Unit-3

WATER STORAGE AND DISTRIBUTION

REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

(i) To supply water at sufficient pressure head.

(ii) To supply requisite quantity of water for fire fighting.

(iii) Cheap with least capital (construction) cost. The cost of installation of
distribution system is about 70% cost of water supply projects.

(iv) Simple, easy operation and repair. RMO cost and troubles should be
minimum.

(v) Safe against future pollution of water. Water lines should be laid away from
drainage and sewerage lines.

(vi) Safe and should not cause failure of pipelines by bursting.

(vii) Water should be available even during breakdown periods.

(viii) Water-tight and leakage losses should be minimum.

(ix) No obstruction of traffic during repairs.

STORAGE AND BALANCING RESERVOIRS

• Storage Resevoirs - store the treated water until it is pumped into the service
reservoir or distribution reservoirs.

The capacity of storage reservoirs should be 14 to 16 hours of average daily

flow.

• Distribution Reservoirs - provide storage to meet the widely fluctuating

demands, for fire-fighting and during emergencies.

Distribution Reservoirs serve the following purposes:

(i) They absorb the hourly variations in demand.

(ii) The pumps can be run at constant rate.

(iii) Reduction in pipe sizes, pumps and treatment units (economical)

(iv) They serve as storage for emergencies such as fire/ failure of pumps/
bursting mains etc.

(v) They maintain desired pressure even in remote areas.

(vi) Operation of distribution system becomes very easy.

Types of Storage and Distribution Reservoir:

1. Surface Reservoirs

2. Elevated Reservoirs

3. Stand Pipes

1. Surface Reservoirs (Ground Reservoirs)

• Made of masonry or concrete; circular or rectangular; constructed at ground

level or below the ground level.

• Lining is provided with concrete or asphalt to check leakage of water. tonis

• They are constructed at high points in the city to achieve gravity flow.

• Sometimes pumps are used to convey water from surface storage reservoirs to
muminin elevated distribution reservoirs.
The reservoir has two or more compartments to facilitate cleaning and repair.

• Overflow pipes are provided at full supply level to maintain constant water
level.

• Ventilators are provided at roof slab for free circulation of air.

• The sludge settled in the reservoir due to storage of water is removed through
washout pipes.

• The cement concrete floor is sloped towards the central washout pipes.
doidwaysb msbo

2. Elevated Reservoirs (Overhead Tanks)

• Rectangular, circular or elliptical tanks.

• Supported on towers at suitable elevation above ground level.

• Used where pressure requirements are high.

• Used where combined gravity and pumping system of distribution are adopted.

• Water is pumped into these elevated reservoirs from surface reservoirs and
then supplied to consumers.

• These tanks are made of RCC, steel, stone masonry or prestressed concrete
• Steel tanks corrode and have short life.

• Masonry tanks require very heavy supporting towers.

• Hence, RCC overhead tanks are preferred as they are cheaper, do not corrode
iiguous band requires less maintenance.

• Intze type RCC tank is popular due to its structural stability and economy.
bai Juodas leineo odi abawat beg

• Prestressed concrete elevated tanks are also preferred in modern days, which
gives considerable savings in steel and concrete.

• The elevated reservoirs are provided with top roof cover to avoid
contamination of water.

• Other accessories of elevated reservoir are:

(i) Inlet pipe for entry of water

(ii) Outlet pipe for supplying water to distribution mains.

(iii) Overflow pipe to maintain constant water level.

(iv) Float gauge for indicating depth of water.

(v) Wash-out pipe (drain pipe) for removing settled sludge.

(vi) Ladders and manholes for cleaning and inspection.

(vii) Ventilator for fresh air circulation.

3. Stand Pipes

• They are elevated tanks without towers.

• They are tall cylindrical shells resting on ground.

• They are 15 to 30 m high and 10 to 15 m in diameter.

• They are made of RCC or Steel

• RCC stand pipes are not used for heights above 15 m as it cannot bear the high
stresses.

• Stand pipes are provided where high heads are required.

• Like elevated reservoirs, stand pipes are also provided with inlet pipe, outlet
pipe, wash-out or drain pipe, overflow pipe, manholes, ladders etc.

• The storage volume of the cylindrical tank includes an upper portion (useful
storage) which is above the discharge pipe and a lower portion (supporting
• The entire capacity of tank can be used during fire-fighting or by locating the
stand pipes on hills or high grounds.

Location of the Distribution Reservoirs

Following points are considered in deciding the location of distribution

reservoir :

(i) They should be centrally located to have maximum command of the area.

(ii) They must be near to the area of distribution.

(iii) They should be located on high grounds/ elevations to maintain adequate

pressure.

(iv) They should be close to the places of heavy demands to reduce the head
losses.

(v) Located so as to reduce the length of pipelines and friction losses.

(vi). The distribution reservoir may be located in two ways:

(b) Placed at farther end of distribution area.

In the former case (a) elevation of reservoir is high, length of pipeline is less
and head loss is less.

In the latter case, (b) it is vice versa. However, the total head for pumping will
remain the same for both cases.

STORAGE CAPACITY OF DISTRIBUTION RESERVOIRS

The total storage capacity of a distribution reservoir is the total of

1. Balancing storage (or equalising or operating storage)

2. Breakdown storage.

3. Fire storage

1. Balancing or Equalising Storage:

• The primary function of a distribution reservoir is to meet the fluctuating

demand.
• The quantity of water required to be stored in the reservoir for balancing the
variable demand is called balancing storage of the distribution reservoir.

