MODULE 4 WIND

ENERGY

Introduction

Wind results from air in motion. Air in motion arises from a pressure gradient. On a
global basis one primary forcing function causing surface winds from the poles toward the
equator is convective circulation . Solar radiation heats the air near the equator, and this low
density heated air is buoyed up. At the surface it is displaced by cooler more dense higher
pressure air flowing from the poles. In the upper atmosphere near the equator the air thus tend
to flow back toward the poles and away from the equator. The net results is a global
convectivecirculation with surface winds from north to south in the northern hemisphere.
There is the further complication of boundary layer frictional effects between the
moving air and the earth's rough surface. Mountains, trees, buildings, and similar obstructions
impair stream line air flow. Turbulence results, and the wind velocity in a horizontal direction
markedly increases with altitude near the surface.
countries like Netherland and Denmark where high velocity wind is available in abundant
quantity. Nearly, 30,000 house mills capable of producing 100 MW and 3000 industrial
windmills generating another 100 MW were operating in Denmarkat the turn of this century.

Basic principal of Wind energy conversion

The Nature of the Wind

The circulation of air in the atmosphere is caused by the non-uniform heating

over water. In coastal regions this manifests itself in a strong onshore wind. At night the
process is reversed because the air cools down more rapidly over the land and the breeze
therefore blows off shore.

The main planetary winds are caused in much the same way: Cool surface air sweeps down
from the poles forcing the warm air over the tropics to rise. But the direction of these massive
air movements is affected by the rotation of the earth and the net effect is a large countries-
clockwise circulation of air around low pressure areas in the northern hemisphere, and
clockwise circulation in the southern hemisphere. The strength and direction of these
planetary winds change with the seasons as the solar input varies.

Despite the wind's intermittent nature, wind patterns at any particular site remain
remarkably constant year by year. Average wind speeds are greater in hilly and coastal areas
than they are well inland. The winds also tend to blow
more consistently and with greater strength over the surface of the water where there is a less
surface drag.

Wind speeds increase with height. They have traditionally been measured at a standard height
often meters where they are found to be 20-25% greater than close to the surface. At a height
of60 m they may be 30-60% higher because of the reduction in the drag effect of the earth's
surface.

WIND RESOURCES

Unfortunately, the general availability and reliability of wind speed data is extremely poor in
many regions of the world. Large areas of the world appear to have average annual wind
speeds below 3 m/s and are unsuitable for wind power systems; further, almost equally large
areas have wind speeds in the intermediate range (3-4.5 m/s), where wind power may or may
not be an attractive option. In addition, significant land areas have mean annual wind speeds
exceeding 4.5 m/s, where wind power would most certainly be economically competitive

Worldwide Wind Energy Scenario in 2010

As per the World Wind Energy Report 2010, wind energy scenario in 2010 is
summarized as follows:
1. Worldwide capacity reached 196,630 MW, out of which 37,642 MW were added in 2010,
slightly less than the capacity in 2009.
2. Wind power showed a growth rate of 23.6%, the lowest growth since 2004 and thesecond
lowest growth of the past decade. All wind turbines installed by the end of 2010 worldwide
can generate 430 TWh per annum; this wind power is more than the total electricity demand
of the United Kingdom, the sixth largest economy of the world, and equaling 2,5% of the
global electricity consumption.
3. China became number one in total installed capacity and the centre of the international
wind industry, and it added 18,928 MW within one year, accounting formore than 50% of the
world’s market for new wind turbines.
4. Major decrease in new installations can be observed in North America and USA lost its
number one position in total capacity to China.
5. Many Western European countries are showing stagnation, whereas there is strong growth
in the number of Eastern European countries.
6. Germany keeps its number one position in Europe with 27,215 MW, followed by Spain
with 20,676 MW.
7. The highest shares of wind power can be found in three European countries: Denmark
(21%), Portugal (18%), and Spain (16%).
8. Asia accounted for the largest share of new installations (54,6%), followed by Europe
(27,0%) and North America (16,7%).
9. Latin America (1,2%) and Africa (0,4%) still played only a marginal role in new
installations.
10. Africa: North Africa represents still lion share of installed capacity, while wind energy
plays hardly a role yet in Sub-Saharan Africa.
11. Nuclear disaster in Japan and oil spill in Gulf of Mexico will have long-term impact on
the prospects of wind energy. Governments need to urgently reinforce their wind energy
policies.
12. WWEA sees a global capacity of 600,000 MW as possible by 2015 and more than
1,500,000 MW by 2020.

