UNIT I

Purpose and types of cone winding machines- Yarn clearers -Mechanical, Electrical Pirn winding machine –
Types – yarn faults. Warping & Sectional warping machines. Sizing – size ingredients.

WINDING:
Wind: It is the number of revolutions made by the package (i.e. number of coils wound on the
package) during the time taken by the yarn guide to make a traverse in one direction (say from left to
right) across the package. Winding is one of the most important operation, which is mainly occurred in
spinning section. Besides, it is also important in fabric manufacturing. The creation of large yarn
packages that can be easily unwound, is called winding. This makes using the yarn on subsequent
machines both easier and more economical.
Objectives of Winding
To wrap the forming yarn on a package in a systematic manner or to transfer yarn from one supply package
to another in such a way that the latter is adequately compact and usable for the subsequent operations.
To remove the objectionable faults present in original yarns.

Functions of the Winding Operation:

Important functions of the winding operation are

1. Clearing of yarn faults

2. Making larger wound packages
3. Preparing soft packages for dyeing

Materials Processed:
Input - Yam (spinning bobbins)
Output - Yarn (large cones, tubes, etc.

Most of the textile winding operations deal with the conversion of ringframe bobbins into cones or cheeses. One
ringframe bobbin (cop) typically contains around 100 grams of yarn. If the yarn count is 20 tex, then the length of
yarn in the package will be around 5 km. As the warping speed in modern machines is around 1000 m/min, direct use
of ringframe bobbins in warping will necessitate package change after every 5 minutes. This will reduce the running
efficiency of warping machine. Therefore, ringframe bobbins are converted into bigger cones (mass around 2 kgs or
more) or cheeses.
Ringframe bobbins are also not useable as transverse or weft packages because they have empty core which will
require bigger size of the shuttle and thereby causing problem in shedding operations. Therefore, for shuttle looms,
pirn winding operations are carried out to manufacture weft packages from cones.

Two basic motions are required for effective winding. First, the rotational motion of the package, on which the
yarn is being wound, is required. This rotational motion pulls out the yarn from the supply package. Second, the
traverse motion is requited so that the entire width of the package is used for winding the yarn. In the absence of the
latter, yarns will be wound at the same region by placing one coil over another which is not desirable.

During winding, the yarn can be withdrawn from the supply packages in two ways as depicted in Figure 2.1.
Side withdrawal
Over-end withdrawal
 Figure 2.1: Side withdrawal and over-end withdrawal
Side withdrawal is preferable for flanged packages as the yarn does not touch with the flanges. The package has to
rotate during the yarn withdrawal. However, for ringframe bobbins, over end withdrawal is performed by keeping the
package in almost upright conditions. As one coil comes out from the ringframe bobbin, one twist is either added or
subtracted from parent yarn depending on direction of twist in the yarn.
Types of Wound Packages
There could be three types of wound packages based on the angle at which the yarns are laid on the package.
 Parallel wound package
 Nearly parallel wound package
 Cross wound package

Figure 2.2 depicts various types of wound packages.

Figure 2.2: Various types of wound packages

In parallel wound package, yarns are laid parallel to each other. This helps to maximize the yarn content in the
package. However, parallel wound packages suffer from the problem of stability and layers of coils can collapse
specially from the two sides of the package. Therefore, double flanged packages are sometimes used for parallel
wound packages.
Example: Weaver’s beam, warper’s beam
In nearly parallel wound package, successive coils of yarn are laid with a very nominal angle. The rate of traverse is
very slow in this case.
In cross wound package, yarns are laid on the package at considerable angle. As the coils crosses each other very
frequently, the package content is lower than that of parallel wound package. However, cross wound package
provides very good package stability as the coils often change their direction at the edges of the package.
Example: Cones, Cheeses.

Important Definitions in Winding

Wind: It is the number of revolutions made by the package (i.e. number of coils wound on the package) during the
time taken by the yarn guide to make a traverse in one direction (say from left to right) across the package.
Traverse ratio or wind ratio or wind per double traverse: It is the number of revolutions made by the package
(i.e. number of coils wound on the package) during the time taken by the yarn guide to make a to and fro traverse.
This to and fro traverses of the yarn guide from left to right and back from right to left is known as double traverse.
Traverse ratio= 2× Wind

Angle of wind ( θ ) : It is the angle made by the yarn with the sides of the package (Figure 2.3). If surface and
traverse speeds are Vs and Vt respectively, then

Coil angle ( α ) : It is the a ngle made by the yarn with the axis of the package (Figure 2.3). The coil angle and angle
of wind are complementary angles as they add up to 90°.

Figure 2.3: Angle of wind and coil angle

The net winding speed can be obtained by the resultant vector of surface speed (Vs) and traverse speed (Vt ).

Winding Machine
Figure 2.4 depicts the simplified view of a winding machine. It has three main zones.
 Unwinding zone
 Yarn tensioning and clearing zone
 Winding zone
 Figure 2.4: Zones of winding machine
In the unwinding zone, yarns are unwound from the supply package which is ringframe bobbin in most of the
cases. Yarn balloon is formed due to the high speed unwinding of yarn from the supply package. Unwinding tension
varies continuously as the winding point shifts from tip to base 0of a ringframe bobbin and vice versa. Besides, the
height of the balloon also increases as the supply package becomes empty.
In the second zone, tensions are applied on the yarns by using tensioners so that yarns are wound on the package
with proper compactness. The objectionable yarn faults as well as other contaminants (coloured and foreign fibres)
are also removed by using optical or capacitance based yarn clearer.
In the third and final zone, yarns are wound on the package by means of rotational motion of the package and
traverse motion of the yarn guide. Based on the operating systems employed in the winding zone, two major winding
principles have evolved.

PASSAGE OF YARN THROUGH THE MACHINE:

The supply packages usually ring bobbins B are mounted in an upright position on the creel,
which extends the entire length of the machine on either side of it. The yarn from each supply bobbin is
drawn through a thread guide E and then in between two metal washers of a tensioner F. Of course, there
is a balloon breaker in between the cop and the thread guide to break the balloon formation, thereby
avoiding breakage of yarns due to excessive tension. The tensioning device consists of a pair of metal
washers fitted loosely on a short spindle. The amount of tension given to the yarn will depend on the
weight of these washers, count of yarn etc. Generally for the coarse count, the amount of tension given to
the yarn is 299 grains, for medium counts the tension will be 100 grains and for fine counts the tension
will be 55 grains.

The yarn from the tensioner passes between the serrated blades of a slub-catcher G, which arrests
slubs, neps, snarls, thick places, etc. present in the yarn. The slub-catcher can be set according to the
counts of the yarn wound. For a coarser count of yarn, double slub-catchers are used. For medium and
finer count generally micro-set slub-catchers is used. The setting will depend on the count of the yarn. For
carded yarn, the clearance in the slub-catchers will be three times the diameter of the yarn and for combed
yarn the setting will be 1.5 times the diameter of the yarn. The yarn from the slub-catcher passes over the
broken thread stop motion wire H and then over the grooved winding drum K. the grooved drums are
mounted at regular intervals on winding drum shaft which are provided with ball bearings. The number of
drums per machine may be 20 to 120. Each shaft is driven by a separate motor so that the drums on any
one side can be run independent of those on the other side.

The function of the grooved winding drum is to fold. It winds the yarn on the cone and at the same
time gives a traverse movement to the yarn. The grooves on the surface of the drum, guide the yarn which
is always in these grooves and moves in the same direction as the latter. Each winding drum has a
separate broken thread stop motion. When an end breaks or the yarn in the supply bobbin becomes
exhausted the cone automatically rises off the winding drum. Practically each winding drum with its
tensioner, slub-catcher and broken thread stop motion, forms one winding unit.

The machine is further fitted with a conveyer, one on each side. The conveyer carries empty
supply bobbins and deposits them into a suitable container kept at the end of the machine.
 Classification of Winding Principles

TYPES OF WINDINGMACHINE
WINDING

NON AUTOMATIC AUTOMATIC

WINDING MACHINE WINDING MACHINE

DRUM WINDER PRECISION WINDER

 ORDINARY DRUM WINDER ROTARY TRAVERSE DRUM WINDER

Primarily there are two types of winding principles as given below.

 Drum-driven or random winders
 Spindle-driven or precision winders

Drum winding or random winding

Random winding machines are conventional winding machines. In drum winding machines, a grooved drum
performs as both the driving as well as the traversing function. The package gets drive indirectly by surface contact
with grooved drum, which is called friction drive. By this type of winding, the package is formed by a single thread
which is laid on the package at appreciable helix angle so that the layers cross one another and give stability to the
package. The packages formed by this type of winding are less dense but are more stable.

Machine description

The supply package, generally the ring frame bobbin (R/F Bobbin), is mounted on bobbin holder automatically or
manually in creel section of machine, depending on the machine generation. A conventional self-adjusting balloon
control ring is mounted over R/F bobbin to maintain the balloon height uniform throughout the unwinding of yarn
from bobbin. The yarn then passes through a tensioner, which is essential to check the strength of yarn and to
maintain the package density to a prescribed level. Tensioning device is followed by mechanical or electronic type
(optical or capacitance based) yarn clearing system to prevent the passage of thick places ahead on final package.
Then the yarn passes through a yarn sensing system, attached with thread stop motion to lift the package from drum
surface in case of broken thread. Finally, the yarn is wound on package as per winding scroll of winding drum.
Package is mounted over grooved winding drum with the help of cradle equipped with suitable bearing to achieve a
smooth trouble- and vibration-free movement of package for a long time, as shown in Fig. 1.14

The main characteristics of drum winding are given below:

1. Winding angle – Since grooved drum is used for winding, the winding angle remains constant through the
process.
2. Wind – The number of coils per turn of the package decreases as the diameter of the package increases;
consequently the package remains softer at the outer layers.
3. Ribbon formation – Ribbon formation may occur at certain points within the package, when diameter of package
reaches to a certain ratio to drum diameter.
4. The package stability is good.
5. Layer to layer density is not very uniform throughout the package.
6. Hard edges formation may occur at the yarn, turning at the extreme ends of the drum.
7. Machine speed – The machine speed cannot be very high, because it is very difficult to maintain good density
profile at high speeds on random winding machines.
8. Principally, the cost of machine is low.
• Cross winding technique is used
• The package density is low.
• Minimum number of yarn is wound.
• The package formed is soft and less compact.
• The stability is high.
• Flanges are not required.
• The rate of unwinding is high and the process is easy.
• The packages formed have low density.

Features of drum winding machine

• Traverse of the package – While winding particularly on the solid perforated cheeses, the yarn layers must cover
only the perforated part of cheeses on both sides equally, because winding on blind areas will prevent the flow of
dye liquor during package dyeing.
• Ribbon breaking or anti-patterning device – The machine must be equipped with a good and effective anti-
patterning device to minimize the possibility of ribbon formation. The ribbons formed during winding not only
result into poor dyeing due to liquor flow obstruction, but also cause problems in unwinding by creating high
tension zones and resulting into thread breakage, high hairiness due to increase friction, and wastages. However,
problem of ribbon formation could not be eliminated completely till date.
• Weight release mechanism – Since the weight of package increases with the increase in the diameter of the
package which increases the cradle pressure on the drum and affects the density of the packages. Therefore, the
machine must be equipped with a proper weight release mechanism to balance out the increased package weight
(new machines are equipped with a programmed cradle weight regulation system).
• Hard edges formation – As per basic nature of drum winding with the groove drum, the yarn stays for a relatively
longer time at the edges and creates hard edges. The machine must be equipped with a proper arrangement in which
the cradle or the bobbin holder slides slightly (by few mm) on the drum through a lateral movement device which
reduces the chances of hard edges formation by widening the edge area.
• Length measuring device – The machine must be equipped with a good length measuring system to minimize the
package weight variation. The uniform package weight helps in reducing the weight variation in dyeing and also
reduces the chances of excess dyeing and short falls.
• Tension management – A modern yarn winding machine must be equipped with an effective tension
management system. It is very important to achieve uniform package density.
• Balloon breakers – The machine must be fitted with adequate balloon breaking devices, which provide more
flexibility to use different sizes of feed packages and also reduce the breakage rate. Balloon-breaking devices are
helpful to maintain yarn tension throughout the unwinding of yarn from nose to base of R/F bobbin or other supply
packages.
• Winding speed – The winding speed is also a constraint in random winders, but now machines are available with
individual drum drives which can run at speed, and it is also possible to make soft packages on automatic winders
which can run up to 1400 m/min. The cost, flexibility of running different counts, etc., and quality parameters made
this drum winding machine a popular one in textile industry.

In drum-driven wider, the package is driven by a cylinder by surface or frictional contact as shown in Figure 2.5.
Traverse of yarn is given either by the grooves cut on the drum as shown at the bottom of Figure 2.5 or by a
reciprocating guide. In case of grooved drum, the drum performs the dual functions of rotating the package by
surface contact and performing the traverse (Figure 2.6a). However, when plain drums are used, it just rotates the
package and traverse is performed by reciprocating guide (Figure 2.6b).

Figure 2.5: Drum-driven winder and grooved drum

 Figure 2.6: Types of drum-driven winder (a: grooved drum, b: plain drum)
Drum-driven Winders
Let us consider that the diameters of the driving drum and package are D and d respectively (Figure 2.8). The r.p.m.
of drum and package are N and n respectively. D is constant whereas d increases with time due to the building of the
package (formation of layers of coils). If there is no slippage between the drum and the package then the surface
speed of drum and package will always be same. So, N×D = n×d. The drum r.p.m. N is constant as it getting drive
from gear systems and thus n reduces with time.

Figure 2.8: Principles of drum-driven winder

As the drum r.p.m. N is constant, for drum-driven winder, traverse speed and surface speed are also constant.
Therefore it gives constant angle of wind and winding speed.
Let, L is the length of the drum and package.

So, in drum-driven winder, angle of wind remains constant with the increase in package diameter.
Now, if the package r.p.m. is n, same (n) number of coils (wind) will be laid on the package in every minute.
Because, one revolution of package creates one coil or wind on the package.