• This can be found by following methods :

(a) Hydrograph Method.

(b) Mass curve Method.

(c) Analytical Methods.

(a) Hydrograph Method :

• The water demand is not constant and varies hourly.

• The demand is more during peak hours in the morning and evening. A

• A hydrograph of hourly demand for maximum day is shown in figure 3.5.

• The pumping rate i.e. mean of hourly demand is shown by line PQ.

• The storage is obtained by determining the shaded area between curve BE and
line PQ.

(b) Mass Curve Method:

A mass curve is the cumulative demand curve which is obtained by
continuously adding the houly demands of the maximum day and plotting
against time.

Figure 3.6 shows the mass demand curve CAB plotting it against hours of
maximum day.

• CAB curve continuously rises.

• Steepness of curve indicates high rate demand.

• Flatness of curve indicates low rate demand.

• Line CD is the cumulative pumping at uniform rate (join ends C&D)

• Draw tangents through the lowest point A and highest point B parallel to line

CD.

• The highest vertical distance BE between the twe

• At 6 AM there is excess supply = AA' which should be stored.

• At 8.30 PM there is deficit (BB') which must be drawn from storage

Therefore, Storage = Morning excess AA' + Evening deficiency BB'

S = Ep+ Ed

Where S = Storage capacity required

Ep = maximum excess supply through pumping

Ed = maximum excess demand (maximum deficiency)

(c) Analytical Method

The cumulative hourly demand and cumulative hourly supplies are tabulated for
24 hrs. The summation of maximum excess demand and the maximum excess
supply gives the balancing storage.

2. Breakdown storage (Emergency storage)

• It is the storage for emergencies due to pump failure, power failure and during
repair works.

• It is difficult to determine this storage as it depends upon the frequency and

extent of failures.

• Generally, 25% of total storage capacity of reservoir or about 11⁄2 to 2 times

average hourly supply may be considered as breakdown storage.

3. Fire Storage:

• This storage is required for fire fighting, which depends on the chances of fire
and duration of fire.

• The National Board of Fire Under Writers (America) recommends that the
reserve should supply water for 10 hours for fire fighting in communities of
6000 people and for 8, 6 and 4 hours in places with 4000, 2000 and 1000 people
respectively.
• For 10 hours of fire fighting per day, the volume of water required to be stored
should be 2 million litres.

Fire reserve is determined from the formula :

R = [F-P] T

P = reserve fire pumping capacity, litres/min

T= duration of fire, minutes.

McDonand has suggested the following expression

Where,

R = total storage capacity (million litres)

D= average domestic demand for maximum month (MLD)

F = fire demand (MLD)

P = Pump capacity (MLD)

a,b = Coefficients; 0.2 and 0.1 respectively.

Problem 5.1:

A town with a population of one lakh is to be supplied with water daily at 200
litres per head. The variation in demand is as follows
Determine the capacity of service reservoir assuming pumping at uniform rate
and the period of pumping to be from 6 am to 6 pm.

Neglect fire demand.

Solution:

Total daily requirement = 1,00,000 x 200 litres = 2 x 107 litres = 20 ML

(a) Analytical Solution

Max. excess demand = 3 ML

Max. excess supply = 5 ML

Total storage = 3+5 = 8ML

(b) Mass curve method

Graph is plotted between time and cumulative demand.

Pumping rate = 20 ML /12 hr = 1.667 ML | hr

The supply curve is drawn with slope as 1.667 ML/hr. Maximum ordinates are
found between supply and demand lines.

Storage = 3 ML + 5 ML = 8 ML
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM - LAYOUT
The different types of distribution networks are:

1. Dead end system

2. Grid iron system

3. Ring system (circular)

4. Radial system

1. Dead-end system (Tree system)uun

• There is one main supply pipe, from which a number of submain pipes take off
at right angles.

• Each submain divides into several branch pipes (Laterals)

• From lateral, service connection are given to consumers.

• Used for older towns with irregular expansion, without properly planned
roads.

• Water pipes are randomly laid which leads to formation of number of dead
ends.
• As there are no cross connections between the branches, submains and laterals
etc. sediment accumulation and water stagnation occurs in the dead ends.

Advantages:

• Distribution network can be easily solved. Discharges and Pressures at

different points can be easily and accurately calculated.

•i8 Requires lesser number of cut-off valves (sluice valves)

• Shorter pipe lengths are needed and laying of pipes is easier.

• Cheap, simple, can be extended/expanded easily.

Fig. 3.7 Dead End or Tree system

Disadvantages:

• Damage or repair in any pipeline completely stops water supply to that area.
Greater inconvenience to consumers.
• Numerous dead ends. Stagnation of water leads to degradation of water
quality.

• Periodic removal of stale water at dead ends is required by providing scour

valves. Greater wastage of treated water.

• Supply is only in one direction. Supplies for fire fighting cannot be increased
by diverting supplies from other side.

2. Grid-Iron system / Interlaced / Reticulation system

• Mains, sub-mains and branches are all inter-connected with each other. In a
well-planned city/town, roads are properly developed and the pipelines can
follow a grid-iron pattern.

• This system is suitable for well planned cities like Chandigarh.

• There are no dead ends and water remains in continuous circulation.

Advantages:

• Since water reaches different places from different routes, the discharge,
friction loss, and pipe size are reduced.