Wind Energy in India

The Indian wind energy sector has an installed capacity of 14,158.00 MW (as on March 31,
2011). In terms of wind power installed capacity, India is ranked fifth in the world. Today,
India is a major player in the global wind energy market.
The potential is far from exhausted. Indian Wind Energy Association has estimated
that with the current level of technology, the ‘on-shore’ potential for utilization of wind
energy for electricity generation is of the order of 65,000 MW. The unexploited resource
availability has the potential to sustain the growth of wind energy sector in India in the years
to come.
Wind in India are influenced by the strong south-west summer monsoon, which starts
in May-June, when cool, humid air moves towards the land; further, the weak north-east
winter monsoon, which starts in October, when cool, dry air moves towards the ocean.
During MarchAugust, the winds are uniformly strong over the whole Indian Peninsula,
except the eastern peninsular coast. Wind speeds during November-March are relatively
weak, although high winds are available during a part of the period on the Tamil Nadu
coastline. A notable feature of the Indian programme has been the interest among private
investors or developers in setting up of commercial wind power projects. The gross potential
is 48,561 MW (source C- wet) and a total of about 14,158.00 MW of commercial projects
have been established until March 31, 2011. The break-up of projects implemented in
prominent wind potential states (as on March 31, 2011) is as given in Table 6.2.
Wind power potential has been assessed assuming 1% of land availability for wind
farms requiring at 12 hectare/MW in sites having wind power density in excessof 200 W/m2
at 50 m hub-height
Describe main consideration in site selection for wind generation

Considerations and Guidelines for Site Selection

When looking for a place for a wind turbine, engineers consider factors suchas wind
hazards, characteristics of the land that affect wind speed, and the effects of one turbine on
nearby turbines in wind farms. The following important factors need careful considerations:
1. Hill effect: When it approaches a hill, wind encounters high pressure because of
the wind that has already built up against the hill. This compressed air rises and gains speed
as it approaches the crest, or top of the hill. The installation of wind turbines on hilltops takes
advantage of this increase in speed.
2. Roughness or the amount of friction that earth’s surface exerts on wind:
Oceans have very little roughness. A city or a forest has a great deal of roughness, which
slows the wind.
3. Tunnel effect: The increase in air pressure undergoes when it encounters a solid
obstacle. The increased air pressure causes the wind to gain speed as it passes between, for
example, rows of buildings in a city or between two mountains. Placing a wind turbine in a
mountain pass can be a good way to take advantage of wind speeds that are higher than those
of the surrounding air.
4. Turbulence: Rapid changes in the speed and direction of the wind, often caused
by the wind blowing over natural or artificial barriers are called turbulence. Turbulence
causes not only fluctuations in the speed of the wind but also wear and tear on the turbine.
Turbines are mounted on tall towers to avoid turbulence caused by ground obstacles.
 5. Variations in wind speed: During the day, winds usually blow faster than they do
at the night because the sun heats the air, setting air currents in motion. In addition, wind
speed can differ depending on the season of the year. This difference is a function of the sun,
which heats different air masses around earth at different rates, depending on the tilt of the
earth towards or away from the sun.
6. Wake: Energy can neither be created nor destroyed. As wind passes over the
blades of a turbine, the turbine seizes much of the energy and converts it into mechanical
energy. The air coming out of the blade sweep has less energy because it has been slowed.
7. Wind obstacles: Trees, buildings, and rock formations are the main obstacles in
the installation of wind turbines. Any of these obstacles can reduce wind speed considerably
an increase turbulence. Wind obstacles like tall buildings cause wind shade, which can
considerably reduce the speed of the wind, and therefore, the power output of a turbine.
8. Wind shear: It is the differences in wind speeds at different heights. When a
turbine blade is pointed straight upward, the speed of the wind hitting its tip can be, for
example, 9 miles (14 km) per hour, but when the blade is pointing straight downward, the
speed of the wind hitting its tip can be 7 miles (11 km) per hour. Thisdifference places stress
on the blades. Further, too much wind shear can cause the turbine to fail.