So, in drum-driven winder, traverse ratio reduces with the increase in package diameter.
As S and D are constant for a given drum, the traverse ratio decreases as the package diameter (d) increases (Figure
2.9). This leads to a ‘patterning’ problem in case of drum-driven winder.
 Figure 2.9: Package diameter vs traverse/ wind ratio

It is evident from the above expression that the winding speed remains constant during package building in case
of drum-driven winder.

Precision winding

In precision winding, the package is mounted on a spindle as shown in Fig. 1.13, which is driven with the
help of an individual motor or machine shaft and yarn is displaced with the help of a guide or propeller blades
(yarn laying system with counter rotating blades). There is zero uncontrolled displacement of the yarn;
therefore, it is called precision winding. These machines are equipped with electronic or digital yarn tension
control devices which vary the tension as the diameter of the package increases, so that the layer to layer density
remains constant. Each drum is driven through an individual motor which in combination with a micro computer
controlled meter counter, results into much more flexibility of operations. The machine productivity is high due
to high running speed and lesser number of operators is required to run the same number of machines.

Major features of precision winding are as follows:

• The yarn guides are used for yarn displacement.
• The winding angle does not remain the same and decreases slightly with the increase in package
diameter.
• There is no ribbon formation.
• Hard edges formation does not occur at the ends.
• Layer to layer density is very uniform throughout the package.
• The machine speed is high.
• Cost of the machine is medium to high.
• The number of coils per turn of the package remains same as the diameter of the package increases,
because the number of displacement remains constant per rotation of the package.

Yarn supply takes place from a ring bobbin or hank. A balloon control ring is provided to control the balloon
height from actual point of unwinding. During yarn unwinding, the point of unwinding changes from top to
bottom and then bottom to top alternately and consequently yarn tension also changes, which is a major
hindrance in producing an ideally uniform density package. In case of modern precision winding machine,
feature of changing height of balloon control ring according to the change in yarn unwinding point is also
introduced to minimize the tension fluctuation as much as possible. After passing the balloon control ring, the
yarn passes through tensioning device; here, further reduction in tension variation as well as addition of some
tension on running yarn takes place. After that, yarn passes through yarn clearer device where yarn diameter
scanning takes place. Yarn clearer may either be capacitance or optical based. Objectionable thick portions of
yarn are eliminated here. Then yarn passes through feeler of thread stop motion which is required to give a
signal to the operator in case of thread breakage due to any reason. Finally, the yarn passes through the yarn
guide mounted over reciprocating traverse bar.

Main features:
• Package is wound with a reciprocating traverse.
• Patterning and rubbing cause damage of packages.
• Package contains more yarn.
• Package is less stable.
• The package is hard and compact.
• The package is dense.
• Rate of unwinding of package is low and the process of unwinding is hard.
• The unwound coil is arranged in a parallel or near parallel manner.
 Spindle-driven Winders
In spindle-driven winder, the package is mounted on a spindle which is driven positively by a gear system. If
the r.p.m. of the spindle is constant then the surface speed of the package will increase with the increase in
package diameter. Therefore, principle wise there could be two types of spindle-driven winders (Figure 2.7).
 Constant r.p.m. spindle winders
 Variable r.p.m. spindle winders

In case of the latter, the spindle r.p.m. is reduced with the increase in package diameter in such a manner that
the winding speed remains constant.
Spindle-driven winders are also known as precision winders as a precise ratio is maintained between the
r.p.m. of spindle and r.p.m. of traversing mechanism. This leads to maintaining a precise distance between
adjacent coils, termed Gain of Wind. The precision winders thus permit precise laying of coils on package and
hence its name. Precision winders ensure a constant value of traverse ratio during package building. Precision
winders are preferred for winding delicate yarns as the package is not rotated by the surface contact and
therefore the possibility of yarn damage due to abrasion is lower as compacted to that of surface driven winders

Figure 2.7: Spindle-driven winders

If the traverse is given by a groove drum which requires S revolutions for one double traverse then,

As, d increases with the package building, the angle of wind decreases. It is also understood from the above
expression that dtanθ remains constant for spindle-driven winders.
So, for spindle-driven winders, traverse ratio remains constant during the package building.

Figure 2.16 depicts the two situations with low and high package diameters. The traverse ration is same in both
the cases. However, the angle of wind has reduced from θ to α.

Figure 2.16: Change in angle of wind in precision winder

Step Precision Winder or Digicone Winder
In step precision winder the problem of patterning is prevented by changing the traverse speed
proportionately with the package speed (r.p.m.) so that the traverse ratio value remains constant over a period of
time. As the package diameter increases, the package r.p.m. decreases as the package is driven by the drum. The
traverse speed is also reduced in the same rate. However, after certain time the traverse speed is raised back to
the original value in one step thereby moving quickly from one convenient value of traverse ratio to another.
The schematic representation of the drive system of step precision winder is shown in Figure 2.17.

Figure 2.17: Step precision winder

The driving drum gets motion directly from the motor. However, the motion goes to the traverse guide through
a cone drum combinations. As the package r.p.m. reduces, the belt connecting the two cone drums are also
shifted towards the left side in a controlled manner. Therefore, the actuating diameter of the driver cone drum
reduces whereas it increases for the driven cone drum. So, the speed of the traversing system decreases and
traverse ratio remains constant over a period of time. However, the traverse speed cannot be reduced
continuously as it will reduce the winding speed and angle of wind continuously. Therefore, after a certain time
the connecting belt of the cone drums is shifted towards the right to restore the original value of traverse speed.
Therefore, the traverse ratio, governed by the following equation, reduces in steps from one convenient value to
the other.

Table 2.1 summarizes the differences of three winding principles.

Table 2.1: Comparison matrix of winding principles
Parameter Drum-driven Spindle-driven Digicone winder
Decreases with
Angle of Remains
increase in package Varies within a very small range
wind constant
diameter
Decreases with
Traverse increase in Remains constants for some time and then decreases in
Remains constant
ration package step
diameter
Winding Remains Generally increases Reduces slowly due to the reduction in traverse speed and
speed constant with package building then increases to the original value
Increases
Increases with the
Package drastically at
increase in package Density does not change with package diameter
density the zone of
diameter
ribbons
Gain

Gain is the distance by which the winding point has to be shifted for avoiding patterning. Linear gain is
measured in the direction of perpendicular to the direction of package axis as shown in Figure 2.19. Traverse
ratio basically quantifies the number of package revolution within a certain time (one double traverse).
Therefore, linear gain cannot be added or subtracted with the traverse ratio. However, linear gain can be divided
 with the package circumference to obtain revolution gain which can be added or subtracted with traverse ratio.

Figure 2.19: Gain for cheese package

If winding takes place in such a manner that the coils wound in two consecutive double traverse is touching
each other physically then the gain can be expressed by the following equation.

Yarn Clearing
SLUB CATCHERS (OR) YARN CLEARERS:
After crossing the splicer, the yarn reaches in clearing zone of yarn winding machine where it gets checked for
splice, long defects, and repetitive defects such as thick and thin places, foreign fibers, and vegetative matters.
The yarn passing through a clearer at a speed of 1000–1500 m/min is scanned either for its dielectric properties
by a sensor working on capacitance principle or for its optical diameter reflectivity by optical sensors. Yarn
clearer is a device that is used to remove the objectionable faults of yarn in order to increase the yarn quality and
weaving efficiency.

Objectives of Yarn Clearing

The objective of yarn clearing is to remove objectionable faults from the supply package.
Ideally all the faults present in the yarn should be removed during the yarn clearing operation. However, a
compromise is needed and only those faults which have potential to disrupt the subsequent operations or spoil the
fabric appearance are attempted for removal during the winding operation. The compromise is done due to the
following reasons:
 Removal of yarn faults during winding is associated with the machine stoppages which reduces the machine
efficiency.
 When a yarn fault is removed, the yarns are joined again by the knotting or splicing operation which actually
introduces a new blemish in the yarn as the strength and appearance of the knotted or spliced region is not at
par with the normal region of yarn.

Classification of yarn clearer

Functionally, yarn clearer can be divided into two broad classes as given below:
1.Mechanical type
2. Electronic type
 1. MECHANICAL TYPE YARN CLEARER:

 Conventional fixed blade and

 Serrated blade type.

2. ELECTRONIC TYPE YARN CLEARER:

 Capacitance type and

 Photo electric type.

1.MECHANICAL TYPE YARN CLEARER

Mechanical yarn clearers This is conventional class of yarn clearers in which simple mechanisms are employed to
clear the yarn as much as possible. The efficiency of mechanical type clearer remains less than electronic yarn
clearers. Mechanical yarn clearers can be divided in two parts. (a) Conventional blunt type (b) Serrated blade type
Both conventional and serrated blade-type yarn clearers are shown in Fig. 1.56

1. CONVENTIONAL FIXED BLADE:

One of the old types of clearers consists of a metal slit through which the yarn passes from the tensioner.
Any imperfections in the yarn as mentioned above will be prevented from passing onward to the cheese or
cone by this clearer. This type of clearer is now-a-days seldom used on a high speed winding machine.

2. SERRATED CLOSING BLADE:

The most widely used form of slub catcher is the serrated blade type. The yarn passed under the teeth of
serrated blades which arrests any imperfections such as big knots, snarls etc… present in the yarn and does not
allow the yarn to pass through until these imperfections are corrected. The yarn instead of passing under one
blade may be drawn between a pair of serrated blades to get more efficient result. Adjustment of the space
between the blades of the slub catcher, to suit yarns of different counts and qualities. When more efficient or
severe action in removing big slubs and knots etc… as required, double slub catchers which contain two sets of
blades. Any undesirable slub or knot, which has escaped the first slub catcher will be arrested by the second set.

2. ELECTRONIC TYPE YARN CLEARER:

Principles of Measurement

Two principles are used in modern winders for the identification of yarn faults.

 Capacitance principle
  Optical principle

a. CAPACITANCE TYPE SLUB CATCHER:

In the electronic slub catcher, the measuring condenser is used for detecting the mass variations in the yarn. In this
device, the yarn during winding passes freely through the measuring condenser and defects a slub the cutting
arrangements are alerted. The cutting knife, which is actuated by an electromagnet immediately, cuts the yarn at that
point. The slub which was arrested between the condenser and the cutting knife. Will be now removed and both ends
of the yarn will be tied together by the knotting machine for winding to continue. The measuring condenser is very
sensitive and efficient. The slub catcher can be adjusted to suit yarns of any quality.

Capacitance-type electronic yarn clearer Capacitance is the property of a capacitor to store energy in the form of an
electric field between two conducting plates. The dielectric property of the medium in the intervening space between
the plates affects the capacitance. All other factors being equal, greater permittivity of the dielectric gives grater
capacitance. Glass for instance, with a relative permittivity of 7, has seven times the permittivity of pure vacuum.
Consequently, glass will allow for the establishment of electric field flux, seven times stronger than that of vacuum.
Capacitance of homogenous dielectrics in a uniform dielectric field is generally proportional to the mass, but is also a
function of frequency and for materials like cotton and additional substances (e.g. moisture, and irregular geometry
and shape) may affect capacitive measurement results.

Functioning principle of capacitance-type electronic yarn clearer

The yarn is measured in a measuring field, constituted by a set of parallel placed capacitor plates as shown in Fig 1.57.
When the yarn passes through this measuring field (between the capacitor plates), an electrical signal is produced
which is proportional to the change in mass per unit length of the yarn. This signal is amplified and fed to the
evaluation channels of the yarn clearing installation. The number and type of evaluation channels available are
dependent on the sophistication and features of the model of the clearer in use. Each of the channels reacts to the
signals for the corresponding type of yarn fault. When the mass per unit length of the yarn exceeds the threshold limit
set for the channel, the cutting device of the yarn clearer cut the yarn.
Both the principles have their inherent advantages and limitations. Capacitance system are based on the measurement
of yarn mass at a given test length. In contrast the optical systems are based on the diameter measurement.
Figure 2.37 depicts the principle of a capacitance based yarn clearing system. The yarn is passed at a constant velocity
through two parallel plate capacitors. The expression of capacitance of a metallic parallel plate capacitor is as follows.

where A is the area of the places, d is the distance between the plates, ε is the permittivity of the medium present
between the places, ε0 is the permittivity of vacuum and k is the dielectric constant of the medium.

The permittivity of vacuum (ε0) is 8.85 ×10-12 F/m.

When the yarn will pass through the parallel plates, the equation will take the following form.

Based on the mass of the yarn present within the parallel plate capacitor, the capacitance changes which is converted
into mass unevenness. The dielectric constant of water is 80 whereas for textile fibres it is around 2-5 and for air it is
nearly 1. Thus the measurement is highly sensitive to the presence of moisture and therefore conditioning of samples
in standard atmospheric conditions is of paramount importance.

Figure 2.37: Principle of capacitance based unevenness measurement

Optical type electronic yarn clearer

Optical sensors employ suitable light sources, reflectors, and receivers for recording the extent of light scattered
and absorbed with and without the yarn in the way (Fig. 1.58). The light imaging system of a photo-optical type
yarn clearer is shown in Fig. 1.59. Such a system can measure the thickness of the yarn, as the nature of light
reflected can detect presence of foreign substance in the body of the yarn. Assuming circular cross-section of the
yarn and a certain degree of homogeneity of the body of twisted fiber assembly, it can be stated that the mass per
unit length of yarn is proportional to the square of its diameter. Hence the sensitivity of the capacitance system,
which measures variation in mass per unit length, is significantly higher than that of the optical system, which
measures the variation in the optical diameter of the yarn. For example, the doubling of yarn mass (100% increase)
would result in a diameter increase of 42%, all other factors remaining the same.
In this type photo-electric cells are used for operating the device. The optical scanning principle is used in
photo electric cell clearer. The detector which scans the variations in the yarn diameter, may be to allow
minor slubs to pass freely through the device. But when the detector comes across a large slub in the yarn,
the cutting arrangements are put immediately into action. Each unit works independently.

Figure 2.38 represents the principle of optical based yarn clearing system. The emitter emits light and the receiver
detects it and converts to proportional electrical signal. The light received by the receiver will obviously depend on
the diameter of the yarn passing between emitter and receiver.