• During repairs very small area is affected. Some supply will still reach the area
from other route.

• Due to the inter-connections, dead ends are eliminated. Water remains in

continuous circulation, which prevents stagnation, pollution and sediment
deposits.

• During fire, more water can be diverted towards the affected area by closing
the cut off valves.

Disadvantages:
• Requires more pipe length and large number of sluice valves (cut off valves).

• Costlier construction

• Design is difficult and costlier. Calculations for determing the pipe size,
discharge, velocities and pressures are tedious and may require design experts
and computers.

3. Ring System/ Circular system

• A closed ring either circular or rectangular, of the main pipe is formed around
the area to be served. The distribution area is divided into rectangular or circular
gniadlo blocks. The main pipes are laid on the periphery of these blocks.

• Suitable for Towns and Cities having well planned roads.

• Used in combination with grid iron system to increase the capacity and
pressures (zovla at various points.

• Advantages and Disadvantages of this system are same as grid iron system.
4. Radial system (Reverse of circular)

• Suitable for city or town having radial roads emerging from different

• The distribution reservoirs are placed at these centres.

• Water from the water mains is pumped into the distribution reservoirs placed
at different centres. Water is then supplied through radially laid distribution
pipes.

• This method ensures high pressures and efficient water distribution.

• The calculations for design of pipe sizes are also simple.

Methods of Distribution
• The main objective of distribution system is to develop adequate water
pressure at the consumer's taps.

• Depending upon the level of the source and the distribution area, topography
of the area and other local conditions; water distribution is done in the following
ways:

1. Gravitational system

2. Pumping system

3. Combined gravity and pumping system.

1. Gravitational system

• This system is adopted when the source (lakes or reservoirs) are at high leve
and the distribution area or consumers are at low level.

• Water flows from high level to low level under gravity.

• Economical and reliable system, since no pumping is required.

• Economical and reliable system, since no pumping is required..

• However, sufficient head should be available to maintain adequate pressure a

the consumer's end after allowing frictional losses in pipes.

• Suitable for cities located at the foothills.

Example :Mumbai city is supplied from lakes situated in the hills.

• Leakage and wastages are minimum.

• Size of pipes is reduced for a given discharge.

• Pumping is required only during fires to increase pressure.

2. Pumping System (Pumping without storage system)

• Treated water (without storage) is directly pumped into the distribution mains.

• High lift pumps are required to be operated at variable speeds to meet the
water demand.

• Continuous supervision is required at pumping station.

• During power failures, there will be complete stoppage of supply.

• During fires, large volume of water can be forced at high pressure. But, in case
there is a fire during power breakdown, it will be a disaster.
3. Combined Gravity and Pumping System

• The treated water is pumped at a constant rate and stored into an elevated
disribution reservoir.

• From the elevated reservoir, water is distributed to the consumers, by gravity.

• The system is also called as pumping with storage system; which combines
gravity flow and pumping.

• The excess water during low demands is stored in the reservoir and is supplied
during high demand periods.

• The pumps are operted at constant speeds at their rated capacities which
increases efficiency and reduces wear and tear. Supervision is also not required.

This system is universally adopted, because of the following advantages:

• The reserve water in the distribution reservoir can be supplied for fire fighting.
Pressure required for fire fighting can be achieved by closing down supply to
some localities or by using pumps. (mm)

• The pumps operate at uniform rate at their rated capacities, which increases
their efficiency and reduces wear and tear.

• Supervision is not required for operating the pumps.

• Reliable system. Water can be supplied from storage reservoirs during power
or pump failure.

• Cheap, efficient, reliable and universally adopted.

HYDRAULICS OF PIPE LINES

(i) The bed of pressure conduits should be as far as possible near HGL
(Hydraulic M (ii) atibo gradient line).

Otherwise the increased pressure in pipes necessitates thicker and stronger pipes
which will increase the cost.

(ii) Hydraulic Gradient Line should generate sufficient velocities. The velocity
should be non silting / non-scouring. (0.9 m/s to 1.5 m/s)

(iii) Structural stability

(iv) Economical construction

(v) Head loss due to pipe friction.

(vi) Loss due to changes in flow geometry i.e., change in pipe size, bends,
valves etc.

Head Loss formulae:

(i) Darcy-Weisbach formula (friction flow)

HL =hf = Head Loss due to pipe-friction in metres (m)

L = Length of pipe in m.

D = Diameter of pipe in m

V = Velocity of flow in m/s

f' = dimensionless friction factor

o = Acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m2/s)

k = roughness projection (mm)

Re = Reynolds number

(ii) Manning's formula - For gravity conduits and turbulent flow in pressure
conduit

For circular pipe with full flow

n = Manning's rugosity Coefficient.

L = Length of pipe in (m)

V = Flow velocity (m/s)

R = Hydraulic mean depth of pipe

(iii) Hazen-William's formula

V = 0.85 CH R0.63 $0.54

CH = Coefficient of hydraulic capacity (refer Table 2.3)

For Smoother pipe CH is greater

R = Hydraulic mean depth of pipe in m.

For Circular pipe, R=d/4

S = Slope of energy line

Limitations of Hazen-william's formula

(i) The co-efficient CH is not dimensionless. Its value varies.

(ii) CH is independent of friction conditions (pipe diameter, viscosity, velocity,

roughness and Reynold's number etc.)

