reformulate, or contradict
the hypothesis. Hypotheses may arise from common-sense deductions, curiosity,
existing theories, previous research, or a literature review on a specific issue of
interest to the researcher.
4. Developing a Research Design (Collecting, Classifying, and Analyzing Data)
The research plan that is developed after the hypothesis is stated must specify
from what group(s) and in what manner data are to be collected. Decisions must
also be made about how best to obtain the data (direct observation,
questionnaires, interviews, or a combination of research methods). After data
have been systematically collected, the researcher must classify, organize, and
record them. Data must also be made public so that others may have access to
both the findings and the procedures. In most scientific disciplines, including the
social sciences, computers are used to classify and organize data. The data are
then analyzed. In this step, the researcher subjects the previously classified data
to various statistical methods to see whether relationships are substantial or so
small that they may be due to chance. Statistical computation determines
whether the data supports the hypothesis
5. Verifying
Verification is a crucial step in the scientific method due to the potential for errors
in research, whether known or unknown to the researcher. This involves
replicating the research project, which can be carried out by either the original
scientist or another. Success in research is determined by its ability to be
replicated by another scientist with consistent results.
6. Generalizing
Finally, conclusions must be drawn from data analysis, addressing whether the
data supports or refutes the original hypothesis and if alterations are necessary.
Cautious researchers avoid under-generalizations, ensuring the usefulness of
their research. Overconfident researchers, however, risk making
overgeneralizations, potentially leading to false hypotheses and incorrect
conclusions. Conclusions are typically summarized in reports, sometimes
published in professional journals or monographs. Researchers strive to connect
their findings with existing theories, offering suggestions for altering accepted
assumptions or proposing new hypotheses based on the research.
The Scientific Method uses primarily the quantitative approach. The quantitative
research approach measures and counts, looking for explanations of phenomena. The
approach is favored by many social scientists because it is objective and uses
mathematical models to reach testable answers. It has become much more frequent
with the advent of computer technology, which facilitates measurements. The qualitative
research approach also consists of collecting data, analyzing, and interpreting them,
and reaching specific conclusions. However, this method is much more subjective
because it depends on the observations of the scientist. The qualitative approach
defines and describes phenomena, looking for a deeper understanding. Certain issues
lend themselves better to one approach, and other issues to the other approach.
THE SCIENTIFIC SPIRIT: SKEPTICISM, OBJECTIVITY, RELATIVITY
At the core of the scientific method is the scientific spirit—an attitude marked by
doubt and skepticism. Scientists approach everything, including their findings,
with great skepticism, never taking anything for granted, as their conclusions are
always subject to change upon further analysis. Another key principle is
objectivity, requiring scientists to eliminate personal attitudes, desires, beliefs,
values, and tendencies when dealing with data intended to support a finding.
Scientists strive for complete dispassion, aiming to prevent individual biases from
influencing their judgment. While total objectivity is an ideal that scientists aspire
to, it is acknowledged that humans cannot be always entirely objective. This
matter has been particularly debated in the social sciences, which focus on
human relationships and behavior. Closely tied to objectivity is the third principle
of the scientific spirit: ethical neutrality. Scientists should refrain from making
value judgments about their findings and focus solely on determining whether the
findings are true or false. Additionally, scientific conclusions should not be viewed
as final, absolute, or universal truths but rather as relative to the time and place
of their origin, always subject to change or revision.