Figure 2.38: Principle of optical based measurement

It should be considered that 10% deviation in diameter will actually cause 21% deviation in the mass. Because for
circular yarn cross-section, . Therefore, principally capacitance based measurements are more
sensitive to deviation than the optical based measurements.
However, some of the faults which may not be detected by the capacitance based testers can be detected by optical
type testers. The fault may be a low twisted region or a hole within the yarn structure (Figure 2.39). If the mass per
unit length is same, capacitance type testers will not detect the yarn irregularity although there is a deviation in
diameter that can produce fabric defects. This can be detected by optical type testers as higher yarn diameter will
reduced the amount of light received by the receiver.

Figure 2.39: Yarn with a hole within the structure

Comparison between mechanical and electronic clearer
• Electronic clearers are more sensitive than mechanical clearers.
• In case of mechanical clearers, there is abrasion between yarn and clearer parts; but in case of electronic clearers
there is no such abrasion.
• Mechanical clearers do not prevent soft slab from escaping through clearer, where as electronic types do not allow
passing of any types of faults.
• Mechanical types do not break the thin places and the length of the fault is not considered.
• Mechanical clearers are simple and easy to maintain, while the electronic clearers are costly and require high
standard of maintenance
Pirn Winders
Pirns are the yarn packages used within the shuttle to supply the yarns for pick insertion during weaving.
The dimension of the shuttle is restricted by the shed geometry and the strain imposed on the warp yarns
during shedding operation. The dimension of the pirn is governed by the dimension of the shuttle.

Thus the pirn has to be a long and thin package. In contrast to cone winding, where the supply packages
(ringframe bobbins) are small and the delivery packages are big, the supply packages are bigger than the
delivery package (pirn) in pirn winding. As the yarns are already been cleaned from slubs and other
objectionable faults, no yarn clearing operation is required in pirn winding.
The winding principle of pirn is different than that of cones and cheeses. If a cross-wound package is made
then there will be lot of tension variation during weaving. On the other hand, the parallel would package will
give the problem of instability. Therefore, pirns are made by overlapping short, conical and cross-wound
sections as shown in Figure 2.20.

Figure 2.20: Stages of pirn winding

The base of the empty pirn is generally conical. The pirn winding starts from the conical base and
progressively proceeds towards the tip of the pirn. The distance travelled in one stroke of traverse is known
as chase length. One layer of coils are laid on the conical base during the forward and as well as duirng the
return movement of the traverse meachanism.

Thus the conicity of the package is maintained and thus the tip of the cone formed by the coils of yarn
slowly proceeds towrds the tip of the pirn. The process can be visualised as if one plastic cup (having cone
sahpe) is placed over another and the process is continued to build a tall cylindrical column. This is depicted
in Figure 2.21. For the ease of visibility, large gaps has been maintained between two cones of coils and
thus it seems that the overlapping between two layers of coils is very low which is actually not true.
 Figure 2.21: Building of a pirn
Pirns may generally be described in the following categories or types (Figure 2.22).
 Plain tapered pirn
 Pirn with partly formed (half) base
 Pirn with full base

Figure 2.22: Plain, half base and full base pirns

If the full and empty pirn diameter is D and d respectively, L is the chase length and α is the chase angle,
then the following expression can be written.

The chase angle depends on the type of yarn. For spun yarns the chase angle could be as high as 15-18°.
However, for filament yarns with low friction, it could be as low as 6-10°.
Conditions for Uniform Package (Cheese) Building
Uniform building of package is imperative in winding process. The package should have very uniform
density. In the following part, the conditions for uniform building of cheese have been derived based on the
following assumption.
Assumption: Length of yarn wound per unit surface area of the package should be constant for uniform
building of package.
The path of yarn on a cylindrical cheese has been shown in Figure 2.23.

Figure 2.23: Uniform building of cheese

So, must be kept const for uniform building of the cheese.

Drum-driven winder

For drum-driven winders with grooved drums, θ remains constant during package building.
Therefore, Vt should be reduced with the increase in package diameter d to attain uniform building. This has
been shown in Figure 2.24.
 Figure 2.24: Package diameter vs traverse velocity
Comments
For drum-driven winder, θ is constant provided the ratio of Vt and Vs are constant. But if Vt is reduced
(keeping Vs constant theoretically, which is possible if traversing mechanism is separate from groove
drum), θ will also reduce and Cosθ will increase. So, Vt has to be reduced in such a manner that the product
of Vt and Cosθ is changes proportionately with 1/d.

Spindle-driven winder

Comments
In spindle-driven machine, θ reduces (even when Vt is constant) as package diameter (d) increases. So, Vt has
to be reduced accordingly as reducing Vt will have further bearing on θ.

Yarn Faults and its Types

Yarn blemishes are broadly categorized under two heads
 Frequently occurring type or yarn imperfections
 Seldom occurring type or yarn faults

Yarn Imperfections
These blemishes occur very frequently in the spun yarns. However, they do not pose serious threat to the
subsequent processes or fabric appearance. Frequently occurring faults are measured by yarn unevenness testers
and expressed by the frequency of occurrences per km.
1. Thick places (mass exceeds by at least + 50% of the nominal mass)
2. Thin places (mass is lower than by at least - 50% of the nominal mass)
3. Neps (mass exceeds by + 200% of the nominal mass with reference length of 1 mm)

Yarn Faults
Yarn faults are seldom occurring mass variation in the yarn. They can adversely affect the running performance
of the loom due to frequent breakage. Besides they can severely damage the appearance of the fabric. Yarn faults
are tested by Classimat III or Classimat IV testers and categorized into different classes (23 and 33 respectively)
depending on the length and diameter of the faulty place. Yarn faults generally expressed by the number of
occurrences per 100 kilometers. Figure 2.40 shows the matrix of Classimat III faults where diameter and length
of faults are indicated in the vertical and horizontal direction respectively.
The Classimat III faults are classified under three major categories:
 Short thick faults: A1 to D4
 Long thick faults: E, F and G
 Long thin faults: H1, I1, H2, I2

The classifications A, B, C, and D correspond to fault reference lengths of 0.1-1, 1-2, 2-4 and 4-8 cm
respectively. The sensitivity % indicates percentage increase in the fault mass varying from +100% to more than
+400%, corresponding to diameter increase of 41% and 123%. This results in 16 classifications with A1 the
shortest in length and smallest in diameter and D4 the longest in length and largest in diameter. Spinners’ double
refer to a long thick fault (with the indication E) whose length overstep 8 cm and mass exceeds +100%. F and G
are also long thick faults as their mass exceeds the nominal level by + 45% and length is between 8-32 cm and
greater than 32 cm respectively. Within the long thin category, H faults are having length between 8-32 cm
whereas I faults are longer than 32 cm.
A4, B4, C4, D4, C3 and D3 are generally considered as objectionable faults as their length and deviation from
the nominal mass are very high. Now, A3, B3, C2 and D2 are also considered as objectionable faults for high
quality products.

Figure 2.40: Matrix of Classimat III faults

Figure 2.41 shows the matrix of Classimat IV faults. In addition to the 23 faults of Classimat III, there are 10
additional faults. These are as follows:
 Very short thick fault (A0, B0, C0 and D0)
 Short thin faults (TB1, TC1, TD1, TB2, TC2, TD2)

For very short thick faults (A0-D0), the mass exceeds the nominal mass by + 70%. The reference length of these
faults is same with A-D which has been mentioned earlier. For TB1, TC1 and TC1, the mass is lower than the
nominal mass by -30-45% whereas for TB2, TC2 and TD2 this is -45-75%.
Research work by Aggarwal , Hari, and Subramanian [1] showed that C3, C4 and all D Classimat faults, even
after sizing, have lower tenacity, reduced extensibility and poor abrasion resistance. These Classimat faults
introduce a very high frequency of low strength and low elongation portions into the yam, which in turn causes
warp breaks.
 Figure 2.41: Matrix of Classimat IV faults
Causes of Classimat Faults
The short thick faults (A1-D4) of Classimat system are either caused by the raw material defects and preparatory
stages or due to the drafting defects. If a diagonal is drawn joining A4 and D1 then the matrix is divided into two
equal parts as shown in Figure 2.42. According to the thumb rule of spinning, the faults lying within the upper
triangle are due to the drafting faults whereas the faults lying below the diagonal are either due to the deficiency
in the raw material or due to the opening problem of the blowroom and carding machines.

Figure 2.42: Causes of short thick faults

Settings of Yarn Clearing Channels on Winding Machine
In modern winding machines, three channels are used for the clearing the yarn faults.
 Short thick faults: S channel
 Long thick faults: L channel
 Long thin faults: T channel

The user has the flexibility to manipulate the settings of these three channels to optimise the yarn clearing in
terms of fault removal and machine stoppages (winding cuts/km). The setting depends on yarn count as well as
quality (carded or combed). Typical settings for SLT channels can be as follows:
 S channel: Mass + 140 to + 200 % and length 1.5-2 cm
 L channel: Mass + 40 to + 50 % and length 40-50 cm
  T channel: Mass -30 to -40 % and length 40-50 cm

Removal of Foreign and Coloured Fibres

The contamination in cotton fibre is one of the most serious causes of quality problems. The contamination
includes jute, polypropylene, husk, leaf, hair and paper. Presence of foreign fibres like polypropylene or
polyethylene in cotton yarns creates quality problem after dyeing. Modern blworooms are equipped with systems
like Vision Shield® which removes the contaminated portions of cottons using sophisticated image processing
technology. Some of the spinning mills prefer manual cotton sorting in addition to the automated systems. The
electronic yarn clearers in modern winding machines not only remove the objectionable faults but the foreign
fibre channel removes the foreign and coloured fibres also.
Some of the systems used to remove foreign fibres are given below:
 Loepfe Zenit Yarn Master ®
 Uster Quantum 2

Loepfe Zenit uses Tribo-electric effect, which is a type of contact electrification, for foreign fibre identification.
According to this principle, certain materials become electrically charged after they come into contact with
another different material and are then separated. Materials have a specific order of the polarity of charge
separation when they are touched or abraded with another object. A material which acquires higher position the
series, when touched to a material near the bottom of the series, will attain positive charge. The further away two
materials are from each other on the series, the greater the charge transferred.
Uster Quantum also presents the distribution of foreign fibres in a matrix based on % deviation in diameter and
fault length. In case of fine setting, the faults in the classes B1, B2, C1, D1 and E1 are further divided into
subclasses as shown in Figure 2.43 and 2.44.
B11+B12+B13+B14=B1

B21+B22=B2

C11+C12=C1

D11+D12=D1

E11+E12=E1

Figure 2.43: Coarse setting in Uster Quantum 2

No counting is done in the lowest block of left hand side as the number of faults in this category is very high.
During winding, only the serious types of foreign fibre faults are attempted to remove. Otherwise the winding
efficiency may drop drastically.
Experiments with foreign fibre removal systems have revealed that their clearing efficiency is dependent on the
colour of the foreign fibre and the shade depth. The clearing efficiency was found to be higher for red followed
by blue and yellow. The clearing efficiency was found to increase with shade depth.

Figure 2.44: Fine setting in Uster Quantum 2

WARPING

The parallel winding of warp ends from many winding packages (cone, cheese) on to a common package
(warp beam) is called warping.

Importance of Warping:

1. Construction of a beam of warp yarn.

2. Construction of a parallel yarn sheet.
3. Modifying the faults of yarn like thick or thin place.
4. Winding the pre- determined length of yarn.
5. Combination of small packages.
6. Accelerating the next process.

Warping process involves:

Objective of Winding

The objective of warping process is to convert the yarn packages into a warper’s beam having de
width and containing requisite number of ends. Uniform tension is maintained on individual yar
warping.
The yarns are would on the warper’s beam in the form of a sheet composed of parallel bands of
coming out from a package placed on the creel. A simplified view of the warping process is show
in Figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1: Simplified representation of warping process

Let us take the following hypothetical example to understand the various options of warping pro
A woven fabric roll of 2 m width and 10,000 m length is to be produced from warp yarn of 15
should be 40 yarns per cm in the fabric. The total number of ends in the fabric will be 40×20
Considering that 10 beams will be combined in sizing, the number of ends on each warper’s be
800. Ignoring the yarn crimp and wastage of yarns, the mass of a single end having 10,000 m l
be 150 g. Therefore, there will be the following options:
P × R indicates the number of packages used × number of warping runs
 800 × 1: Each cone should contain 10,000 m yarn, weighing 150 g.
 400 × 2: Each cone should contain 20,000 m yarn, weighing 300 g
 200 × 4: Each cone should contain 40,000 m yarn, weighing 600 g
 100 × 8: Each cone should contain 80,000 m yarn, weighing 1200 g
 50 × 16: Each cone should contain 160,000 m yarn, weighing 2400 g

Now, option 1 and option 2 represent two extreme situations. Option 1 (direct warping or beam
can be executed when the lot being processed is having significantly higher (15-20 times) lengt
of the fabric considered (10,000 m) in this example. Considering the mass of a full cone as 2.1
ordered length is 140,000 m, then the entire cone (150 × 14 = 2100 g) will be consumed.
On the other hand, option 2 (sectional warping or indirect warping) is practiced when fancy wa
or specialized yarns are used for manufacturing customized products. In this case, the productio
officer does not see the possibility of repeat order in near future. Therefore, he or she wants to
the entire package to minimize the wastage and inventory carrying cost. Therefore, the beam i
section by section and the operation is repeated large number of times to complete the entire w
warper’s beam. This is also followed by the beaming operation when all the sections of
transferred to a flanged beam.
In synthetic filament weaving systems, each supply package contains a very high length of y
packages are therefore fairly expensive. It is also very difficult to store such packages with uns
Hence synthetic yarn weaving units prefer to opt for sectional warping.
For direct warping the typical length of lot can be as follows:
 40s count: 1.65 lakhs m
 50s count: 1.80 lakhs m
 60s count: 1.9 lakhs m

Components of Warping Machine

 Creel (Figure 3.2)
 Headstock
 Control devices

Types of Creel
 Single end creel
 Magazine creel
 Traveling or multiple package creel
 Figure 3.2: A simple creel of warping machine
Single End Creel
In single end creel, one position of the creel is used for one end on the warper’s beam. Single
can be of two types namely truck creels and duplicated creels. The creel is movable in case of
whereas the headstock is movable in case of the latter. In case of truck creel, when the package
running creel are exhausted, it is moved sideways and the reserve creel moves into the vac
(Figure 3.3). Thus, the time for removing huge number of exhausted package and replenishing
full packages is saved. However, extra space is required for the reserve creel.