With a help of neat diagram, explain the working of wind energyconversion

system for generation of electricity

Basic Components of WECS(Wind Energy ConversionSystem)

The main components of a WECS are shown in Fig. (6.12), in blockdiagram
form. Summary of the system operation is as follows:
 Aeroturbines convert energy in moving air to rotary mechanical energy.
Ingeneral, they require pitch control and yaw control (only in the case of horizontal wind
axis machines) for proper operation. A mechanical interface consisting of a step up gear
and a suitable coupling transmits the rotary mechanical energy to an electrical generator.
The output of this generator is connected to the load or power grid as the application
warrants.

Yaw control. For localities with the prevailing wind in one direction, the design
of a turbine can be greatly simplified. The rotor can be in a fixed orientation with the
- - - - - - -

swept area perpendicular to the predominant wind direction.

The purpose of the controller is to sense wind speed, wind direction, shafts
speeds and torques at one or more points, output power and generator temperature as
necessary and appropriate control signals for matching the electrical output to the wind
energy input and protect the system from extreme conditions brought upon by strong
winds electrical faults, and the like.
The physical embodiment for such an areo-generator is shown 1n ageneralized form in
Fig. (6.13).

The sub components of the windmill are:

• wind turbine or rotor

• wind mill head
• Transmission & control
• Supporting structure
Rotor
Rotor are mainly of 2 types

(i) Horizontal axis rotor and (ii) Vertical axis rotor.

One advantage of vertical axis machines is that they operate in all winddirections
and thus need no yaw adjustment.
The rotor is only one of the important components. For an effective utilization,all
the components need to be properly designed and matched with the rest of the
components.

The windmill head supports the rotor, housing the rotor bearings. It also houses
any control mechanism incorporated like changing the pitch of the blades for safety
devices and tail vane to orient the rotor to face the wind. The latter is facilitated by
mounting it on the top of the supporting structure on suitable bearings.

Transmissions: The rate of rotation of large wind turbine generators operating at

rated capacity or below, is conveniently controlled by varying thepitch of the rotor blades,
but it is low, about 40 to 50 revolutions per minute (rpm). Because optimum generator
output requires much greater rates of rotation, suchas 1800 r.p.m, it is necessary to
increase greatly the low rotor rate of turning. Among the transmission options are
mechanical systems involving fixed ratio gears, belts, and chains, singly or in
combination or hydraulic systems involving fluid pumps and motors. Fixed ratio gears are
recommended for top mounted equipment because of their high efficiency, known cost,
and minimum system risk. For bottom mounted equipment which requires a right angle
drive, transmission costs might be reduced substantially by using large diameter bearings
with ring gears mountedon the hub to serve as a transmission to increase rotor speed to
generator speed. Such a combination offers a high degree of design flexibility as well as
large potentialsavings.

Generator: Either constant or variable speed generators are a possibility, but

variable speed units are expensive and/or unproved. Among the constant speed generator
candidates for use are synchronous induction and permanent magnet types. The generator
of choice is the synchronous unit for large aero generator systems because it is very
versatile and has an extensive data base. Other electrical components and systems are,
however, under development.