Hence, Hazen William's gave a modified formula

Problem 3.1:
Determine the size of a supply conduit for serving a small town of population
25,000. Also find the hydraulic gradient at which the pipeline is proposed to be
laid. Assume datas wherever required.

Solution:

Population = 25,000

Assume the average daily consumption of water (per capita demand) as = 120
/ped.

= Population × per capita demand

= 25,000 × 120 /ped

= 3 x 106 l/d = 3 MLD

Maximum daily demand

= 1.8 x Average daily demand

= 1.8 x 3 MLD

= 5.4 MLD

(a) To find the diameter of pipe.

Water Supply and Waste Water Engineering

Assume flow velocity in pipes as 1.2 m/s. Consider the conduit as circular.

Q = AV

Where,

Q = Discharge (m3/s)

A = Area of cross-section (m2)

V = flow velocity (m/s)

0.063 m3/s = A x 1.2 m/s

A = 0.063 / 1.2

A = 0.0525 m2

For circular conduit

Provide 25 cm diameter pipe

(b) To find Hydraulic gradient?

Use Hazen-William's formula

Assume CH = 110

Problem 3.2:

In a water supply system to be designed for serving a population of 4 lakhs, the

storage reservoir is situated at 8 km away from city and the loss of head from
source to city is 16 meters. Calculate the size of supply main by using Weisbach
formula as well as by using Hazen's formula assuming a maximum daily
demand of 200 litres per day per person and half of the daily supply to be
pumped in 8 hours. Assume coefficient of friction for the pipe material as 0.012
in Weisbach formula and CH = 130 in Hazen's formula
Solution:

Maximum daily per capita demand = 200 lpcd

Population = 4,00,000

Maximum daily water demand = Population x per capita demand

= 4,00,000 × 200 lpcd

= 80 × 106 1/d

= 80 MLD

Maximum water demand for which supply main is to be designed

80×24/2 × 1/8 = 80×12/8 MLD=120 MLD

(Since half the daily supply is pumped in 8 hrs)

Q=120 MLD: = 120×106 /103 × 24 × 60 × 60 m3/s=1.39m3/s

Now, Q = 1.39 m3/s, L = 8 km = 8000 m, HL = 16m

(a) Using Darcy-Weisbach formula

Use the nearest standard available pipe diameter (i.e. 1.25 metre diameter)

(b) Using Hazen-William's formula

PIPE FITTINGS
Requirements of jointing material

(i) Imperviousness

(ii) Elasticity

(iii) Strength

(iv) Durability

(v) Adhesiveness

(vi) Workability

(vii) Economy

(viii) Availability
Different types of joints are:

(i) Spigot and socket joint

(ii) Flanged joint

(iii) Mechanical joint or Dresser coupling

(iv) Flexible joint

(v) Expansion joint

(vi) Simplex joint

(i) Spigot and Socket joint

• Used in Cast Iron pipes

• The C.I Pipes are made with one end normal and other end enlarged.

• Normal end is called the spigot end.

• Socket accommodates the spigot end

• The spigot is fitted into the socket

• Jute or yarn is packed into the joint

• The hemp or sterilised yarn maintains alignment.

• Molten lead heated at 400°C is poured and caulked into the joint

• This joint is flexible but requires skilled labour.

(ii) Flanged joint

• Used in CI pipes cast with flanges at both ends.

• Used in pumping stations and filter plants where disjointing of pipe may
required occasionally.

• Two flanges are joined with rubber washer (gasket) and fixed by nuts or bolt

• The joints are strong but rigid.

• Expensive

• Cannot withstand vibrations.

(iii) Mechanical joint or Dresser coupling

• Used to join the plain ends of CI pipes

• A metallic collar is fitted and tightened over the pipe ends, to form Mechanic
Joint.
• An Iron ring and gasket are slipped over the pipe ends and an iron sleeve is
inserted between the gasket. The iron rings are tightened by bolts to form
dresser coupling.

• They are strong and rigid joints

• They can withstand vibrations, useful for pipes over or below bridges.

(iv) Flexible joint

• Used where greater flexibility is required.

• Used when pipes are laid in rivers with uneven beds, where large scale
settlements may break ordinary joints.

• Used while laying pipes on curves.

• The CI pipes are casted such that the socket is spherical and spigot has bead at
the end.

• A retainer ring is placed over bead which keeps gasket in position.

• A split cast iron gland ring is then placed and tightened by bolts and nuts.
(v) Expansion joint

• They are provided at suitable intervals in the pipe lines, to counteract the
thermal stresses due to temperature variations. (expansion and contractions).

• The cast iron pipes are casted such that the socket end is flanged and spigot
end is plain.

The socket end is connected rigidly to an annular ring which can slide freely
over the spigot end.

• A small space is left between the spigot and socket, which is filled by a rubber
gasket.

• Flanges are tightened by nuts and bolts.

• During expansion, the socket moves forward and the

• During contraction, the socket moves backward and creates gap.

• The annular ring follows the movement of socket

• The Gasket always remains in position and maintains water tightness

(vi) Simplex joints

Fig. 3.19 Simplex joint for Asbestos cement pipes.

• Used in asbestos cement pipes.

• A sleeve is fitted over the plain ends of pipes.

• Two rubber rings are compressed between the sleeve and pipe barrels.

• The joints are both flexible and water tight.

Appurtenances in Distribution System

The following appurtenances are required for the efficient functioning of the
distribution network.