Figure 3.3: Single end truck creel

Magazine Creel
In magazine creel, the tail end of yarn from one cone is tied with the tip of the yarn o
neighbouring cone. When the first cone is exhausted, the transfer of yarn withdrawal to the se
takes place automatically and machine does not stop. This has been depicted in
creeling time is completely eliminated which helps to improve the running efficiency of warpin
However, due to sudden change in unwinding position and tension variation associated with thi
the yarns break during the transfer (known as transfer failure). The magazine creel has reduced
If the creel has 1000 package holders, then the warp sheet can actually have 500 ends.
 Figure 3.4: Magazine creel

Travelling or Swivelling Creel

In swivelling creel, the pegs (package holders) with full packages can move from inside (reserv
to the outside (working) position when the running packages are exhausted. Thus considerab
saved. Then the operator replaces the exhausted packages with full packages when the m
running. Figure 3.5 shows the swivelling creel.

Figure 3.5: Swivelling creel

Calculation for Warping Efficiency with Different Creels

The yarn mass on full beam is 300 kg, number of ends is 500, yarn count is 30 tex, warping spe
m/min, cone weight is 2 kg, end break rate 0.1/100 end/ 1000 m, time to repair a break is 0.5 m
doffing time is 5 min, Creeling time is 45 min/ creel, Headstock change time is 3 min/ beam
failure is 2%
The calculation which follows has been done considering the time required for various oper
respect to one warper’s beam. Table 3.1 shows the time required for various operations.
The mass contributed by a single yarn = 300/500= 0.6 kg

Running time = 20,000/1000= 20 minutes.

Creeling time = 45 minutes/ creel.
In case of single end creel, this 45 minutes will be divided between three warper’s beam as from
of 2 kg mass at least three beams will be made.
So, creeling time assigned to one warper’s beam = 15 minutes.
For duplicated creel, the headstock is moved in front of the new creel which is ready with full
So, no creeling time is considered. However, it needs the headstock moving time i.e. 3 minutes.

Repair time = Number of breaks × repair time per break =10 × 0.5 = 5 min
Transfer failure = 2 % of 500 ends = 10
Time for repairing the transfer failure = 10× 0.5 = 5 minutes.
This 5 minutes should be equally allocated among multiple warper’s beam as from one cone of
at least three beams will be made. So, when the yarns of two cones are tied, six warper’s bea
made without any further creeling.
So, repair time for transfer failure assigned to one warper’s beam = 5/6 minutes= 0.83 minutes.
Table 3.1: Time required for various operations

From this example, it can be seen that the type of creel can greatly influence the efficiency of th
operation.
Drive to Warper’s Beam
The warper’s beam can be driven by two ways.
 Direct drive
 Indirect drive

In case of direct drive, the warper’s beam is driven by gears. As the diameter of the beam inc
rotational speed of the beam is reduced in order to keep constant warping speed. In case of indi
the warper’s beam is rotated by frictional contact with another drum. In this case, the rotationa
the warper’s beam reduces as its diameter increases. Thus the warping speed remains constant.
In modern warping machine (Benninger), the warping speed is around 1200-1400 m/min. The
diameter is 1-1.4 m.

Sectional Warping

Sectional warping is preferred over beam warping for multi-coloured warp. Here th
warping drum is not developed simultaneously. It is developed section by section a
only one section is built at a time, a support is needed at one side of the drum. This
side of the drum inclined. The inclination can be of two types.
 Fixed angle
 Variable angle (7 0, 9 0, 11 0 etc.)

As the winding of one layer is completed on the drum, the section of ends is given
the end at one extreme corner touches the inclined surface. Thus it gets support from

Figure 3.6: Schematic representation of sectional warping p

As the process continues, the thickness (or height) of the section gradually increase
been wound in a section, next section is started by shifting the expandable reed asse
(distance s of Figure 3.7)

Figure 3.7: Traverse in sectional warping

If α is the angle of inclination, x is the traverse given to the section and
For drum with fixed angle, if the yarn is coarser then one layer of the warp ribbon
in thickness (Δh) and thus to match the inclination, the traverse speed (
designed with provisions to change the traverse speed so that a wide range of yarn
fixed angle drums, only one variable i.e. traverse speed is to be adjusted while wi
traverse and the angle of inclination can be varied.
For drums with variable angle, the angle is changed by changing the inclinatio
supported at the end of the drum. When the angle is increased, larger gaps are crea
metal plates. Therefore, the yarn will remain unsupported at the gaps between two
The flow chart of the warping process can be represented as shown in

Figure 3.8: Sequence of warping process

Leasing: It is a system by which the position of the ends is maintained in the war
by dividing the ends in two groups (odd and even). If odd ends are passing over
ends will pass below the rod. The relative positions of the ends will reverse in case
Expandable reed: It is used to control the spacing between consecutive ends.
expandable reed can be expanded or collapsed as per the required spacing of
expandable reed and lease rods in a sectional warping machine.
Beaming system: In the beaming process, all the sections are simultaneously
warper’s beam (Figure 3.10). The drum is rotated by the tension of warp sheet
given to the warper’s beam. The speed of beaming process in sectional warpin
m/min).

Figure 3.10: Sectional warping drum and beam

Table 3.1 presents the comparison between beam warping and sectional warping
Table 3.1: Comparison between beam warping and sectiona
Beam warping
Used for high volume production

One step process

 High creel capacity is required
Comparatively less expensive
Beaming speed is high
More common
SIZING
Introduction
Warp yarns are used to supply
on looms where warp threads
are subjected to repeatedly
occurring various stresses like
cyclic strain, flexing, and
abrasion. These unavoidable
stresses cause frequent warp
breaks which consequent in the
form of loom stoppages and
finally, efficiency loss and
fabric faults come in account.
To minimize these problems,
warp yarns are needed to be
sized. Warp sizing is an
essential process to coat warp
yarns with elastic film and bind
fibers of yarns and lowering
fluff or hairiness so that the
yarns may become so strong that
they can resist the mechanical
strain in weaving process,
and/or maintain or improve
weaving efficiency. In other
words, sizing is done to provide
a protective coating and to
lubricate the surface of the yarn
to enable it to withstand the
abrasive action which occurs in
the weaving process. These facts
define that the sizing process is
very important for a successful
woven fabric manufacturing.

Objectives of Sizing

The main objective of sizing is

to form a uniform coat over
warp yarns and lay down the
protruding fibers on yarn body
that protrude out of its surface.
After sizing, the strength and
abrasion resistance of the yarn
improves and hairiness
decreases. The objective of warp
sizing is to improve the
weaveability of yarns by
applying a uniform coating on
the yarn surface so that
protruding hairs are laid on the
yarn surface. During the
weaving process, the warp yarns
are subjected to abrasion with
various loom components like
back rest, heald eyes, reed, front
rest etc. In shedding operation,
warp yarns also abrade against
each other. Size coating protects
the yarn structure from abrasion.
Therefore, the warp breakage
rate in the loom reduces
Benefits of Sizing
 It prevents the warp yarn breakage due to abrasion with neighbouring yarns or with back rest,
heald eye and reed.
 It improves the yarn strength by 10 to 20%, although it is not the primary objective of sizing
process.

Characteristics of Sized Yarn

 Higher strength
 Lower elongation
 Higher bending rigidity
 Higher abrasion resistance
 Lower hairiness
 Lower frictional resistance

Definitions
Size paste concentration, size pick-up and size add-on are some of the terms used frequently in the
discussion of sizing process. They are defined as follows:

Sizing-weaving Curve
For the sizing process, depending on the size materials used, there is a target add-on for the optimum
performance of the warp yarns in the weaving process. This can be understood from the sizing-weaving
curve (Figure 4.1). The solid line represents the warp breakage rate whereas the broken line implies loom
efficiency.
 Figure 4.1: Sizing-weaving curve
At very low level of size add-on, the yarn is not adequately covered by the size film and therefore the yarn
is not protected from the abrasion with various loom parts. So, warp breakage rate is generally high at
very low level of size add-on. The performance of the yarn in weaving improves as the size add-on
increases. The optimum add-on level is marked by very low level of warp breakage rate. However, if the
size add-on is higher than the optimum level then warp breakage rate increases again largely due to the
loss of elongation and increase in bending rigidity of the yarns.
The optimum level of size add-on will depend on the following factors:
 Type of fibre
 Type of size materials
 Yarn spinning technology
 Yarn count and twist
 Level of hairiness in the yarn
 Loom type and loom speed

Although add-on primarily influences the weaving performance, it is possible to have different weaving
performances even at the same level of size add-on. This can happen due to differences in (a) Size
penetration and (b) Size coating or encapsulation. This can be explained from the Figure 4.2.

Figure 4.2: Size coating or encapsulation, size penetration and optimum coating and penetration
In the first case, the size material has formed a uniform coating on the yarn surface. But the penetration of
the size material is in adequate. This may tackle the hairiness problem. However, the adhesion of the size
film with the yarn will be lower. The size coating will also be very stiff. Therefore, during the abrasion
with various machine parts and neighbouring yarns, the size will fall (shed) and thus the weaving
performance will be poor.
In the second case, the coating or encapsulation on the yarn surface is inadequate. Therefore, the yarn will
not get adequate protection against the abrasion. Besides, the size materials have penetrated too much
inside the yarn which is not desirable.
The third case is the optimum one where there is a thin but uniform coating formation on the yarn surface
by the size materials. Moreover, the size materials have also penetrated to some extent in the yarn
structure which ensures good adhesion between the yarn and the size coating. For optimum weaving
performance, size should penetrate to a distance equal to 15-25% of yarn radius.

Sizing Materials
Desirable Properties of Sizing Materials
The sizing material must fulfil some essential properties and at the same time it is expected that
have some additional desirable properties. The sizing material must form a smooth and uniform
the yarn surface. This is known as film forming property. The coating will not only embed the p
fibres (hairs) on the yarn body but also protect the yarn structure from repeated abrasion during
The size film should adhere with the fibres strongly to prevent shedding (dropping of size film).
should also have enough flexibility to cope with the flexing or bending of yarns around the back
heald eyes and other loom components. The non-exhaustive list of essential and desirable proper
given in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1: Essential and desirable properties of sizing materials
Film forming Controllable viscosity
Adhesion Easy removal and recyclability
Optimum penetration Neutral pH
Film flexibility and
Non-polluting
elasticity
Lubrication Cheap
Bacterial resistance
The specific requirements of sizing material properties will depend on the following factors.
 Type of fibre (cotton, viscose, nylon, polyester etc.)
 Type of yarn (ring, rotor, friction, air-jet etc.)
 Type of loom (shuttle, projectile, air-jet, water jet etc)
 Construction features (weave, yarn counts and sett)

Composition of Sizing Material

The specific composition of sizing material depends on the fibre type, yarn type, yarn count, fab
etc. However, the materials can be classified under the categories of adhesive, softening agent,
antimicrobial agent etc. The adhesive part is responsible for forming the film and adhering with
Softening agent makes the film flexible so that the film can bend easily without forming cracks.
Antimicrobial agents are added to thwart the mildew to grow on the size film. Sometimes, weigh
agents and dyes are also added to fulfil specific requirements.
Cotton yarns, in general, are sized by the starch which forms the adhesive component of the size
reason behind the popularity of starch can be attributed to the following factors.
 Starch is chemically same with cotton and rayon and thus the adhesion is very good.
 Desizing is easy
 Relatively cheap
 Properties can be tuned to cope with the need

However, starch gives very stiff film. It has higher biological oxygen demand (BOD). Besides, c
starch is required to attain uniformity. Besides, starch has poor bacterial resistance. Overall, the
attributes of starch dominates over the drawbacks and thus it is still being used in the industry as
primary materials for the sizing of cotton yarns.
The softening materials compensates for the abrasive and harsh feel that is provided by most of
starches. Softeners also lubricate the yarns so that they can pass easily over machines parts witho
shedding. It also prevents the sticking of size ingredients over the drying cylinders. Mutton tallo
is composed of glycerides of palmitic, stearic and oleic acids is used as softeners. The proportion
softener in the size mix is very crucial as excess use of it deteriorates the strength of size film.
Sources of Starch
Starches are available from the seed, root or pith of plants. Corn, rice and wheat are the example
starch. Potato and Tapioca starches are obtained from roots. Sago starch is obtained from pith. S
are prepared by grinding the seed, root or pith into fine flour. When the flour is mixed with wate
cooked, it produces a thick and smooth glutinous solution. Corn (Maize) starch is the most popu
starch used in textile sizing. Around 50% of the corn is composed of starch. Corn starch is gener
preferred for the sizing of coarse and medium count yarns. Potato yields around 20% starch. It is
congealing type and therefore gets more chance to penetrate within the yarn structure. It forms a
and pliable film on the yarn body. Potato starch is preferred for sizing finer yarns.
Chemical Structure of Starch
Cellulose and Starch
 Chemically same
 Both are polymer of glucose
 Glucose can have two structural (anomeric) form known as α and β (

Figure 4.3: Structure of α and β glucose

It can be seen from Figure 4.3 that the position of OH group in the pyranose ring at C2, C3 and
same in cellulose and starch. For α -D-glucose, which is the building block of starch, both the O
are down with respect to the next glucose molecule. Therefore no change in orientation is neede
condensation as shown in Figure 4.4.

Figure 4.4: Condensation of α-glucose units

On the other hand, in β glucose, the OH group is up at C1 and down at C4. As a result, every oth
glucose unit must flip over before the 1,4 hydroxyls can come closer for condensation. This is sh
in Figure 4.5.

Figure 4.5: Condensation of β-glucose units

Starches are having two components. The straight chain component is called amylose. The branc
component is called amylopectin. The differences between amylose and amylopectin have been
highlighted in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2: Differences between amylose and amylopectin
Amylose Amylopectin
Provides strength Prevents rapid gelling
Water soluble Water insoluble
Relatively high molecular
Low molecular weight
weight
20-30% 70-80%
The proportion of amylose and amylopection differs depending on source. For example, in potat
the ratio is 20:80 whereas in wheat starch the ratio is 25: 75.
Cooking of Starch
Starch remains tightly bound in granules and therefore it does not act as adhesive in cold water.
of starch is required to make it soluble in water. The change in viscosity of starch solution durin
is shown in Figure 4.6.