IV. THE SOCIAL SCIENCE DISCIPLINES

The boundaries among the social sciences are artificial in the sense that they
all study the same thing: human behavior in the social environment. Each
discipline, however, focuses on specific facets of that environment and
behavior, in effect allowing social scientists to specialize. Social scientists are
aware of the overlapping nature of their discipline and they often borrow with
each Other.
ANTHROPOLOGY Anthropology combines a natural science—biology—and information
gathered from the social sciences to uncover the relationships between
human biological traits and traits acquired socially, that is, by living in
groups. The discipline is divided into physical anthropology, which is
concerned principally with human biological origins and the variations in the
human species, and cultural anthropology, which has traditionally dealt with
the study and comparative analysis of preliterate societies.
ECONOMICS Economics, as a discipline, examines the systems societies create to
address the challenges of resource scarcity. It delves into the production,
distribution, and consumption of goods and services necessary for survival.
Economists analyze the value of work, natural resources, and money as a
medium of exchange. They define concepts like supply and demand,
savings and investments, cost and price, and economic fluctuations.
Additionally, economics aims to explain social processes, such as the
allocation of resources, the origins of issues like poverty, the significance of
work for identity, occupational status, and the impact of rising expectations
on the standard of living.
GEOGRAPHY Geography encompasses both natural and human/cultural dimensions. In
physical geography, it explores aspects like land, water bodies, mountains,
 vegetation, and animal habitats, drawing from fields such as astronomy,
botany, ecology, and more. Human/cultural geography focuses on how
people interact with the environment, examining settlement patterns,
agricultural and mining preferences, transportation routes, and industrial
centers. Geography also contributes to social sciences like anthropology,
history, political science, psychology, sociology, and urban studies.
Specialized disciplines arising from geography include demography,
studying population trends, and ecology, exploring the relationship between
living organisms and their environment.
HISTORY History is not universally considered a social science because its primary
objective is to record human events for future generations. Historians often
cannot use the scientific method. The discipline, however, does attempt to
study systematically a sequence of related events—or some such
sequences— to learn about, verify, and establish meaningful relationships
among them. Because history provides a context in which to study human
relationships systematically, it may be considered a social science.
Historical facts are interspersed in discussions of every facet of the social
sciences because it is impossible to interpret the present and speculate
about the future without reference to the past.
POLITICAL The chief concern of political science is the study of power. The discipline
SCIENCE probes the need for an institution to maintain order, make decisions, and
provide for defense. It also analyzes the forms the institution takes and the
processes that emerge. The discipline includes such concepts as the state,
politics, power, and ideology. Historically, political science has had a strong
philosophical, legal, and administrative orientation. More recently, the
discipline has taken a turn toward the social sciences in that it is concerned
with the effect of government and its processes on individuals and groups
in society. An important part of political science is international relations,
which tries to uncover patterns of behavior among the nations of the world.
PSYCHOLOGY Psychology delves into the forces shaping and motivating individuals,
encompassing aspects of both the natural and social sciences. In its
medical form, psychiatry utilizes natural sciences for insights into the
physical structure, nervous system, and physical development. Social
sciences contribute to understanding behaviors originating from social
interaction. Given the complexity of human beings, psychology is broad
and experimental, requiring knowledge of both human biology and social
processes. For instance, to explain blushing, psychologists consider
biologically induced organic changes and the social pressures triggering
them. Social psychologists specialize in studying various aspects, including
socialization, emotions, memory, perception, intelligence, language
acquisition, motivation, learning, adjustment, maladjustment, heredity,
environmental effects, problem-solving, and more.
SOCIOLOGY Sociology is the newest of the social sciences, having emerged long after
the other social science disciplines were already established.
Contemporary sociology may be defined as the systematic and scientific
study of human social relationships and of all the social systems that such
relationships engender. In more popular terms, sociology is said to be the
study of human groups in interaction, or the scientific study of human
society and human group behavior. Although psychology also analyzes
human behavior, its focus is the individual. The focus of sociology, on the
other hand, is the individual in interaction with others or as he or she
moves in the social environment. The discipline looks at the environment,
religion, politics, the economy, deviance, criminality, change, demography,
industry, technology, medicine, urban and rural areas, and so on. It focuses
 especially on the organization of complex industrial societies, analyzing
data and events through several theoretical models. The foremost of these
models are functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism. In
addition, research is undertaken within the framework of newer theories,
such as feminism, exchange theory, and postmodernism. Most of the social
sciences share some of these theoretical approaches.