1. Valves

2. Fire hydrants

3. Water Meters

4. Water Taps

5. Stop Cocks

6. Pipe Bends etc.

1. Valves

PIPE APPURTENANCES

Appurtenances in water distribution system.

(i) Sluice valve (or) Gate valves

(ii) Air valves

(iii) Scour valves

(iv) Relief valves

(v) Reflux valves

(vi) Altitude valves

(i) Sluice valve or gate valve

• Used to regulate the flow of water through pipes.

• Useful for carrying out repair works in pipelines.

• They are known as Shutt off or Stop valves to shut off the supply in water line,
whenever required.

Provided at 150 to 300 m spacing and on street corners, intersection of

pipelines. low cost and offer no resistance to flow. Placed at summits.

• Mode of cast iron with brass bronze, stainless steel mounting.

• Type (i) Solid-wedge type, (ii) double-disk type

• The valves are joined to pipe ends by standard joints.

• The valve has a wedge shaped circular disc connected to a wheel (handle) by
threaded spindle.

• The Valve is raised or lowered by rotating the wheel-manually or

mechanically. .

• Head loss through the valve increases when size of valve is less.

(ii) Air valve (Air relief valve) (Air inlet valve)

• The water flowing through the pipe lines always contain air.

• This air accumulates at high points and may interfere with the flow. Thus air
relief valves are provided at summit on both sides of the sluice valve (or) on
downstream of sluice valves to remove the accumulated air.

Air inlet Valves on the other hand, admits air into the pipe when the pipe is
emptied.
• Single orifice air valve is the commonly used air valve which acts both as an
air-inlet valve as well as an air-relief valve.

• It consists of a cast iron chamber (circular/ rectangular), a lever and a poppet

floating valve. The chamber is fitted to the pipe top. When chamber is filled
with water under pressure, the float touches the roof of chamber and valve
closes. But, when air accumulates at top and pressure builds up, the water level
gets depressed, the float sinks and valve opens. The air escapes out and the
process is repeated.

• These valves also act as air-inlet valves. When the pressure decreases to
negative, the float drops and valve opened admitting air in pipe to
counterbalance the negative pressure.

The poppet valves are automatic and can function both ways.
(iii) Blow off valves/ Drain valves/ Scour valves

• The valves are provided at low level points for completely emptying pipe for
inspection or repairs.

• When opened, water flows out under gravity through these valves into sump or
channels which can then be pumped out.

• They also remove sand and silt deposited in pipe line. They are operated
manually.

• However, it should be ensured that there is no direct connection between the

valve and nearby sewers or drains, to prevent possible pollution into water
pipes.

(iv) Pressure relief valves (Safety valve) (Cut off valves)

• Reduces the water hammer pressure in pressure pipes

• When pressure in pipes exceeds a certain value, the valves automatically

opens out and small quantity of water flows out of pipe reducing the pressure.
When the pressure drops to the desired valve, the valve automatically closes.

• Located on upstream of sluice valves. Due to the sudden closure of sluice

valves, positive water hammer pressure may develop on the upstream side,
which is reduced by pressure relief valves.

• Located at suitable intervals in water line to function during emergencies due

to pressure rise beyond design valve and help in protecting pipe joints and pipes
from bursting.
(v) Check valves or Reflux valves (Non-return valves)

• It is an automatic device installed on the delivery side of pumping unit.

The valve prevents back flow of water when pump is stopped, thereby
preventing damage to the pump.

• Check valves, ensure that water flows in one direction only.

• Check valves also reduce the water hammer pressure on the pump.

• The valve consists of a flat disc fixed within the pipeline such that, it is forced
open when flow is in one direction and forced shut when flow tries to reverse.

(vi) Altitude Valves

• Used in lines that supply water to elevated tanks or stand pipes.

• They close automatically when the tank is full.

• They automatically open when pressure on the pump side is less than on the
tank side of the valve.

(vii) Manholes

• Provided at suitable intervals along the water line for Inspection and Repairs.
• Provided at 300 to 600m spacing in Steel, Hume steel and RCC pipes.

(viii) Insulation Joints

• Provided at suitable intervals along the pipe line to insulate the pipe against
flow of stray currents.

• Rubber gaskets or rings (insulators) are provided in the pipelines to resist the
flow of current.

(ix) Anchorages

• At bends, due to unbalanced pressures, the pipes may move out of alignment
and the joints gets loosened causing leakage and pipe failure.

• Similarly, the pipes laid at steep slopes tend to slip away. In such cases, the
pipes are embedded or anchored in massive blocks of concrete or masonry to
absorb the side-thrusts.

2. Fire hydrants

• A fire hydrant is an outlet provided in a distribution main or sub main (i.e.

pipe of 15 cm Φ) for tapping water during fire and sometimes used for filling
the municipal water tankers.

• They are provided at street crossings or turnings at 90 to 120m interval.

• During fire outbreaks, the fire hydrant is connected to a fire hose or fire engine
ydaior to discharge large quantity of water at high pressure.

• Such high pressures are developed by attaching the fire hydrant to the fire
engine.

• The fire engine boosts the water pressure within the engine.

• The high pressure water is then discharged out through the hose pipe attached
to the outlet of fire engine.
• The pressure developed is atleast 32 m water head.