Figure 4.6: Cooking of starch

Within the granule, the chain molecules of amylose and amylopection are arranged radially in st
layers. External heat energy is required for the penetration of water molecule within the structur
temperature at which the thermal energy becomes sufficient to overcome hydrogen bonding with
 structure is called ‘gelatinisation’ temperature (P). Crystallization of starch is lost during gelatio
water penetrates, the chain molecules are pushed away from each other causing swelling of the s
granule. This is marked by increased in viscosity of the solution (Q). This continues up to the po
Aided by the continuous shearing provided by the stirring, the starch granules finally break. The
molecules of amylose and amylopection come out within the solution causing reduction in visco
When all the granules have burst, the viscosity stabilizes or levels off (T). When the solution is c
starch gels due to the formation of a rigid interlocked micelle-like structure having hydrogen bon
This gel form of starch can form a continuous coating on the yarn surface.
Acid Treatment of Starch
The viscosity of the sizing paste influences the wet pick-up and resultant add-on %. The viscosit
influenced by the concentration of starch (solid content) and molecular chain length of starch. T
the concentration of the sizing paste, keeping the solid content same, acid treatment is performed
Aqueous solution of starch is treated with hydrochloric acids at specified temperature and durati
acid cleaves the polymer at the glycoside linkage and thus the length of the polymer chain is red
(Figure 4.7). Hence, the viscosity is reduced and the fluidity, which is the reciprocal of viscosity
increases. The acid treated starch is often termed as ‘thin boiling starch’ as it results lower visco
the normal starch at a given concentration.

Figure 4.7: Acid treatment of starch to reduce the molecular chain length

Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA)

Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) is a very versatile sizing material. It can be used for sizing cotton, rayon,
polyester and their blends. It is manufactured by polymerizing vinyl acetate monomers and then
substituting the acetate groups with hydroxyl groups by hydrolysis (Figure 4.8
PVA are largely governed by the degree of substitution.

Figure 4.8: Steps for manufacturing PVA

If the PVA is hydrolyzed to the maximum possible extent (>99%), then the formation of hydrogen
bonding becomes very intense and thus the strength of the PVA film becomes very high (
). Besides, its solubility in water is lower as compared to partially hydrolyzed PVA. Thus the
desizing becomes difficult and higher temperature is required for desizing. Therefore, this grade (super
hydrolyzed) is generally not preferred for sizing.
Partially hydrolyzed PVA exhibits lower film strength. The presence of a big functional group in the side
chain reduces the strength of the partially hydrolyzed PVA film. Thus it provides the advantages of easy
splitting (separation) of yarns after drying and less disruption of size film. Besides, partially hydrolyzed
PVA shows better adhesion with the hydrophobic fibres than the fully hydrolyzed PVA

Figure 4.9: Hydrogen bonding in PVA

Figure 4.10: Effect of hydrolysis on the strength of PVA film.

Solubility in water is better for the partially hydrolyzed PVA. In partially hydrolyzed PVA, the acetate
group, due to its bigger size, acts as an obstacle against the close packing of molecular chain (
). Therefore, the penetration of water molecule is rather easy in case of partially hydrolyzed PVA
making the desizing operation facile.

Figure 4.11: Molecular chains of fully hydrolyzed and partially hydrolysed PVA
Table 4.3: Adhesion of PVA with synthetic fibres
Adhesion strenght

(g/mm2)
 Partially hydrolyzed Fully hydrolyzed
10
11
9
7
depicts the abrasion resistance performance of yarns sized with partially, intermediate and
fully hydrolyzed PVA. The former provides better waving performance in terms of the following.
Less shedding or dropping of size

Figure 4.12: Abrasion resistance of yarns sized with PVA

presents the degree of hydrolysis and application range for various grades of PVA.
Table 4.4: Degree of hydrolysis in different grades of PVA
Degree of hydrolysis
>99%
98-99%
95-98 %
87-90
PVA is available in different viscosity range based on its degree of polymerization (DP). Higher DP leads
to greater molecular weight and viscosity. The viscosity ranges from 5 cP to 65 cP. For most of the spun
yarns, medium viscosity is preferred. If the viscosity is very low then size paste penetrates too much
within the yarn structure affecting the flexibility and extensibility. On the other hand, if the viscosity is too
high, then size film forms over the yarn surface without much adhesion with the fibres. These surface
coatings of size materials are prone to dropping. To maintain the balance, a mixture of low viscosity and

10.5 % on the weight of water

Paste viscosity: 6.5±0.2 second, Solid content: 12-13%

 12.5 % on the weight of water

Paste viscosity: 6.4±0.2 second, Solid: 12%

13 % on the weight of water

Paste viscosity: 7±0.2 second, Solid: 12-13%

Typical Steps Followed in the Industry to Prepare the Size Paste

Take standard volume (700 litres) of water (normal temperature) into the pre-mixture through
water flow meter, start the stirrer.
Properly weigh all the chemicals required.
Add modified starch, PVA and then Acrylic binder slowly into the pre-mixture vessel.
Stir the mixture for 15 minutes.
Start the stirrer of the cooker, transfer the mixture to the closed cooker from pre-mixture vessel.
Close all the open valves of the cooker.
Heat the cooker mixture with the injection of direct steam, steam will auto cut when the cooker
temperature reaches the preset limit (110° C). It takes around 30 to 35 minutes.
Cook the mixture for another 40 minutes, the temperature of the cooker will reach to around 120 to
125° C depending on the size recipe.
Start the stirrer of the storage vessel and then transfer the cooked size paste to the respective

Add lubricant with the size paste at storage.

Maintain storage temperature at around 80-90° C.
Paste is ready to transfer to the sow box of sizing machine.

Sizing Machine
The sizing machine can be divided into four main zones as shown in Figure 4.13

The creel zone contains large number of warper’s beam which can be arranged in different fashion
depending on the design of the creel. Individual warp sheet emerging from warper’s beam are merged
together to form the final warp sheet which passes through the size box. During the passage through the
size box, the warp sheet picks up size paste and holds a part of the paste after squeezing. Then the wet
warp sheet passes through the drying zone and wound on the weavers beam.
 Figure 4.13: Zones of a sizing machine

The creel zone of a sizing machine can have following types of design:
Figure 4.14 and 4.15)
Figure 4.16)
)

Figure 4.14: Over and under creel

Figure 4.15: Over and under creel for two size boxes
 Figure 4.16: Equi-tension creel

Figure 4.17: Vertical creel

Figure 4.14), the warper’s beams are arranged in two rows, having
different heights, in an alternate manner. The warp sheet coming out from the rearmost beam passes under
the second beam and over the third beam and so on. The individual warp sheets coming out from beams
are merged together to form the final warp sheet. The warp sheet coming from the rearmost beam
definitely experiences more tension and stretch than the warp sheet coming from the beam located nearest
to the size box. The problem is partially mitigated when two creels are used one for each of the two size
. If there are twelve beams then six beams are mounted on creel one and
remaining six beams are mounted on creel two reducing the over and under movement of the warp sheet.
Figure 4.16) the pattern of movement of warp sheet is completely different
than that of over and under creel. In equi-tension creel, warp sheet does not move over and under any
beam. One small guide rollers provided with every beam which deflects the warp sheet towards the proper
path. Here, the warp sheets are subjected to equal tension and stretch irrespective of the position of the

Another improvement in this direction has been implemented in the inclined creel. Here the height of the
beam changes based on its position so that a constant inclination can be maintained in the path of the warp

All the designs, which have been discussed till now, requires considerable amount of floor space. This can
be solved if vertical creels are used. In vertical creels, the beams are stacked vertically as shown in

It is very important to maintain adequate and uniform tension in the warp sheet during the entire sizing
process. However, as the sizing process continues, the radius of the warper’s beam reduces. Therefore, it
is required to adjust the warp tension by adjusting either the dead weight suspended with the rope passing
over the ruffles of the warper’s beam (Figure 4.18) or by controlling the pneumatic pressure applied on
the bearing region of warper’s beam.

Figure 4.18: Warp tension control by dead weight system

From the balance of moment the following equation can be formulated.

is the radius of warper’s beam, T2 is the tension in the tight side of the rope,
r is the ruffle radius, μ is the coefficient of friction between the rope and the ruffle, θ is the angle of wrap
(in radian) of the rope over the ruffle, M is the mass of suspended element and

In sizing process, the allowable stretch is 1-1.5% for cotton and polyester yarns. The stretch can be
higher (3-5%) for viscose and acrylic yarns.

This is the zone where the warp sheet is immersed into the size paste and then squeezed under high
pressure so that uniform coating of size film forms over the yarn surface. The process of immersion is
called ‘dip’ and the process of squeezing by means of a pair of squeezing rollers is called ‘nip’. The size
box can have different number combinations of ‘dip’ and ‘nip’ to meet the requirement of various yarns.
For filament yarns ‘one dip and one nip’ is preferred (Figure 4.19) where as for spun yarns made from
staple fibres ‘two dip and two nip’ is advisable (Figure 4.20).
Two dip and two nip process allows grater time for immersion of yarns within the size paste and thus this
process forms more uniform coating of size film. When the yarns are squeezed by the first pair of squeeze
rollers, yarns become compressed. When the yarns come out of the nip of squeezing rollers, they try to
regain their original arrangement and therefore an inward pressure is created which causes more
penetration of size materials within the yarn structure.
 Figure 4.19: One dip one nip size box

Figure 4.20: Two dip two nip size box

The wet pick-up by the warp sheet is influenced by the following parameters:

Viscosity of a fluid indicates its resistance against the flow. The viscosity of the size paste is mainly
influenced by the concentration (solid content) and temperature of size paste. Higher concentration
implies higher viscosity. Viscosity of size paste reduces with the increase of temperature. The wet pick-up
generally increases with the increase in viscosity. Viscosity also determines the penetration of size paste
within the yarn structure. If more penetration is desired then viscosity should be lowered and vise versa.
For bulky yarns, penetration is relatively easy and therefore higher viscosity may be preferred.
Viscosity of size paste can be measured by Zahn cup. It is a stainless steel cup with a small hole at the
centre of the bottom of the cup. A long handle attached to the sides of the cup. There are five cup
N, where N is the number from one through five. Large number cup
sizes are used when viscosity is high, while low number cup sizes are used when viscosity is low. To
determine the viscosity, the cup is dipped and completely filled with the size paste. After lifting the cup
out of the paste the user measures the time until the paste streaming out of it breaks up, this is the
corresponding ‘efflux time’. Viscosity of the paste is calculated from the efflux time using standard

The squeeze pressure forces out the excess paste picked up by the warp sheet. Besides, the pressure
distributes the paste uniformly over the yarn surface and causes size penetration within the yarn structure.
Higher squeeze pressure reduces the wet pick-up and add-on% (Figure 4.21

Figure 4.21: Effect of squeeze pressure on size add-on %

The effect of high pressure squeezing during sizing was investigated by Hari
for the same level of size add-on%, the high pressure squeezing facilitates better penetration of size within
the yarn structure. However, the thickness of coating outside the yarn periphery reduces at high pressure
squeezing. This reduces the dropping of size during weaving. The comparison of the size coating and
penetration at high and low squeezing pressure is presented in Table 4.5
Table 4.5: Comparison between high and low pressure squeezing
Size coating (film thickness) Size penetration
Low
High
Though there was no significant difference in the tensile properties of yarns sizes using high and low
pressure, the weaveability of the former was much better than the latter.
iii. Hardness of Top Squeeze Roll
The bottom squeezing roller is made up of stainless steel. The top squeezing roller is having a metallic
core part which is covered with synthetic material. If the hardness of the top roller is low, then there will
be flattening of the roller. Thus the contact area increases which effectively reduces the pressure acting at
the nip zone. Therefore, the size pick-up increases. In contrast, harder rollers give sharper nip and lower
wet pick-up. The shore hardness of the top roller is around 45°.
iv. Thickness of Synthetic Rubber on the Top Roller
If the thickness of synthetic rubber cover on the top roller is greater, then the extent of flattening is more.
This will reduce the nip pressure and thus the wet pick-up will increase.

The position of the immersion roller within the size box is adjustable. If the height of immersion roller is
lowered then the residence time of the warp sheet within the size paste increases. This will lead to the
increase in wet pick-up if other factors are constant.

Speed of sizing also influences the wet pick-up by the warp sheet.
Higher speed reduces the residence time of the yarn within the paste which should reduce the wet

Higher speed increases the drag force between the warp sheet and size paste which should induce
more flow of paste with the warp sheet.
Higher speed reduces the time of squeezing which should increase the wet pick-up.

The speed of sizing will influence the wet pick-up based on the preponderance of the aforesaid factors.
modern sizing machine, the practical speed can be around 100 m/min. Though machine manufactures
claim that the speed can be as high as 150 m/min.
 Sizing Diagram
presents the schematic relationship between the concentration of size paste and final add-on% of

Figure 4.22: Relationship between concentration and add-on%

At a given temperature, concentration of size paste determines the viscosity.
For a given yarn, squeeze pressure and sizing speed, viscosity of size paste determines the wet pick-up.
Wet pick-up determines the add-on. For a given concentration of size paste, higher wet pick-up leads to
higher add-on and vice versa.
Therefore, if other conditions are same, then there will be a functional relationship between size paste

depicts the relationship among concentration, viscosity, wet pick-up and add-on. Thin boiling
starch requires higher level of concentration, than the normal starch, for the same level of viscosity. Therefore,
even if the wet pick-up is same, add-on will be higher (due to higher concentration) for thin boiling starch.
Besides, for the same level of add-on, wet pick-up will be less for thin boiling starch. Therefore, water
evaporation during drying will be lower for thin boiling starch as compared to normal starch. This will lead to
energy saving in case of sizing with thin boiling starch.
, it can be seen that thin boiling starch requires higher concentration (
) for creating the same level of viscosity (η1). This will lead to same wet pick-up for both types of starch.
Now, add-on will be higher for the thin boiling starch (ΔA) even at the same level of wet pick-up (
in the third quadrant, the broken line representing the thin boiling starch is positioned below the solid line

Figure 4.23: Sizing diagram

The modern sizing practice recommends the use of high concentration (which results in high viscosity) of size
paste and high squeezing pressure (Figure 4.24).