Controls. The modern large wind turbine generator requires a versatileand reliable
control system to perform the following functions:
(1) the orientation of the rotor into the wind (azimuth of yaw);
(2) start up and cut-in of the equipment;
 power control of the rotor by varying the pitch of the blades;
(4) generator output monitoring-status, data computation, and storage;
(5) shutdown and cut out owing to malfunction or very high winds;
(6) protection for the generator, the utility accepting the power and theprime
mover;
Towers
(3)

Four types of supporting towers deserve considerations, they are

(1) the reinforced concrete tower,

(2) the pole tower,
(3) the built up shell-tube tower, and
(4) the truss tower.
Among these, the truss tower is favored because it is proved and widely
adaptable, cost is low, parts are readily available, it is readily transported, and it is
potentially stiff. Shell-tube towers also have attractive features and may prove to be
competitive with truss towers.

Derive an expression for Available power in the wind

The Power in the Wind

Wind possesses energy by virtue of its motion. Any device capable of slowing down the mass
of moving air, like a sail or propeller, can extract part of the energy and convert is into useful
work.
Three factors determine the output from a wind energy converter:
 the wind speed;
 the cross-section of wind swept by rotor; and
 the overall conversion efficiency of the rotor, transmission system and generator or
pump.
The power in the wind can be computed by using the concept of kinetics.
The wind mill works on the principle of converting kinetic energy of the windto
mechanical energy.
We know that power is equal to energy per unit time. The energy availableis the
kinetic energy of the wind. The kinetic energy of any particleis,
= ½ mV2
The amount of air passing in unit time, through an area A, with velocity V, is
A.V, and its mass m is equal to its volume multiplied by its density p of air,
m =ρAV

Substituting this value of the mass in the expression of Kinetic energy,we obtain

kinetic energy = ½ ρAV. V2

 = ½ ρAV3 watts
The above Equation tells us that the maximum wind available.
The power available is proportional to air density (1.225 kg/m3 at sea level). Itmay
vary 10-15 % during the year because of pressure and temperature change.

Then A = 𝜋 D2
4

Substitute this in above equation,

Available wind power P =a ½ ρ 𝜋 D2 V3 watts

4

= 1 p 𝜋 D2 V 3 watts
8

The combined effects of wind speed and rotor diameter variations are shown in.Fig. 6.1.Wind
machines intended for generating substantial amounts of power should have large rotors and
be located in areas of high wind speeds. Where lowor moderate powers are adequate, these
requirements can be relaxed.

The physical conditions in a wind turbine are such that only a fraction, of the available wind
power can be converted into useful power. As the free wind stream encounters and passes
through a rotor, the wind transfer some of its energyto the rotor and its speed decreases to a
minimum in the rotor wake.
NATURE OF WINDS

To be able to understand and predict the performance of wind turbines it is

essential to have some knowledge of the behavior and structure of wind. This is also
required for proper design of supporting structure to carry the imposed load safely and at
an economically viable cost. The behavior and structure of the wind varies from site to
site depending on the general climate of the region, thephysical geometry of the locality,
the surface condition of the terrain around the site and various other factors.
Rapid fluctuations in the wind velocity over a wide range of frequencies and
amplitudes, due to turbulence caused by mechanical mixing of lower layers of
atmosphere by surface roughness are commonly known as gusts.

Wind Data & Energy estimation

All countries have national meteorological services that record and publishweather
related data including wind speed and direction. Wind speed is measured by anemometer
and wind direction is measured by wind vane attached to a direction indicator.
Anemometers work on one of the following principles.
(i) The oldest and simplest anemometer is a swinging plate hung vertically and hinged
along its top edge. Wind speed is indicated by the angle of deflection of the plate with
respect to vertical.
(ii) Cup anemometer consists of three or four cups mounted symmetrically about a
vertical axis. The speed of rotation indicates wind speed.
(iii) Wind speed can also be recorded by measuring the wind pressure on a flat plate.
(iv) Hot wire anemometer measures the wind speed by recording cooling effect of the
wind on hot wire. The heat is produced by passing an electric current through the wire

Figure 7.2 shows the typical anemograph of wind speed recorded at three heights,10 m,
50 m and 150 m during strong winds.