Water Pressures at the fire hydrants should be:

(i) Using Motor pumps - 7 to 14 m head of water

(ii) Direct flow from fire hydrant - 35 to 50 m head of water

Requirements of good hydrant are:

• Easy to connect hose or motor pump

• Cheap

• Easily detectable during fire

• Provide undisturbed water flow

• Not get out of order during operation.

Types of fire hydrants:

(i) Flush fire hydrant

Installed underground in brick or CI chamber with top cover above the street
level. They are less prone to damage. But they are not easily detectable during
fire. This type of hydrant is widely used in India.

(ii) Post fire hydrant

Its like post standing 0.9 to 1.2 m above ground and can be easily detected but it
can be damage.

• It consists of a barrel of cast iron, connected to water mains.

• A valve stem; with leather valve at lower end and handle on upper end is
provided; to regulate the flow. When closed; leather valve rests against the
valve seat.
• For opening the hydrant, the Nut/ handle is rotated so as to raise leather valve
thereby allowing water inside the barrel.

• Based on the number of outlet openings,. they are classified as one-way, two-
way, three-way or four-way hydrants.

• Usually 2 outlets are provided. One connected to hose; when pressure boosting
is not required. Other connected to fire engine or pumps; when boosting is
required.
3. Water Meters

Measures the quantity of water flowing under pressure through pressure

conduits in order to charge the consumers.

Requirements of good water meter:

• It should Record all discharges

• Maintenance and repair should be easy

• Minimum error in measuring discharges (less than 20%)

• Work efficiently at all pressures

• Minimum hindrance to flow (Min. head loss)

• Parts should not be damaged by chemicals present in water

• 200Prevent backflow and should not be liable to clogging.

Types:

(i) Velocity/Inferential Meters

(ii) Positive/Displacement Meters

(i) Velocity / Inferential meters

• It measures horizontal flow velocity (V)

• Discharge through the meter is computed by

Q=A x V

Where, A = Area of flow cross-section

• Automatic arrangements are made to record the discharge directly over a

period of time

• They can measure high flows

• Widely used in Industries / Trade

• They can be used for measuring raw and sedimented water.

• They are not used for small domestic supplies, as their occuracy is less during
low flows.

Types of Velocity Meters:

a) Rotary meters

b) Turbine meters

c) Venturi meters

a) Rotary meter
• Consists of radial vanes attached to a shaft, enclosed in a casing.

• When water passes through the meter, radial vanes are rotated in clockwise
direction, which revolve the shaft.

• The number of revolutions per unit time depends on flow velocity.

• The velocity of flow and discharge is proportional to speed of shaft.

• The meter is calibrated to directly read the discharge or the total discharge
over a period of time.

b Turbine meter

• Similar to rotary meter

• Consists of a rotary turbine wheel which is rotated by moving water.

• The number of revolutions made by turbine wheel gives the discharge.

c) Venturi meter

• Follows the Bernoulli's principle.

• Used for raw water and measuring high flows in large pipes with minimum
head loss. It is not suitable for low flows.

• It consists of a gradually contracting pipe with a throat section and a

expanding pipe section.
• Piezometers are inserted at normal end and throat and the levels are noted.

• The Discharge through the pipe is proportional to the difference of head

between two piezometers.

Advantage and Disadvantage of velocity meters over positive displacement

meters:

• Cheaper, light and require lesser head.

• Less accurate

• Installed only on horizontal pipes.

(ii) Positive or displacement meters

• More accurate and they measure the quantity of passing water by counting the
number of times the meter chamber is filled and emptied.

• Quantity of flow over a given period of time = Capacity of meter chamber x

number of times of filling and emptying.

Types:

(i) Reciprocating type

(ii) Oscillating type

(iii) Disc type (common)

• The Disc type meter consists of a disc placed inside a chamber provided with
inlet and outlet.
• When water enters the chamber, the disc oscillates with a spiral motion.

• One revolution means one complete filling and emptying of chamber.

• The discharge is recorded automatically by the revolution of gears.

• This meter is widely used for measuring small flows in residential houses.

ANALYSIS OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

Conditions to be satisfied in pipe networks:

• The Algebraic sum of pressure drops around a closed loop must be zero. (i.e.
no discountinuity in pressure)

• The flow entering a junction must be equal to the flow leaving the same
junction. i.e. law of continuity must be satisfied.

Pipe networks are solved by the following methods:

(1) Hardy - Cross Method

(2) Equivalent Pipe Method

1. HARDY-CROSS METHOD

• This method is based on the principle of "Law of Continuity". i.e. at any

junction, Inflow = Outflow

• The flow in each pipe is assumed.

• A correction to the assumed flow is computed successively for each pipe loop
in the network, until the correcton is reduced to an acceptable magnitude.

If Q = assumed flow, Q = actual flow, then correction A is given by sub divendr

∆=Q–Q
• Algebraic sum of head losses in various pipes in closed loop is computed with
assumed flow.

• Correction A is found for each loop

• Assumed flows in each pipe are corrected.

• Pipes common to two loops will receive both corrections with due attention to
sign.

The Procedure adopted in Hardy Cross method is as follows:

• The Distribution system is divided into 2 or more loops, such that each pipe in
network is included in atleast one loop.
• Assume any internally consistent distribution of flow. The sum of flows
entering 02 2 bor any junction must be equal to the sum of flows leaving that
junction. no (INFLOW OUTFLOW)

• Compute head loss in each pipe by equation or diagram. Conventionally,

clockwise flows are positive and vice versa.