Figure 4.24: Different combinations of squeezing pressure and concentration

High pressure and high viscosity combination is preferred as high pressure reduces the wet pick-up and
high concentration ensures that targeted add-on will be attained with minimum water evaporation.
Hypothetically, low pressure and low viscosity combination can also give same level of wet pick-up as
obtained with high pressure and high viscosity combination. But the same level of add-on cannot be
obtained after drying due to low concentration.
Low concentration and high pressure will give the minimum wet pick-up.

The targeted add-on is10 % and oven dry mass of supply warp sheet is 100 kg. If the concentration
is 20% then high pressure can be used to achieve wet pick-up of 50 kg. Then in the drying section 40 kg water
will be evaporated to get the target add-on of 10%. In contrast, if the concentration is 10% then low pressure
can be used to achieve wet pick-up of 100 kg. Then in the drying section 90 kg water will be evaporated to get
the targeted add-on of 10%. This obviously requires more energy consumption during drying.

High pressure squeezing is used to reduce the load on the drying system. In modern sizing machine, the
squeezing force can go up to the level of 100,000 N. This force is applied on the two sides of the metallic core
of top squeeze roller. This pressure is good enough to cause bending in the top squeeze roller which may result
uneven pressure along the nip line. To overcome this problem, crowned top rollers are used. The synthetic
rubber coated surface of the top squeeze roller is subjected to grinding operation so that the diameter at the
sides is lower as compared to that of at the middle as shown in Figure 4.25
bending of the top rollers and uniform pressure is obtained along the nip line.
 Figure 4.25: Crowning of top roller
Percent Occupation and Equivalent Yarn Diameter
The relative closeness of the yarns inside the size box is expressed by percentage occupation and equivalent
yarn diameter. 100% occupation means that yarns are physically touching each other. The number of yarns
with 100% occupation can be calculated approximately if nominal yarn diameter is known. Equivalent yarn
diameter indicates the space between the two yarns in terms of yarn diameter. If equivalent yarn diameter is
zero that means that the yarns are touching each other i.e. 100% occupation.
with 100% occupation i.e. zero equivalent yarn diameter. Figure 4.27
occupation i.e. one equivalent yarn diameter.

Figure 4.26: Yarn arrangement for 100% occupation Figure 4.27: Yarn arrangement for 50% occupation

The percent occupation and equivalent yarn diameter are related with the following expression.

If the percent occupation is very high then the yarn may not be uniformly coated by the size film. For warp
sheet having very large number of yarns, it may be preferable to use two size boxes to keep the percent
occupation value within permissible range.
Drying Zone
This is the zone where the wet yarns are dried by evaporating the water from the size paste. The drying
operation is very crucial because of the following reasons.
It consumes most of the energy of sizing process
Inadequate drying will cause sticking of yarns with one another causing problem in weaving
 Over-drying will make the size film brittle and therefore they may fall apart by minimum abrasion.

Drying is done by passing the warp sheet over large number of drying cylinders, coated with Teflon (poly
tetra fluro-ethylene), arranged in sequential manner. The number of drying cylinders can vary from 2 to
30 depending on the amount of water to be evaporated in unit time. In general, higher speed of sizing
would require more number of drying cylinders. The following expressions are useful for calculating the
mass of water to be evaporated during drying.

The first part of the expression yields wet pick-up. If the mass of dry size is subtracted from the wet pick-
up then the amount of water to be evaporated can be obtained. The above equation presumes that there is
no residual moisture in the sized yarn after drying. However, for the running machine it is more important
to calculate the mass of water to be evaporated in unit time (minute). This will be depending on the

Linear density of yarns ( tex)

The mass of yarn passing through the machine per minute can be expressed as follows:

The result obtained from above expression has been depicted in Figure 4.28
add-on, more water has to be evaporated if the size paste concentration is low.
 Figure 4.28: Effect of add-on% and concentration % on the amount of water evaporation

The methods of drying in sizing process can broadly be divided in two categories.

In conduction method the warp sheet is passed over a metallic cylinder which is heated by using
superheated steam. Heat exchange takes place between the wet warp sheet and heated cylinders and in the
Figure 4.29). The efficiency of this process is very high. The problem of
this system is that only one side of the warp sheet is exposed to the heated cylinder at a time. This
problem can be overcome in convection method. In convection method, hot air is circulated within an
enclosed chamber and the warp sheet passes through the chamber with the help of some guides (
). Both the sides of the warp sheet is exposed to the hot air at the same which ensures that the drying
is very uniform. However, the efficiency of the process is lower as compared to that of conduction

Figure 4.29: Conduction drying method

 Figure 4.30: Convection drying
Design of the drying zone can be of various types. To ensure better drying and reduction of load on
individual cylinders, the wet warp sheet is often splitted into multiple sheets. Each sheet is then dried by a
separate group of drying cylinders (Figure 4.31). This initial drying is generally done at relatively lower
temperature. Finally all the sheets are again merged and final drying takes place using another set of
drying rollers. The temperature range for drying of cotton warp is 100-140°C.

Figure 4.31: Two zone drying

After drying, the warp sheet is splitted so that the yarns regain their individual identity before they are
wound on the weaver’s beam. This is depicted in Figure 4.32.

Figure 4.32: Splitting of warp sheet

Splitting is required because warp sheet coming out of the drying section adhere to each other depending
on the efficiency of the pre-drying section. Lease rods which are often coated with chromium are used to
split the warp sheet in a systematic manner as shown in Figures 4.33
situation when each of the lease rods split the incoming warp sheet into two equal parts. On the other
presents a situation where warp sheet coming from a warper’s beam is separated at a
time by a lease rod. So, if it is assumed that warp sheet is originating from four warper’s beams placed on
the creel, the first lease rod will split the warp sheet into two unequal parts. One part will have yarns from
a particular warper’s beam whereas the other part will consist of yarns form the remaining three warper’s

Function of lease rods is to separate the individual yarns which are stuck together by dried size. During
the splitting some amount of size film would be dropped as waste. However, a large number of longer
fibres, bridging two adjacent yarns would also get broken into smaller pieces. Therefore, splitting is
considered to have some beneficial effect from hairiness viewpoint. This has been represented pictorially

Figure 4.33: Splitting of sized warp sheet into equal parts

Figure 4.34: Splitting of sized warp sheet into unequal parts

After the splitting, the warp sheet is finally wound on the weaver’s beam. The warp sheet passes through
an adjustable reed which can be expanded or collapsed based on the width of the beam.
Pre-wetting of Yarns before Sizing
Pre-wetting is done for the staple spun yarns to make the sizing process more efficient. The warp sheet is
passed through a box which contains hot water (temperature around 90°C) and thus the waxes and other
Figure 4.36). This improves the adhesion between the yarns and the size
materials. If the sizing machine is having two size boxes then the first one can be used for the pre-wetting
and the second one for sizing. Generally, size boxes having two dip and two nip are preferred when pre-
wetting is done. After pre-wetting, water occupies the core of the yarns and thus the penetration of the size
within the yarn structure reduces and uniform size film is formed over the yarn surface. High squeezing
pressure is used at the nip of pre-wetting box so that the water retained by the yarns is minimized. This
precludes the possibility of dilution of paste concentration in the size box as well as reduction of paste
temperature. The advantages of pre-wetting are as follows:
Reduction of size ingredient consumption up to 50%

Improvement of loom efficiency

Figure 4.36: Simplified representation of pre-wetting process

Quality Evaluation of Sized Yarns
The real performance of sized yarn can only be appraised during the weaving operation. However, the
performance of sized yarns can be forecasted by judging the following quality parameters:
Tenacity and breaking elongation of sized yarn
Cohesiveness and adhesion of the sized film

Tensile strength (tenacity) enhancement after sizing does not exhibit good correlation with the actual warp
breakage rate during weaving as tension acting on yarn does not exceed 20% of the yarn breaking
strength. Cohesiveness of size film is evaluated by measuring the tensile properties of a thin film made
from the size paste. A comparison of cohesive properties of maize starch, PVA and CMC films is given

Table 4.6: Properties of starch, CMC and PVA [Source: Reference number 2]
Size typ
Mechanical properties
Starch
Tenacity (cN/mm2) 3.52
Elongation % 20.56
2
Initial modulus, (cN/mm ) 200.87
PVA demonstrates higher cohesiveness and elongation than Maize starch and CMC. Adhesive power
indicates the compatibility of the size material with the textile substrates.
If the adhesion between the fibres and size film is good then the slippage of the fibres in the sized roving
during tensile testing will reduce. This will increase the adhesive power. When adhesion is good, the
critical adhesive power is attained at lower add-on as shown in Figure 4.37
the adhesion power is bad, then higher add-on is required to reach the level of critical adhesive power.

Figure 4.37: Size add-on % vs adhesive power

During weaving, abrasion takes place between warp yarns and loom parts like heald eyes, reed and
shuttle. Sized yarns can be subjected to abrasion tests and the number of cycles required to break a given
number of yarns is noted. These observations can be used to calculate the mean abrasion cycle that can be
resisted by a sized yarn. Alternatively, sized yarns can be subjected to a fixed number of abrasion cycles
and then the % deterioration in terms of tensile strength is calculated using the following expression.
Lower deterioration implies good quality of sizing and vice versa.

During the weaving process, the yarn undergoes repeated extension and bending. This causes cumulative
damage to the fibre and yarn structure. As a result the yarn actually fails, due to fatigue, at a breaking load
which is much lower than its actual breaking load. Even the very strong metal wires break after repeated
flexing due to poor fatigue resistance. Sulzer-Ruti Webtester is used to evaluate the fatigue resistance of
sized yarns. The instrument simulates the actual weaving conditions.
UNIT II WEAVING:

INTRODUCTION

The process of producing a fabric by interlacing warp and weft threads is known as weaving. The
machine used for weaving is known as weaving machine or loom. Weaving is an art that has been
practiced for thousands of years. The earliest application of weaving dates back to the egyptian
civilization. Over the years, both the process as well as the machine have undergone phenomenal changes.
As of today, there is a wide range of looms being used, right from the simplest handloom to the most
sophisticated loom.
 HISTORY OF WEAVING

Evolution of Weaving
1. Egyptians made woven fabrics some 6000years ago .
2. Chinese made fine fabrics from silk over 4000 years ago.
3. A shedding mechanism was originally invented in China in the 3rd century and introduced in
Europe.
4. In 12th century, completely wooden hand looms were used as standard designs in England.
5. The developments in the design and performance of looms have taken place during the past 850
years.
6. The fly shuttle, invented in 1733 by John Kay, was hand operated.
7. It was an important cornerstone to improve the productivity.
8. This shuttle, running on four wheels, was moving over the lower side of the warp sheet.
9. Two wooden tenders connected to a small cord commanded by the hand were used to propel the
shuttle. The weaver sitting in the middle of the loom threw the shuttle by pulling the cord very
easily.

Power Looms
1. E.Cartwright invented the power loom in 1785
2. In the early 1800s , looms made of cast iron were operated by power .
3. In the 1830s, there were some 100,000 shuttle looms operating in England.
4. In 1895, many looms, all driven by an electric engine were invented and then became spread.
5. At the beginning of 1930's, eventually, each weaving machine driven individually by an electric
motor was developed, this loom drive concept has remained in use until the present.
Automation
1. The automatic loom stopping system was invented by R.Miller in England in 1796. The loom was
automatically stopped when a short pick occurred.
 2. In 1894 Northrop devised a means for automatic weft replenishment without stopping the loom
which was called automatic loom .
Shedding Mechanisms
1. The first dobby operated by a punched card was invented by B. Bouchone in 1725.
2. A machine controlling bundles of harness cords with healds was constructed by J.M. Jacquard in
1801.
3. The first shuttle change motion enabling weft threads of different colors to be inserted was
constructed by J.P. Reid and T. Johnson in 1835.
4. One significant invention in the field of design was that of Keighley dobby by Hattersley and Smith
in 1867 .
5. Rotary dobbies are manufactured in 1990s.
Weft Insertion Systems
1. Projectile w.m. was invented in 1924by an engineer named Rossmann became commercial in 1953.
2. The first patent for the rapier w.m.was granted in 1898, then followed the Gabler system in 1925
and the Dewas system in 1930. Production of rapier w. m. started in 1972.
3. The first air-jet system was invented in 1914 but it became important commercially after 1980’s.
4. Continuous weft insertion on a circular w.m. was proposed before the end of the 19th century.
5. After mid 90s, multi phase w.m. has showed new developments.
 PASSAGE OF MATERIAL THROUGH PLAIN LOOM

A warp sheet from a weaver’s beam passes around a back rest and is led around lease rods to heald
shafts which are responsible for separating the warp sheet into two layers to form a shed. The purpose of
the back rest and the lease rods is to separate the warp yarns uniformly and precisely, and reduce
entanglement and tension in the yarns during the opening of the warp shed. The warp yarns then pass
through a reed, which holds the yarns at uniform spacing and is also responsible for beating-up the weft
yarn into the fell of the cloth. After the weft is beaten up, the warp yarns interchange positions in the shed
and thereby cause interlacing to be achieved. At this point, cloth is formed and is held firmly by temples
to assist in the formation of a uniform cloth. The cloth then passes over a front rest, around an emery
roller or take-up roller and a guide roller and is finally wound on to a cloth roller.