RESEARCH METHODS IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES

Research methods in the social sciences can be historical, involving the

examination of documents like public records, newspapers, legal codes, and corporate
reports. Comparative and cross-cultural methods, often used in anthropology, involve
comparing different societies or segments to trace cultural patterns. These methods are
predominantly qualitative. In contrast, quantitative methods involve mathematical and
statistical calculations to express ideas. The use of computers in social scientific
research has become prevalent in recent decades. Often, a combination of methods
and sources is employed, and researchers prefer objective approaches to minimize
personal biases. The most common research methods in the social sciences today
include historical, comparative, cross-cultural, qualitative, and quantitative methods. For
further details, a comprehensive bibliography of research methods in all the social
sciences is available online.
1. Sample survey- The sample survey research design consists of two separate
features, the sample and the survey. The researcher decides to study a specific
group, which is called the population, a statistical concept referring to the totality
of the phenomenon under investigation. The next step is to survey the sample
population. Surveying involves collecting data utilizing questionnaires, personal
interviews, statistical information, or probing of attitudes. Most important,
relationships among variables are analyzed. If a broad spectrum of the
 population is being surveyed at a specific point in time, the study is called cross-
sectional.
2. Case-Study: The case study research design is especially helpful when it is
necessary to study a particular unit in depth or to study several units for purposes
of comparison. The unit may be a person, a family, a group of residents of a
retirement community, employees of a particular corporation, members of a
religious movement, and so on. The researcher must obtain a complete, detailed
account of the behavior of the unit under consideration. In the case study, the
entire population of the unit is surveyed. Case studies are most valuable because
they often suggest hypotheses that can then be tested by other methods.
3. Participant Observation: the researcher tries to take part in the lives of the group
members being studied, associating with group members as closely as possible
and attempting to share their experiences and lifestyles, sometimes without
revealing his or her purpose. This technique, developed by anthropologists to
study preliterate cultures, has also been used to analyze ethnic and black street-
corner cultures.
4. Experiment: The experimental method is used in all scientific disciplines. In the
social sciences, the experiment may take place either in a laboratory or in the
field. In the laboratory experiment, people are recruited to serve as subjects who
can be volunteers or paid by the researcher. The scientist conducts some tests
and records the subjects’ responses. In the field experiment, the researcher goes
out among the people instead of bringing them to the laboratory. In both the field
and the laboratory, one variable is controlled (by setting up control groups), and
the results are systematically observed and measured. Every scientific
experiment consists of (1) keeping all variables constant except one,
(2) changing that one variable, and (3) discovering what happens
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
Statistics expressed as numbers, serve to process research information,
facilitating communication and aiding researchers in interpreting their findings.
Descriptive statistics, such as mean, median, and mode, convey the central tendency or
typical values within a group of numbers. The mean is calculated by adding all figures
and dividing by the number of cases, while the median represents the middle score in
the distribution. Additionally, the mode is the most frequently occurring number in the
group. Statistics also include inferential methods, helping researchers determine the
validity of statements about a population based on a specific sample. Statistical tests,
calculating percentage statements of probability, assure that findings true for a sample
are likely true for the larger population, with higher probabilities indicating greater
confidence.
In summary, no research method in the social sciences is entirely error-proof.
Conducting research in these fields is challenging due to subjectivity, logistical issues,
unpredictable human behavior, and the need to control numerous variables. Social
scientists often choose methods based on their research design needs, with historical or
impressionistic studies—describing and analyzing observations using informal but
coherent guidelines—remaining popular. The demographic method, employed by the
Census Bureau to report population and urbanization trends, is also widely used by
demographers, sociologists, and economists to conclude from demographic facts.
Despite using the scientific method, social scientists face greater challenges in
obtaining verifiable data compared to physical scientists. Examining human interactions
differs significantly from analyzing inert fossil remains. People do not lend themselves to
the same experiments, and researchers' reactions to individuals, unlike fossils,
introduce a subjective element. The researchers inevitably form judgments about
people's likability, appearance, intelligence, etc. These personal biases may influence
the conclusions of social scientists, making absolute conclusions and entirely objective
interpretations elusive in the social sciences.