• With due attention to sign, compute total head loss around the circuit. EKQ2

• Compute without regard to sign, for the circuit, the sum of

• Apply corrections obtained from Equation 1 and 2 to the flow in each pipe.
Pipes common to two loops will receive both corrections with due regard to
sign.

Problem 3.3:

Determine the distribution of flow in the pipe network. The Head loss H1 may
be assumed as KQ". The flow is turbulent and pipes are rough. The Value of K
for each pipe is shown in figure. Use Hardy Cross method.

Solution:
Problem 3.4:

Calculate the head losses and the corrected flows in the various pipes of a
distribution network shown in figure. The diameters and the lengths of the pipes
used are given against each pipe. Make use of Hardy-Cross method with
William Hazen's formula. Compute the corrected flows after two corrections.
Solution:
EQUIVALENT PIPE METHOD:
• In this method, a complex network of pipes is replaced by a single
hydraulically equivalent pipe.

• The equivalent pipe is one which will replace a system of pipes with equal
head loss for a given flow.

The two hydraulic principles used in this method are :

(i) The Head loss through the pipes connected in series (AB-BD) is additive.

(ii) The flows (discharge) through the pipes connected in parallel (ABD-ACD)
is distributed such that the head losses are identical.

For solving the pipe network, any head loss formula can be used.
Let DE - Diameter of equivalent pipe

LE=Length of equivalent pipe

L, D = represent length and diameter of pipes in the network

Note: For Hazen williams formula x = 4.87, a = 2.63, b = 0.54

For the flow network shown in figure.

Pipes in Series

Length of equivalent pipe for pipe AB and BD in series is given by:

Total head loss = summation of individual head loss.

Pipes in parallel (pipes ABD and ACD)

Problem 3.5

Find the equivalent length of 30 cm dia pipe for the network shown in figure
using (a) Darcy's formula, (b) Hazen Williams formula.
Solution:

(a) Darcy's formula

(b) Hazen Williams formula

Problem 3.6:

Find the equivalent length of 30 cm dia pipe for the network shown in Figure.
Use Hazen Williams formula.
Solution:

Using Hazen Williams formula [x = 4.87, n=1.85]

Let the discharge in loop BCD be Q1 and BED be Q2

Q = Q1 + Q 2

(a) For the equivalent pipe BD,

(b) Equivalent length for AB,

(c) Equivalent length for DF,

LEAKAGE DETECTION IN UNDERGROUND

DISTRIBUTION PIPES
Leakage detection methods:

(i) By direct observation

(ii) By using sounding rods

(iii) By plotting hydraulic gradient line

(iv) By using waste detection meters.

1. By direct observations :

• Wet soft spots on unpaved ground, grasses, emergence of springs at odd places
indicates leakage from underground pipes.

• Such indications will be available when pipes are laid below loamy or clayey
soils.

• However, direct observation is difficult in sandy soils.

2. By using sounding rods :

• A sharp pointed metal rod is thrust into the ground along the pipe line and
pulled up for inspection.

• Its moist or muddy point indicates leakage.

• The sound of escaping water can be heard by placing the ear on top of the
inserted rod or by using magnifying instruments -aquaphone or sonoscope.

• The sound hearing should be done during night hours.

3. By plotting hydraulic gradient line

• The pressures at various points along a suspected pipeline are measured and
the HGL is plotted.

• Any kink or change in slope of the HGL will indicate the location of leakage.

4. By using waste detection meters

• These meters measure the unusually high flows passing through the water
mains during periods of low consumption (during night or early morning)

• The unusual flow indicates leakage.

• This test is conducted during night hours.

Method: The suspected locality is isolated.

• The supplies to all other areas are closed down except the suspected area.

• The meter is fitted at the head of main supply pipe and flow is recorded.

• The laterals and branches of the locality are progressively shut off.

• The shut off that indicates a large disproportionate drop in flow indicates
leakage.

• Steps are taken to rectify the defects.

Deacon's waster water detection meters are widely used as they are sensitive
and accurate. The water passing through the meter forces down a brass disc
which moves a pencil point up and down on a graph paper mounted on a drum.
It automatically records the discharge of water.

DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS & THEIR MAINTENANCE

Introduction
Even if the water source for your small water system is of pristine quality, if the
distribution system is not maintained or is in a state of disrepair, the quality of
water may deteriorate before it reaches the customer.

The focus on this section is on the safe delivery of water. We will discuss the
following:

Delivery of water

• Some common issues and hazards that must be avoided

• Sampling and monitoring

• Operations and maintenance

• Easements

• Leak detection and water loss

• Water metering

• The importance of a cross connection control program

Delivery of Water

The primary function of any water distribution system is the transportation of

drinking water safely to the consumer. The water source may originate from a
well, river, lake or spring. In order to ensure the water is safe to drink (potable),
it is usually treated to remove bacteria, viruses or parasites, and dissolved
minerals that may cause illness in humans. As the water flows through the
distribution system, there are a number of components that keep the system
operational. These include reservoirs, pumping stations, fire hydrants, air
valves, gate valves and piping networks, each of which is described below.

The reservoir stores water for higher demand flows, such as for fire
emergencies, and peak domestic flows, such as when people are getting ready
for work in the morning and returning home later in the day. The reservoir also
acts as a buffer in maintaining constant flow and pressure of water in the
distribution system. For small water systems, pneumatic tanks are typically used
instead of large reservoirs, as they, too, are capable of supplying and keeping up
with the water demand. The tanks are generally not sized to provide fire flow.
The minimum storage should be equal to the average daily consumption or the
storage calculated to meet CT disinfection requirements, whichever is greater. A
pressure switch regulates the amount of water to be stored in order to maintain a
constant pressure in the distribution system.