DETAILS OF VARIOUS PARTS OF THE LOOM

1. Heald shaft: This part is related to the shedding mechanism. The heald shaft is made of wood or metal
such as aluminium. It carries a number of heald wires through which the ends of the warp sheet pass. The
heald shafts are also known as ‘heald frames’ or ‘heald staves’. The number of heald shafts depends on
the warp repeat of the weave. It is decided by the drafting plan of a weave. The main function of the
heald shaft is as follows:
(i) It helps in shed formation
(ii) It is useful in identifying broken warp threads
(iii) It maintains the order or sequence of the warp threads
(iv) It determines the order of lifting or lowering the required number of healds for a pick. In other
words it helps in forming the design or pattern in a fabric.
(v) It determines the warp thread density in a fabric, i.e. the numbers of heald wires per inch determine the
warp thread density per inch.
2. Sley: It is made of wood and consists of the sley race or race board, reed cap and metal swords carried
at either ends. The sley mechanism swings to and fro. It is responsible for pushing the last pick of weft to
the fell of the cloth by means of the beat up motion. The sley moves faster when moving towards the fell
of the cloth and moves slower when moving backwards. This unequal movement is known as
‘eccentricity of the sley’. It is needed in order to perform the beat up and also to give sufficient time for
passage of shuttle to pass through the warp shed. The beat up of the lastly laid pick of weft is
accomplished through a metal reed attached to the sley.
3. Shuttle: It is basically a weft carrier and helps in interlacement of the weft with the warp threads to
form cloth. The shuttle which is made of wood passes from one end of the loom to the other. It travels
along the wooden sley race and passes between the top and bottom layers of the warp sheet. The shuttle
enters a shuttle box fitted at either ends of the loom, after passing through the warp shed. A shuttle
normally weighs about 0.45 kgs.
4. Shuttle box: It is the housing for the shuttle and is made of wood. It has a spindle and a picker. It may
also accommodate the picker without spindle. The top and side of the box towards the sley race are open.
The shuttle dwells inside the box for the intermediate period between two successive picks.
5. Picker : The picker is a piece made either of leather or synthetic material. It may be placed on a spindle
or grooves in the shuttle box. It is used to drive the shuttle from one box to another. It also sustains the
force of the shuttle while entering the box.
6. Reed : It is a metallic comb that is fixed to the sley with a reed cap. The reed is made of a number of
wires and the gap between wires is known as dents. Each dent can accommodate one, two or more warp
ends. The count of the reed is decided by the number of dents in two inches. The reed performs a
number of functions which are enumerated as follows:
(i) It pushes the lastly laid pick of weft to the cloth fell
(ii) It helps to maintain the position of the warp threads
(iii) It acts as a guide to the shuttle which passes from one end of the loom to the other.
(iv) It determines the fineness of the cloth in conjunction with the healds.
(v) It determines the openness or closeness of the fabric. There are various types of reed such as ordinary
reed, gauze reed, expanding reed, V reed etc.

7. Warp beam : This is also known as the weaver’s beam. It is fixed at the back of the loom. The warp
sheet is wound on to this beam. The length of warp in the beam may be more than a thousand metres.
8. Back beam : This is also known as the back rest. It is placed above the weaver’s beam. It may be of the
fixed or floating type. In the first case the back rest merely acts as a guide to the warp sheet coming from
the weaver’s beam. In the second case it acts both as a guide and as a sensor for sensing the warp tension.
9. Breast beam : It is also known as the front rest. It is placed above the cloth roller at the front of the
loom and acts as a guide for the cloth being wound on to the cloth roller. The front rest together with the
back rest helps to keep the warp yarn and cloth in horizontal position and also maintain proper tension
to facilitate
weaving.
10. Cloth beam : It is also known as the cloth roller. The woven cloth is wound on to this roller. This
roller is placed below the front rest.

BASIC MECHANISMS IN A PLAIN POWER LOOM

In order to interlace wrap and weft threads to produce a fabric, the following mechanisms are
necessary on any type of loom:

1. Primary mechanisms
2. Secondary mechanisms
3. Auxilliary mechanisms

PRIMARY MOTIONS:These are fundamental or essential mechanisms in weaving. Without these

mechanisms, it is practically impossible to produce a fabric. It is for this reason that these mechanisms are
called ‘primary’ mechanisms. The primary mechanisms are three in number.
a. Shedding mechanism b. Picking mechanism c. Beat-up mechanism

(a) SHEDDING MECHANISM

The shedding mechanism separates the warp threads into two layers or divisions to form a tunnel known
as ‘shed’. The shed provides room for passage of the shuttle. A shed may be formed by means of tappets,
dobby and jacquard.

Difference of Tappet, Dobby & Jacquard Shedding Mechanism

Jacquard
Topic Tappet shedding Dobby shedding
shedding
Elaborate i.e.
Design Medium i.e.
Simplest structure. very complex
capacity complex structure.
structure.
Theoretically it can
Maximum no. of control maximum Theoretically it
No. of heald heald shaft – 14 . 48, but practically can control any
shaft Theoretically it can for wool no. of no. of warp
control 6-10 heald heald shaft -36 & thread
shaft. for cotton no. of individually.
heald shaft -24.
Speed of loom Very high. High. Slow.
Driver position
Below the loom. Above the loom. Above the loom.
of heald shaft
 For different
For different
For different designs, different
designs, different
Design designs different design of pegging
designed pinched
tappets are fitted to legs are placed on
cards are places
bottom shaft. cylinder/pattern
on cylinder.
drum.
Highly
Cost of fabric Low fabric cost. Expansive.
expensive.
Production More than the
Less production. Less production.
rate dobby.

(b) PICKING MECHANISM : The picking mechanism passes weft thread from one selvedge of the
fabric to the other through the shed by means of a shuttle, a projectile, a rapier, a needle, an air-jet or a
water-jet. The inserted weft thread is known as “pick”.

(C) BEAT-UP MECHANISM : The beat-up mechanism beats or pushes the newly inserted length of
weft thread (pick) into the already woven fabric at a point known as “fell of the cloth”. These three
mechanisms namely shedding, picking and then beat-up are done in sequence.
SECONDARY MECHANISM
These mechanisms are next in importance to the primary mechanisms. If weaving is to be
continuous, these mechanisms are essential. So they are called the ‘secondary’ mechanisms. They are:

Take-up motion
The take-up motion withdraws the cloth from the weaving area at a constant rate so as to give the
required pick-spacing (in picks/inch or picks/cm) and then winds it on to a cloth roller. The main part of
the mechanism is the take up rollers, which draws the cloth at the regular rate, and the number of picks
per inch decides this rate. The take up roller is covered with emery cloth or hard rubber depending upon
the type of cloth woven. The drive to the take up roller is by a train of gear wheels put into motion
directly from the main shaft.

* 5 Wheel take up motion.

* 6Wheel take up motion.
* 7 Wheel take up motion.

Let-off motion
The let-off motion delivers the warp to the weaving area at the required rate and at constant
tension by unwinding it from the weaver’s beam. The secondary motions are carried out simultaneously.
The speed of the servo motor is transmitted to warp beam gear via reduction gear, thus driving beam.

* Positive Let-off motion

* Negative Motion.

Take-up motion Let-off motion

AUXILLIARY MECHANISMS

To get high productivity and good quality of fabric, additional mechanisms, called auxilliary
mechanisms, are added to a plain power loom. The auxilliary mechanisms are useful but not absolutely
essential. This is why they are called the ‘auxilliary’ mechanisms. These are listed below.
 a. Warp protector mechanism
b. Weft stop motion
c. Temples
d. Brake
e. Warp stop motion (Predominantly found in automatic looms)

a. Warp protector mechanism: The warp protector mechanism will stop the loom if the shuttle
gets trapped between the top and bottom layers of the shed. It thus prevents excessive damage to
the warp threads, reed wires and shuttle.

b. Weft stop motion: The object of the weft stop motion is to stop the loom when a weft thread
breaks or gets exhausted. This motion helps to avoid cracks in a fabric.

c. Temples: The function of the temples is to grip the cloth and hold it at the same width as the warp
in the reed, before it is taken up.

d. Brake: The brake stops the loom immediately whenever required. The weaver uses it to stop
the loom to repair broken ends and picks.

e. Warp stop motion: The object of the warp stop motion is to stop the loom
immediately when a warp thread breaks during the weaving process.

UNIT III

Classification of Weaving Machines:

Weaving machines are classified according to their filling insertion mechanism. The classification is as
follows:

1. Shuttle
2. Shuttle-less

 Projectile
 Rapier
 Air-Jet
 Water-Jet

Most looms used for production are shuttleless looms. These looms employ various other devices to bring
the filling yarn through the shed. With shuttleless looms the yarn comes directly from cones placed at the side of the
loom. Once the filling yarn is brought across the loom, the yarn is cut, often leaving a fringe at the edges of the
fabric. Except for the means of transporting the yarn across the shed, the steps in the weaving pro- cess are the same.
The main devices used to insert the filling yarn across the shed are referred to as projectile, rapier, jet, or
multiphase.
Shuttleless looms available in today’s marketplace operate at speeds that produce fabric at a high rate
of productivity. They are designed to function using dif- ferent fiber contents, yarn counts, structures, and
modi- fications. They must be energy efficient, quiet, and compact in space usage. They are equipped
with state of the art electronics, including internet-ready touch screen terminals. Although the use of
shuttle looms is very limited, they have been used to produce authentic denim for vintage looking
garments.

Shuttle Weaving
In shuttle weaving, a shuttle that traverses back and forth across the loom width, inserts the filling.
Shuttles can be made of wood or plastic. Filling yarn is wound on the quill and the quill is placed in the
shuttle. As the shuttle move across the loom, the filling yarn is unwound from the pirn and lay in the shed.

Fig: Basic Weaving Mechanism

Projectile Weaving
Projectile weaving machines use a projectile equipped with a gripper to insert the filling yarn across the
machine. The gripper projectile draws the filling yarn into the shed. The Projectile glides through the shed
in a rake- shaped guide. Braked in the receiving unit, the Projectile is then conveyed to its original
position by a transport device installed under the shed.
Projectile Loom A projectile loom uses a projectile to insert the filling yarns. A projectile is a small, light
grip- per device (about the size of a pocketknife) that is pro- pelled across the loom, pulling the filling yarn
behind it. It can utilize a range of filling yarns and produce fabrics at a variety of widths. The range of
widths usually falls within 190 centimeters (75 inches) to 540 centimeters (213 inches). It is used to produce
denim and sheeting. This loom also can produce fabric up to 18 feet (5.49 meters) wide and is used for
the production of carpet.
Since the projectile loom drags the filling yarn across the width of the loom, a strain is placed on
the filling yarn. Thus this method is not suited for weaving with weak or fragile filling yarns. This loom is
ideal for fabrics to be made of medium weight to coarse or bulky yarns, as well as yarns made of hard
fibers, such as jute, and fabrics to be made of metal threads.
With a production of only 400 ppm and limited versatility, projectile looms are being replaced by air-
jet and rapier looms.

Fig: Projectile Weaving

 Rapier Weaving
In Rapier weaving, a flexible or rigid solid element, called rapier, is used to insert the filling yarn across
the shed. The rapier head picks up the filling yarn and carries it through the shed. After reaching the
destination, the rapier head returns empty to pick up the next filling yarn, which completes the cycle. A
rapier performs a reciprocating motion.

Picture: Weft insertion by rapier

Rapier weaving machines can be of two types:

1. Single Rapier Machines: A single, rigid rapier is used in these machines. The rigid rapier is a metal
or composite bar usually with a circular cross section. The rapier enters the shed from one side, picks up
the tip of the filling yarn on the other side and passes it across the loom width while retracting. Therefore,
a single rapier carries the yarn in one way only and half of the rapier movement is wasted. Also there is
no yarn transfer since there is only one rapier. The single rapier’s length is equal to the width of the loom.

2. Double Rapier Machines: Two rapiers are used in these machines: one rapier, called the giver, takes
the filling yarn from the yarn accumulator on one side of the loom, brings it to the center of the machine
and transfers it to the second rapier which is called the taker. The taker retards and brings the filling
yarn to the other side. Similar to the single rapier machines, only half of the rapier movements are used
for filling insertion.

Air-Jet Weaving
The air jet weaving machines are the weaving machines with the highest weft insertion performance and
are considered as the most productive in the manufacturing of light to medium weight fabrics, preferably
made of cotton and certain man-made fibers (sheets, shirting fabrics, linings, taffetas and satins in staple
yarns of man-made fibers); it has anyway to be pointed out that technically positive results are obtained at
present also with heavy weight fabrics (denims) and that some manufacturers produce also machine
models for terry production.

With air-jet looms, the initial propulsion force is provided by a main nozzle. Relay nozzles along the shed produce
additional booster jets to help carry the yarns across the loom.
Air-jet looms are used for spun or filament yarn fabrics such as those found in men’s outerwear, sheet- ing,
and denim. It has a speed of 1,000 ppm and up. Widths vary from 190 centimeters (75 inches) to 540
centimeters (213 inches).
 Fig: Air-Jet Weaving

These machines are the ideal solution for those who want to produce bulk quantities of customized fabric
styles. The weaving widths range generally from 190 to 400 cm. As regards the multicolor weft carrier, up
to 8 different wefts can be fed. It has however to be considered that the air jet weaving machines require a
high energy consumption to prepare the compressed air and that this consumption rises definitely with
increasing loom width and running speed. The reduction in the energy consumption is in fact one of the
main concerns of the manufacturers, and builds for the user an important selection criterion.

Water-Jet Weaving
A water-jet weaving machine inserts the filling yarn by highly pressurized water. The relative velocity
between the filling yarn and the water jet provides the attractive force. If there is no velocity difference,
then there would be no tension on the yarn results in curling and snarling of the yarn. Water-jet weaving
machine can only be used for hydrophobic fibers.

With water-jet looms, there is only a main nozzle to provide the propulsion of the filling yarn. These looms require
large amounts of clean water without minerals in it to produce efficiently.
Because wet fabric cannot be stored in a roll, water- jet looms are equipped with efficient drying units. These units
use vacuum suction and heat to remove the water from the fabric. Water-jet looms are best suited for weaving filament
yarns made of hydrophobic fibers, such as nylon, although they can handle some blends, such as
polyester/cotton. These looms cannot be used with yarns made of fibers that lose strength when wet (e.g., rayon).
yarn package
projectile

yarn package
single rapier

yarn package double rapier

(yarn has been transferred)

yarn package
air or water jet

air or water jet

 UNIT IV NON WOVEN

INTRODUCTION -

Johnson and Johnson became involved in nonwovens in the1930s. After 12 years of

experimentation its nonwovens department became part of Chicopee Manufacturing Corp. The first
nonwovens were introduced in 1942. Viscose rayon was used to make a wide range of products including
bed pads, surgical towels, disposable diapers, sanitary napkins, and wiping cloths. In the 1970s water jets
were being used to bond fibres together to make surgical gauze.