These records demonstrate the main characteristics of the flow in the region nearground. Main
conclusions may be drawn as:
(i) Wind speed increases with height.
(ii) Wind speed is fluctuating with time, i.e. turbulences are present at the site.
(iii) The turbulence is spread over a broad range of frequencies.
Prove that in the case of HAWT, maximum power can be obtained when exit
velocity = 1/3 wind velocity and P = 8/27 ρ AV3

Maximum Power

Consider a horizontal-axis, propeller-type windmill, henceforth to be called a wind turbine,

which is the most common type used today.
Assume that the wheel of such a turbine has thickness a b, as shown in Fig. 6.3 Let pi and
Vi are the wind pressure and velocity at the upstream of the turbine, Let pe and Ve are
pressure & velocity at downstream of the turbine.
Ve is less than Vi because kinetic energy is extracted by the turbine.

The general energy equation for steady state flow for unit mass is,

Or

where v and p are the specific volume and its reciprocal, the density, respectively, both
considered to be constant.

Similarly for the exit region be,

The wind velocity across the turbine decreases from a to b since kinetic energyis
converted to mechanical work there.
The incoming velocity Vi does not decrease abruptly but gradually as itapproaches
the turbine to Va and as it leaves it to Ve
The Vi > Va and Vb> V,e
therefore, from equations (6.7) and (6.8), Pa> Pi and Pb> Pi i
that is, the wind pressure rises as it approaches, then as it leaves the wheel.Combining these
equations,

It can be assumed that wind pressure ate can be assumed to ambient, i.e.,

As the blade width a. b is very thin as compared to total distance considered, itcan
be assumed that velocity within the turbine does not change much.

Combining equation (6.9) to (6.11) yields,

The axial force Fx , in the direction of wind stream, on a turbine wheel withprojected
area, perpendicular to the stream A, is given by

The general energy equation how reduces to the steady flow work W andkinetic energy
terms,

The power P is defined as the rate of work, from mass flow rate equation
Combining this with equation (6.15),

results in maximum power Pmax' which can be obtained by differenting P, andequating

the derivative to zero, i.e.,

This is solved for a positive Ve to give Ve opt.

8 ρAVi3
Pmax =
27𝑔𝑐

With a help of neat diagram, explain the terms lift force & drag force

Lift and drag: The basis for wind energy conversion.

The extraction of power, and hence energy, from the wind depends on creating certain
forces and applying them to rotate (or to translate) a mechanism. There are two primary
mechanisms for producing forces from thewind, lift and drag.

Air flow over a stationary airfoil produces two forces, a lift force perpendicular to
the air flow and a drag force in the direction of air flow, as shown in Figure 6.14.
The basic features that characterize lift and drag are as follows:

1. Drag is in the direction of air flow.

2. Lift is perpendicular to the direction of air flow.

3. Generation of lift always causes a certain amount of drag to be developed.

4. With a good aerofoil, the lift produced can be 30 times greater than the drag

5. Lift devices are generally more efficient than drag devices.

Lift Force

The lift force (FL) arises in a direction that is perpendicular to the airstream caused by
Bernoulli’s effect that lowers the pressure on the top of the airfoil when compared with the
pressure on its bottom. The curvature on the top leads to a higher stream velocity than at the
bottom and hence a lower pressure. Let (FL) is the lift force in Newton, (SL) is the cross-
sectional area of airfoil in m2, r is the air density in kg/m2, and V is the wind speed in m/s2.
Then, lift coefficient (CL) is defined as follows:

Drag Force

Similarly, drag force (FD) is described as

where CD = drag coefficient and SD = effective area of airfoil in the direction of drag force.
The lift and drag force vary with the angle that rotor blade makes with the direction of wind
stream. This angle is called as angle of attack. The resultant of drag and lift forces constitute
the thrust force that effectively rotate the blade.