SUMMARY:
Social science disciplines emerged from social philosophy to scientifically study human
behavior in the social world they create. While these disciplines are relatively new, their
subject matter has been pondered by philosophers for thousands of years. What
distinguishes the social sciences is their attempt to use the scientific method to
formulate generalizations and theories about human behavior in society.
The scientific method is a crucial tool in social sciences for theory building, involving
attitudes of doubt, objectivity, and ethical neutrality. It entails precise and systematic
observation, data collection, hypothesis formulation, data analysis and verification, and
generalization under controlled conditions with trained observers. Concepts, theories,
and research form the basis of the scientific method.
Social scientific research employs methods like sample surveys, case studies,
participant observation, and field and laboratory experiments. Additionally, historical or
impressionistic methods and the demographic method are utilized. However, applying
the scientific method in the social sciences is challenging due to the necessity of
maintaining objectivity, skepticism, and ethical neutrality.

TERMS TO REMEMBER
 case study: A method of research independent variable The concept
consisting of a detailed, long-term that affects the dependent variable.
investigation of a single social unit.  longitudinal study A survey that
 Concept: A generalized idea about continues over a long period,
people, objects, or processes that engaging in contrasts and
are related to one another; an comparisons
abstract way of classifying similar  mean The figure obtained by
things. adding all of the figures and
 cross-section: A survey of a broad dividing them by the number of
spectrum of a population at a specific cases.
point in time.  median is the number in the
 dependent variable: The concept middle of the distribution of
affected by the independent variable. figures. mode The number that
 ethical neutrality An attitude of the appears most frequently in a
scientific method in the social group of numbers.
sciences, requiring that scientists not  participant observation A
pass moral judgment on their method of research in which
findings. researchers try to take part in the
 experiment A method of research in lives of the members of the group
which the researcher controls and under analysis, sometimes
manipulates variables in one group without revealing their purposes.
to test the effects of an independent  population in the social
variable on a dependent variable. sciences, a statistical concept
 hypothesis A tentative statement, in referring to the totality of
clearly defined terms, predicting a phenomena under investigation
relationship between variables.
 (e.g., all college students enrolled experiment, and participant
in four-year private universities). observation.
 qualitative research A method  sample survey A method of
that collects and analyzes data by research consisting of an attempt
describing and defining to determine the occurrence of a
phenomena to find meanings; particular act or opinion in a
may be subjective. particular sample of people.
 quantitative research Uses  statistics Methods in the form of
mathematical, statistically valid, numbers used to process
and strictly objective information obtained by research.
measurements of phenomena  theory A set of concepts
seeking explanations. arranged to explain and/or predict
 research An aspect of scientific possible and probable
methodology that bolsters and relationships.
complements theories. In the  variables Factors whose
social sciences, four fundamental relationships researchers try to
formats are used: the sample uncover; characteristics that differ
survey, the case study, the (vary) in each case.