The name nonwoven fabric is unfortunate because it initially suggests that these fabrics are made
by any processes other than weaving/knitting. Actually, nonwoven are defined as textile materials made
directly from fibers and held together as a fabric by adhesives, heat fusion (if thermoplastic fibers) or
through entanglement of the fibers. These materials are generally flat, flexible, porous sheet structures
with high surface areas-to-weight characteristics. Nonwovens are unique, high-tech, engineered fabrics
made from fibres and which are used across a wide range of applications and products. Nonwovens are
innovative, versatile and indispensable. Modern life would be quite literally impossible without them.

In combination with other materials or used alone, nonwovens are used in a wide range of
consumer and industrial products with diverse properties , including absorbent hygiene products, apparel,
home furnishings, healthcare and surgical fabrics, construction, filtration, engineering, and wipes to
name but a few.

NON WOVEN (INTERLINKING OF FIBRES)

 Definition of nonwovens by EDANA

“A nonwoven is a sheet of fibres, continuous filaments, or chopped yarns of any nature or origin, that
have been formed into a web by any means, and bonded together by any means, with the exception of
weaving or knitting.”

According to EDANA wet laid webs are considers

as nonwovens, provided they contain
 A minimum of 50% of manmade fibres or
other fibres of non vegetable origin with a
length to diameter ratio equals or superior to
300, or
 A minimum of 30% of man-made fibres with a
length to diameter ratio equals or superior to
600,
 The maximum apparent density of 0.40 g/cm³.
PRODUCTION PROCESS: The production of nonwovens can be described as taking place in
three stages, The three stages are:

STAGE 1:Web Formation

1) Drylaid
i. Carded-
a. Parallel laid,
b. Cross laid,
c. Crisscross laid
ii. Airlaid- d Random laid

2) Spunmelt
i. Spunlaid (or spunbonded)
ii. Meltblown

3) Wetlaid

4) Other technologies
i. Electrostatic spinning
ii. Flash spun

STAGE 2:Web Bonding

1) Chemical –
a. Impregnating
b. Coating
c. Spraying
2) Thermal –

a. Calendar bonding.
b. Through-air thermal bonding.
c. Drum and blanket systems.
d. Sonic bonding.

3) Mechanical-
a. Needlepunching
b. Hydro-entanglement
c. Stitchbonding

STAGE 3: Finishing Treatments

1) Flame retardant,
2) Water repellent,
3) Conductive,
4) Porous,
5) Antistatic,
6) Breathable,
STAGE 1 : Web Formation –

1) Dry laid: Carded Nonwoven

Carded nonwoven is manufactured by dry web laying process. And card is the key
machine for manufacturing the web. Card is a rotating drum or series of drums covered in fine
metallic wires or teeth. This is a mechanical process starting with the opening of fibre bale, which
are then blended & transported to the next stage by air transport. After that, the fibres are
untangled into a web by a carding machine. The exact design of cards depends on the fabric
weight and fibre properties desirable.

a) PARALLEL-LAID WEB:

To produce Parallel-laid web, 4 or more carding machines are arranged one after
another in continuous manner. The web from the first carding machine is fall on conveyor belt
placed below the carding machines and move forward. Vice versa web from the second, third and
fourth carding machine are superimpose with each other. i.e web from all carding machines are
placed one above another with correct length and width & bonding is carried to produced
Parallel-laid web.

Advantages:

 In the parallel-laid webs, the fibres are laid in a lengthwise orientation. This implies that
this type of web has greater strength in the lengthwise direction than the transverse direction.
 The number of layers in the web decides the number of cards required.

Disadvantages:

 Web width depend upon carding machine width.

 Max 12 cards can be used, so heavy weight fabrics cannot be produced.
Parallel-laid web:

b) CROSS-LAID WEB:

Cross-laid webs are generally made by cross lapper which takes the web from the
card at a specific rate. The cross-laid web is laid in several layers with an oscillator carriage on a
take-off belt by means of a conveyor belt arrangement. Here the take-off belt moves at right
angles(90o) to the carriage discretion.

Advantages:

 Able to produce web of 15 metres width.

 To achieve a desired fabric weight,
 Achieve random orientation of fibre, in the web, for incorporating better strength.
 Carded nonwoven fabrics characteristics

 Characteristics of web made from cared dry laid process

 Unique physical properties i.e., elongation in the X, Y & Z direction for moldable applications,
 Ability to attach layers of different type of fiber webs to produce composites,
 High opacity per unit area,
 High strength makes them overwhelming choice for geotextiles fabric,

 Characteristics of fabric made from carded nonwoven dry laid process

The fabric made from this process should have

 High density
 Good Absorbency capability
 High Strength Modulus
 Soft in feel
 Well Drape-ability
 Lint free
 Contains Excellent cover factor
 Uniformity
 Bulky property
 Ease Printability
 Durable fabrics

Application:This process is used to manufacture:

 Needle punch geotextiles, which are used in functions like

 separation,
 filtration,
 reinforcement,
 drainage
 Needle punch carpets, which are used in passenger cars as flooring material.
 Spunlace fabrics have a wide use in various applications such as
 Baby Wipes,
 Household Wipes,
 Industrial Wipes,
 Consumer remoistened wipes
 Cosmetic Cotton pads,
 surgical gowns,
 drapes,
 operation cover sheets
 Other Miscellaneous Applications
 Headliners, Insulation Felts, etc.
 d) Airlaid Nonwoven Fabrics:

 Air-laid technique is invented by Karl

kroyer. This technique produces paper by
means of air instead of water. And the
products that are made from this technique
provide special characteristics such as
absorbing quality & environmental
benevolent.
 In air laid process the fibers are brought
into an air flow and from there to a moving
belt or perforated drum, where they shape a
randomly leaning web.

Working:

Raw material from inclined lattice passes below the perforated drum. Perforated drum is
connected to suction system. Fibre web passed in between perforated drum and set of rollers is
compressed and it is fed to the opening roller. Perforated drum and set of rollers are called Rando
loader, which feeds uniform fibre layer to the opening roller, is mounted with metallic wire clothing.
Opening roller opens the fibrous web and opened fires are then deposited on the condensers uniformly.
Two condensers form a composite web. Thus altering the amount of material fed and speed of opening
rollers, condenser can produce fibre web varying from 0.1mm to 5 cm thickness.
Advantages:

 Fibrous web produced by this machine has equal strength in all directions due to fibres
are arranged in random manner.
 Isotropic structure of the web
 Voluminous webs can be produced
 Wide variety of process able fibres such as natural, synthetic, glass, steel, carbon., etc
 Air-laid webs had a lower density & a higher softness contrast to the carded webs.
 Air-laid webs also put forward an immense adaptability in terms of the fibers and fiber blends that
can be bring into play.

Disadvantages:

 Low level of opening fibre material by licker-in

 Variable structures of web in width of layer due to irregular air flow close to walls of duct
 Possible entanglement of fibres in air stream

Air laid nonwoven fabrics characteristics

 It should be soft in feel.

 It should have greater tear resistance and tensile strength, particularly when wet.
 Superior in absorbency

Application:

The applications of air laid nonwoven fabric are

 Baby wipes
 Wet hand wipes
 Household cleaning wipes and mops
 Industrial wipes (dry and wet)
 Napkins
 Dinning table covers
 Catering paper
 Food Pads
 Female napkins
 Adult Incontinence diaper
 Baby diapers
 Wound Pads
 Moisturized Toilet Paper
 Sweat Pads
STAGE 2; WEB BONDING

As soon as the web is formed it has a little strength which doesn’t match the requirement
of the customers. So it becomes very necessary to bond the web & for that method many choice are
available. The main criterion of choice of any web bonding technology entirely depends on the
functional properties. There are three basic types of bonding:

a) Chemical bonding b) Thermal bonding c) Mechanical bonding

2.a) CHEMICAL/ADHESIVE BONDING NONWOVEN:

As the name implies, the bonding between fibres is accomplished by adding adhesives
substances like PVA, PVAC, PVC & Acrylic. Most commonly used bonding agents are in polymer
dispersions (emulsion in winter). Some of the polymers can be in powder & paste forms. The web is
made by dry laid process, both carded & air laid is used. The resin in the emulsion form may be
applied by any of the following application techniques for bonding the web.

 Saturation bonding
 Spray bonding
 Foam bonding
 Melt bonding

SATURATION BONDING;

Mostly dry laid webs are used for Saturation bonding. Because, light weight web only able to
processes in Saturation bonding. (Max 1 sq/meter & 50 gm weight) Dry laid web is feed to adhesive
filled trough & immersed fully in adhesives. Then web is squeezed by nip rollers to remove extra
gums, at the same time due to compression fibres are bonded together and form non-woven fabric.
SPRAY BONDING:

In this method, adhesives are spray on web surface. The web formed from two web
forming machines is passed under adhesive powder sprinkling nozzles. Both the adhesives sprinkled
webs are combined together and passed over the delivery conveyor. From the delivery conveyor, the
web is passed in between pressing heated calendar rollers. The adhesive powder melts by heat and gets
sticked with the web. Then the re-inforced web is passed in between cooling drums where it is cooled
and then finally wounded on take-up roller as non-woven fabric.

SPRAY BONDING:

Application of chemical bonded nonwoven fabrics:

 Apparel interlinings
 Automotive trim
 Carrier fabrics
 Coating substrates
 Filter media
 High loft Bedding products
 High loft Furniture applications
 High loft Pillows
 Home kitchen washing cloth
 Medical nonwovens
THERMAL BONDED NONWOVEN:

 In thermal bonding, the controlled heat is applied for bonding the non-woven fabrics.
 There are several thermal bonding systems in use:

1) Calendar bonding
2) Through-air thermal bonding
3) Drum and blanket systems
4) Sonic bonding

i) Thermal calendar bonding:

Web is passed between two controlled heat calendar rollers. Heat energy is being used to
stimulate an adhesive, which in turn flows to thermoplastic fibre juncture and interlocks the fibres upon
cooling. The bonding agent may be individual fibres portions of individual fibres, or powders.
Advantages of thermal bonding comprise low cost and the wide accessibility of binder materials and
machines. In addition, this type of bonding is applied to raw materials, which are thermoplastic (for e.g.
polypropylene, polyester chips etc.) in nature. Here a low melt fibre or bicomponent fibre is introduced
at the web formation stage to perform the binding function later in the process but the web fibre itself
can be used. Recently the use of thermal bonding is more popular than chemical bonding for medium
weight nonwovens production.

Application of Thermal Bonded nonwoven fabrics:

 Sanitary napkins,
 Baby diapers and
 Incontinence diapers
 Gowns,
 Face masks, Caps,
 Filtration Material, Agriculture, Headliners, etc
 MECHANICAL BONDING

In mechanical bonding the strengthening of the web is achieved by inter-fibre friction as

a result of the physical entanglement of the fibres. There are two major types of mechanical bonding:

 Needle punching
 Hydro-entanglement
 Stitch bonding

NEEDLE-PUNCH NONWOVEN :

The needle punch process is illustrated in fig. Needle punched nonwovens are created by
mechanically orienting and interlocking the fibers of a spun bonded or carded web. This mechanical
interlocking is achieved with thousands of barbed felting needles repeatedly passing into and out of
the web.

WORKING:

Web is feed from conveyor belt to in-between the stripping grid and supporting grid. The
stripping grid and supporting grid are provided with holes. The needle board is the base unit into
which the needles are inserted and held. The needle board then fits into the needle beam that holds the
needle board into place. The needle board has got approximate 40 needles per square inch. As the
needle board moves up and down the blades of the needles penetrate the fiber web. Barbs on the blade
of the needle pick up fibers on the downward movement and carry these fibers the depth of the
penetration. The inter bonding is achieved by means of a system of barbed or serrated needle which
penetrates the web to and fro and seizes the fibre strands usually 10 to 20 fibres and pull it through a
web later. The draw roll pulls the web layer through the needle loom as the needles reorient the fibers
from a predominately horizontal to almost a vertical position. The more the needles penetrate the web
the more dense and strong the web becomes generally. Beyond some point, fiber damage results from
excessive penetration.
Characteristics of the needle punch web:

 Excellent puncture and penetration resistance

 High interface friction angles
 Thickness ensures long-term filter stability
 High water permeability
 High abrasion resistance
 Weights range from 70 g/m² to 1200 g/m².

Application of needle-punch nonwoven fabrics:

Needle punch geotextiles are used in functions like

 Separation,
 Filtration,
 Reinforcement,
 Drainage & erosion control and
 Find applications in roads, railways, air runways, coastal shore protection, etc.
 Needle punch carpets: They are used in passenger cars as flooring material.

NON-WOVEN FABRIC PROPERTIES

Nonwoven fabrics have various functions such as

1. Stretch ability,
2. Flame retardancy,
3. Wash ability,
4. Strength,
5. Absorbency,
6. Liquid repellency,
7. Resilience,
8. Softness,
9. Cushioning,
10. Filtering,
11. Bacterial barrier and
12. Sterility.
APPLICATION OF NONWOVENS
1. AGRO TEXTILES 7. MEDICAL TEXTILES

 Agro bags  Artificial skin

 Agro Protective Garments  Bandages
 Frost protection covers  Caps

2. BUILDING TEXTILES 8. AUTOMOBILE TEXTILES

 Architectural Composites  Auto hose Fabric

 Awnings  Boot liners
 Canopies  Cabin filters

3. CLOTHING TEXTILES 9. OEKO TEXTILES

 Clean room garments  Industrial Hazardous waste disposal products

 Interlinings  Other Oekotech Applications
 Labels  Solid waste disposal Products

4. GEO TEXTILES 10. PACKAGING TEXTILES

 Geomembranes  FIBC
 Nonwoven Geotextile  Food packaging fabric
 Other Geotech Applications  Other Packtech Applications

5. HOME TEXTILES 11. PROTECTIVE TEXTILES

 Blanket  Chemical Protection

 Blinds  Dust protection fabrics
 Composites  Electrical protective clothing

6. INDUSTRIAL TEXTILES 12. SPORTS TEXTILES

 Abrasives Fabrics  Artificial turf

 Battery separator fabric  Boat cover
 Cigarette filter