Wind energy systems

what are the factors influence the cost of wind energy economics
Economics of Wind Energy

Over the last 20 years, the cost of electricity from grid-connected wind systems has dropped
by more than 80%. Now, state of the art wind power plants can generate electricity at prices
that are in a competitive range with many conventional energy technologies.
The main parameters governing wind-power economics can be categorized as follows:
  investment costs, including auxiliary costs for foundation and grid
connection;
 operation and maintenance (O&M) costs;
 financing costs;
 electricity production/average wind speed;
 availability;
 turbine lifetime

Of these, the most important parameters are the turbines’ electricity production and their
capital costs. As electricity production efficiency is highly reliant on wind conditions,
choosing the right turbine site is critical to achieve economic viability.

Comment on Environmental impact of wind energy

ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS(Module 5)

In general, the use of energy in any form, affects the environment in one-way or the other at
different levels. Wind energy is no exception. Although, these effects are of far less
consequence as compared to that related to other sources of energy.
In terms of causing stress on water resources, wind energy is one of the most benign
sources of energy. A major advantage of wind generation relative to any thermal based
generation (nuclear, geothermal, fossil fuel and solar thermal) is that it does not need cooling
water.
Main environmental concerns are discussed below:

1. Indirect Energy Use and Emissions

Energy is required to produce materials used to construct the wind turbine and in its
installation. This energy is paid back in a period of few months to about a year, what is
known as energy payback period. Some pollution (emission of CO2, etc.) is caused due to
use of energy during construction. But in total the so-called indirect CO2 emission over the
total operating life of the wind generator is very low (about 1 per cent of the system using
coal).
2. Bird Life
Large wind turbines pose a threat to bird life as a result of collision with tower or
blades. Their resting and breeding patterns are also affected.
3. Noise
The disturbance caused by the noise produced by wind turbine is one of the
important factors that prevent its sitting close to inhabited areas. The acoustic noise is
composed of
(a) mechanical noise due to movement of mechanical parts in the nacelle (mainly
gear and also other equipment), which can be reduced by good design and acoustic
insulation and
 (b) aerodynamic noise (swishing sound from the rotating blades), which is a
function of wind speed and which cannot be avoided. Some of this noise is of infra sound, at
frequencies below the audible range. This infrasound may cause houses and other structures
to vibrate.
4. Visual Impact
Wind turbines are massive structures quite visible over a wide area in most
locations. Visual impact of wind turbine is qualitative in nature. In a study, it was found that
public appreciation of a landscape decreases as more and more wind turbines are installed.
A special case of visual impact is the effect of shadow of the turbine, particularly of the
rotor blades. Offshore wind farms being away from inhabited areas do not in general create
same severity of visual intrusion.
5. Telecommunication Interference
Wind turbines present an obstacle for incident electromagnetic waves (i.e. TV or
microwave signals). These waves can be reflected, scattered and dithered. Thus they
interfere with telecommunication links and badly affect the quality of radio and TV
reception. The effect can be mitigated by use of cable system or by installing powerful
antennas.

6. Safety
Accidents with wind turbines are rare but they do happen, as in other industrial activities.
For example, a detached blade or its fragment may be thrown a considerable distance and
can harm people and property. However, most wind turbines are located in isolated areas,
which make it less likely to cause any damage. The International Electrical Committee
(IEC) has taken the initiative to produce an international standard on safety.

7. Effects on Ecosystem
Large-scale use of wind generation can reduce wind speed and cause stress to ecosystem.
Lakes that are downhill from the wind turbines might become warmer because of reduced
evaporation from their surface. Soil moisture might also increase. Nevertheless there
impacts may not be of great consequence except in certain sensitive areas.

Explain the Applications of Wind Energy OR Describe main applications of Wind

energy, giving a neat sketch.(Module 5)

Applications of Wind Energy

Energy extracted from the wind is initially energy in the form of rotary, translational, or
oscillatory mechanical motion. This mechanical motion can be used to pump fluids or can be
converted to electricity, heat, or fuel. Some of the
most effective application are those that use energy derived directly from the wind, without
further energy processing, conversion, or storage.

Pumping Application:

A typical wind powered pumping application is one that might use a horizontal- axis wind
machine. Large number of water-pumping wind mills have been used on Indian farms. Other
applications that are being developed include the pumping of water for aqueducts or for
pumped• hydro storage of energy.