TRADITIONS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE

**Nature of Political Science: **
Political science is a social science discipline that systematically studies political
systems, governmental structures, political behavior, and the distribution of power within
societies. It seeks to understand how political institutions function, how decisions are
made, and the impact of political actions on individuals and communities. Political
science employs a range of methodologies, including empirical research, case studies,
comparative analysis, and theoretical approaches.
**Origin of Political Science:**
The origins of political science can be traced back to ancient Greece, particularly with
the works of scholars like Plato and Aristotle. Plato's "The Republic" and Aristotle's
"Politics" laid the groundwork for the systematic study of political organization,
governance, and the role of citizens. Over the centuries, political thought evolved with
contributions from various philosophers, historians, and social theorists, shaping the
discipline into what it is today.
**Scope of Political Science:**
The scope of political science is broad and encompasses various subfields that address
different aspects of political life. Some key subfields include:
1. **Political Theory:** Examines the philosophical foundations of political systems,
exploring ideas about justice, authority, rights, and the role of the state.
2. **Comparative Politics:** Involves the systematic comparison of political systems,
institutions, and processes across different countries to identify patterns and variations.
3. **International Relations:** Focuses on the interactions between states and other
international actors, including diplomacy, conflict, cooperation, and global governance.
4. **Political Economy:** Analyzes the relationship between politics and economics,
exploring how political institutions impact economic policies and outcomes.
5. **Public Administration:** Studies the organization and functioning of governmental
structures, bureaucracy, and public policies.
6. **Political Sociology:** Investigates the social structures, behavior, and dynamics that
influence political processes, including the role of identity, social movements, and
political culture.
7. **Public Policy:** Examines the development, implementation, and impact of
government policies on society.
8. **Political Methodology:** Involves the development and application of research
methods and techniques for studying political phenomena, including statistical analysis
and qualitative research.
9. **Environmental Politics:** Focuses on the political dimensions of environmental
issues, policies, and governance.
10. **Security Studies:** Explores issues related to national and international security,
including conflict resolution, peacebuilding, and the role of military forces.
The scope of political science is dynamic and evolves with changes in political
landscapes, societal structures, and global dynamics. It provides valuable insights into
the functioning of political systems and informs decision-making processes in
governance and public policy.

**Dominant Paradigms in the Study of Politics:**

1. **Behavioralism:** Behavioralism emerged in the mid-20th century and emphasizes
the use of scientific methods to study observable political behavior. It seeks to apply the
scientific method and principles from the natural sciences to political science, focusing
on empirical research and quantifiable data.
2. **Rational Choice Theory:** Rooted in economics, rational choice theory assumes
that individuals make rational decisions based on their preferences and available
information.
3. **Institutionalism:** Institutionalism focuses on the analysis of political institutions,
such as governments, legislatures, and bureaucracies. It explores how these institutions
shape political processes and influence behavior.
4. **Structuralism:** Structuralism examines the underlying structures and patterns that
shape political phenomena. It seeks to identify recurring social structures and their
impact on political outcomes.
5. **Post-Behavioralism:** As a reaction to the perceived limitations of behavioralism,
post-behavioralism emphasizes a more interpretive and qualitative approach to
understanding politics. It takes into account historical context, culture, and meaning,
challenging the strict positivist methodologies of behavioralism.
**Other Methodological Considerations:**
1. **Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research:** Political scientists use both qualitative and
quantitative research methods. Qualitative methods involve in-depth analysis, often
using case studies, interviews, and content analysis. Quantitative methods involve
statistical analysis of numerical data, often collected through surveys and experiments.
2. **Case Studies:** Political scientists frequently use case studies to delve deeply into
specific instances or examples, providing rich contextual understanding. Case studies
allow researchers to explore complex political phenomena within a particular context.
3. **Comparative Analysis:** Comparative politics involves comparing political systems,
institutions, or processes across different countries or regions. This method helps
identify patterns, variations, and general principles that may apply across diverse
contexts.
4. **Historical Analysis:** Understanding the historical context is crucial in political
science. Historical analysis helps explain the development of political institutions,
ideologies, and the impact of past events on contemporary politics.
5. **Surveys and Experiments:** Surveys and experiments are common tools for
collecting quantitative data in political science. Surveys involve gathering information
through structured questionnaires, while experiments manipulate variables to observe
their effects on political behavior.
6. **Critical and Normative Analysis:** Critical analysis involves evaluating and critiquing
political systems, practices, and institutions from normative or ethical perspectives.
7. **Interdisciplinary Approaches:** Political science often draws on insights from other
disciplines, such as sociology, economics, psychology, and history. Interdisciplinary
approaches enhance the comprehensiveness and depth of political research.
8. **Mixed-Methods Research:** Combining qualitative and quantitative methods,
known as mixed-methods research, allows researchers to triangulate findings and gain
a more comprehensive understanding of political phenomena