The two main end uses of wind pumps (irrigation and water supply) have very different
technical operational and economic requirements. Irrigation designs are generally unsuitable
for water supply duties, which may require heads 10-100 m high. Despite these limitations,
however, water supply pumps are sometimes used for irrigation. Since many water supply
wind pumps must run unattended for most of the time, their design should incorporate
protection devices to prevent over speeding in storms and sturdy parts that required little
attention. Consequently they are usually built of components manufactured from industrial
steel and drivepiston pumps via. reciprocating pump rods.

In pumped hydro applications, the wind units can be used to supply power to
pump from an auxiliary reservoir below hydro electric dam back into the main reservoir
above the dam. This enables the water stored in the main reservoir to be replenished when
the wind is blowing, thereby adding to the capacity of the hydro• electric system to
generate base load electric power.

Fig. wind assisted gas turbine generating unit

 Wind power can also be used compressed air for use in various applications including the
operation of gas turbines for generating electricity during the peak demand periods of a
public utility system.
In one mode of operation, the motor generator operating as a motor and powered by a
wind machine drives the air compressor. The compressed air is fed into a storage tank or
into a large cavern, aquifer, or depleted natural gas well. Under this mode, the power
turbine is inoperative, and no fuel is consumed.

In a second mode of operation, when the demand for power exceeds the
supply of the base-load utility system, the compressor is disengaged, and the power
turbine ia connected to the generator. The burner that drives the power turbine is fed
fuel and compressed air from storage to generate power for the utility system.

Electric Generation Applications:

Wind power can be used in centralize dutility applications to drive

synchronous a.c. electrical generators. In such applications, the energy is fed directly
into power networks through voltage step• up transformers.
 WECS units can be integrated with existing hydro electrical networks and
used in a "water-saver" mode of operation. When the wind is blowing, electrical
generation at the hydroelectric plants in the network canbe reduced by an amountequal
to that being produced by the "WECS units.
Thus part of the network load that is ordinarily produced by the hydroelectric
generators is supplied by the wind turbines. Under these conditions some of the water
that would have been used by the hydroelectric plant to supply the load is saved in the
reservoir & made available for later use when the wind is not blowing.

In dispersed applications, wind power can be used to generate de electrical

power that, in turn, can be used for de applications or space heaters, such as resistance
heaters, or can be stored in batteries and then inverted for used by a.c. loads.

Direct Heat Applications:

Mechanical motion derived from wind power can be used to drive heat pumps
or to produce heat from the friction of solid materials, or by the churning of water or
other fluids, or in other cases, by the useof centrifugal or other types of pumps in
combination with restrictive orifices that produce heat from friction and turbulence
when the working fluid flows through them. This heat may then be stored in materials
having a high heat capacity, such as water, stones, eutectic salts, etc., or the heat may
be used directly for such applications as heating and cooling of water, and air- space
for residential, commercial, industrial & agricultural process heat applications.
A home heating system that uses a wind-powered pump and a restrictive
orifice to derive direct heat for a building, without first generating electricity also has
been developed.
 Examples of typical industrial processes that might be able to use low
temperature heat (i.e., upto approximately 175°C) produced by wind energy include
the following.
(1) Production of inorganic chemicals, including borax, bromine, chlorine,
caustic soda, potassium chloride, and sodium metal.
(2) Production of plastic materials and synthetics such as polyethylene, poly•
vinyl chloride and polystyrene, for which approximately 45% of the process steam
used is in the range of 100-175°C.
(3) Production of organic chemicals such as various types of alcohols and
solvents, synthetic perfumes, flooring materials, rubber processing chemicals, etc.

Life cycle cost

Life Cycle Costing (LCC) is a methodology for economic calculation of all costs propagated during
the life span of any technical system.
Life Cycle Costing (LCC) Model for Wind turbine system includes Development costs (CDev),
Wind Turbines cost (CWT), Civil work and installation (Ccivil), Electrical apparatus (CElec) and
operation and maintenance costs (CO&M) as depicted in Eq. below

𝐿𝐶𝐶 = 𝐶𝐷𝑒𝑣 + 𝐶 𝑊𝑇 + 𝐶 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐 + 𝐶𝐶𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑙 + 𝐶 𝑂&M

Development Cost
•Topographical survey
• Geotechnical Study
• Factory acceptance test
• Financing Costs
• Permits Legal fees
•Land

Wind Turbines cost

•Tower
•Blades
• Nacelle
• Generator
• Gearbox
• Hub
•Transportation

Mounting & Civil Work

• Foundation
•Erection, Commissioning and testing
• Access roads
• Crane platform
•Wind Farm Operation Building
• Covering of MV cables
•Laying and Connection of electrical cables

Electrical Apparatus
• Step-up Transformer /33kV
•MV Switchgear
•MV cables and accessories
•Earthing protection
• SCADA System
• STATCOM

O&M
• Spare parts and consumables
• Operation
•Maintenance
 Life cycle cost analysis on wind turbines
 G. Puglia
 Published 2013
 Environmental Science, Engineering
Wind power is considered one of the most promising renewable energy sources as increase during
the last decades show. Important issues concerning the availability of wind power are its high
investment and maintenance costs. The investment cost has a high price especially for offshore
plans. The maintenance costs are a significant part of the total cost especially when during the life
period of a wind turbine (WT) more failures than expected happen. In order to avoid unexpected
failures and decrease the cost of maintenance some systems have been used to monitor the
condition of specific components and control continuously the status of the turbine. Optimization of
maintenance and research on new strategies to prevent the major failures it might be considered a
solution to decrease costs and Life Cycle Cost (LCC) Analysis can be a fundamental tool to achieve
a cost-effective maintenance for wind turbines and to obtain a more competitive electricity energy
price from wind power source. The goal of this project is to compare cost-efficient maintenance
strategies for on- and off-shore wind power system using LCC analysis approach as a tool for
maintenance management. The comparison has been made by application studies which were
selected during the way. The first one (WT1) is an offshore turbine, Vestas 112V, 3MW; the second
one (WT2), is an offshore turbine, Haliade 150, 6MW and the last turbine (WT3) is onshore, V112,
3MW. Data used for the three wind turbines have been provided by Vattenfall. Three different
strategies have been studied and the effect produced by the usage of Control Monitoring System
has been analysed. The aim of this analysis is to show quantitative results that could quantify and
give clear support to the value of Control Monitoring System (CMS). A comparison between the
different types of turbines has been done in order to observe when a control monitoring system is
more economical profitable and then the total life cycle cost decreases more. The comparison has
been analysed for offshore and onshore WTs with same rating power and two offshore WTs with a
different rating power. Sensitivity analysis has also been carried out considering different values of
discount rate. For any chosen value the CMS proves to be profitable. Finally the results have been
compared to those obtained in previous work from Reliability-Centred Asset Management (RCAM)
research groups where the profitability of CMS has been analysed considering that part of
unscheduled service is replaced by the scheduled one, and considering that part of corrective
maintenance (CM) is substituted with a cheaper preventive maintenance (PM) during the usage of a
CMS. Results show different values of reduction in CM and PM when a CMS is used. In this work has
been shown that the 27,5% of the unscheduled service has to become scheduled to make CMS
profitable while in the previous work the value was about 47%. Comparable results have been
obtained in the sensitivity analysis where the value of discount rate has been changed from 0 to 10
to observe its effect on the LCC. The lower value of the discount rate the more

For Renewable Energy (RE) systems, LCC is a good methodology, which shows the cost-
effectiveness of using RE as an alternative source compared to conventional power generations. A
LCC model was introduced for Wind generation system. Data collection was done through four
different cost data sources. The results shows that the capital investment cost is $1.968/W. For a 20
years PV project life-time, the operation and maintenance cost forms 19% of the total LCC of the
system