Pumping stations are added to the distribution system to maintain pressure and
delivery of water to uphill areas and reservoirs.

Air valves are devices that allow air to be introduced into the distribution pipe
when a vacuum may be created. A vacuum can potentially damage the pipe or
stop the water and is to be avoided. The air valves are located at high points in
the distribution system.

Gate valves are added throughout the distribution system, so sections can be
isolated for water main work and the water flow can be throttled for pipeline
repair. They are type of valve that uses a flow control element shaped like a
sliding gate to block flow, often used as isolation valves:

Pipe networks' efficiency is affected by both the materials used and the layout.
Pipe material is crucial for the efficient delivering of water. The smoother the
interior of the pipe, such as with PVC pipes and ductile iron, the less friction
there is. Also, the less twists and turns in the pipe, the more efficient the
delivery of water.

Common Issues & Hazards

The greatest concerns for the safe delivery of water are loss of pressure, loss of
chlorine residual and cross contamination.

Loss of pressure may result from a water main break, fire flow or inoperable
pumping stations, due to power failure.

Loss of chlorine residual can be caused by a number of factors:

Source water quality: Water that is high in organic or inorganic matter will use
up the chlorine residual faster than water that is lower in organic matter.

Residency time:

The more time the water spends in storage and distribution, the more chlorine
residual is used up. Long residency time can result from low water usage, dead
ends in the distribution system and poor turnover in the reservoir.

Reaction with pipe materials: Some pipe materials (e.g., iron) can react with
chlorine, ghini resulting in loss of the residual.

Biofilm growth:

Biofilm is a large colony of microorganisms that grown on pipe walls within the
distribution system that will use up the chlorine residual.

If low chlorine residual is detected, you should flush the system until the
residual is re-established. If chlorine levels continue to drop below an
acceptable level, the cause should be investigated. Operators may consider
increasing the disinfectant dose if that is not effective.

Cross contamination from the exterior environment into the water main may
occur if there is a leak or opening in the pipe. Standard practice is to maintain a
minimum water pressure of 20 psi to prevent the potential of cross
contamination.
Bacteriological contamination and microbiological growth is also a concern. It
may be introduced through a cross connection (more on cross connections at the
bottom of this section) or failure to adequately treat the water at source.

Operations & Maintenance

It is essential that all equipment for operating and maintaining the distribution
system is exercised (i.e., tested or used) on a regular basis. This ensures the
water flow is minimally disrupted in the event of an emergency or during
regular repair work. For example, in the event of a water main leak, valves can
be easily operated if they were previously located and exercised. If a valve is
not exercised, it may seize up or become difficult to turn, making the repair
work much more difficult. Other challenges that may occur if the equipment is
not regularly maintained include the failure of a backup generator to start in the
event of a power failure or of a hydrant to deliver adequate water flow in an
emergency.

Timing of Maintenance

• Hydrants and valves should be evaluated and exercised at a minimum once per
year. If a hydrant is used, it should be evaluated afterwards.

• Backup generators should be tested each month.

• Pumps should undergo maintenance as per the manufacturer's

recommendation.

• Dead end mains should be flushed on a routine basis to maintain water quality.

• Water reservoirs should be evaluated annually and cleaned every 3 to 5 years,

based on sediment collection on the bottom.

Easement

An Easement or Right of Way (ROW) is a strip of land on private property that

acts as a corridor for water mains, sanitary sewers and/or storm mains. With an
easement, a legal agreement exists between the landowner and the utility to
provide 24/7 access for operating, maintaining or repairing any component that
requires attention. The minimum widths of these ROWS are generally 3 metres.
Typically, the width is determined by 2 X depth of pipe + width of trench
excavated. For example, if the top of the pipe is 1 m from the ground surface
and the trench width is 1 m, the result is 2 X 1m depth of pipe + 1 m excavation
trench = 3 m ROW width.

Leak Detection & Water Loss

Most water systems experience approximately 10% leakages and/or

unaccounted water use. This may be from water main leaks, unaccounted water
use from a property (running toilet or hoses), or illegal use of a fire hydrant.

Leaks may have originated from weakened joints or fitting connections or from
a damaged or corroded part of the pipe. If unresolved, leaks may undermine
pavement or other structures, resulting in damage. Perhaps the greatest concern
is that the leak will soak the ground surrounding the pipe and, in the event that
pressure is lost in the pipe, the water, combined now with dirt and other
contaminates, may backflow into the pipe. If a water system is metered, leak
detection is easier to detect. Operators should try to isolate parts of the
distribution system and pressure test. Once an area for the water loss is
determined, specially trained personal use leak detection equipment to pinpoint
the area. They typically use sound-intensifying equipment in a systematic
fashion to locate leaks. Preliminary methods of locating leaks include damp
spots or water seepage in the vicinity of mains or services

Water Metering

Water metering establishes a user pay system, which ensures equity and fairness
for water consumers. If a water system is unmetered and users pay a flat rate,
there may be inequity if a neighbour uses more water for their green house and
swimming pool and another one uses only water within the home.

The cost/benefit for establishing a metering program may be more beneficial for
a large municipal system versus a smaller system, due to the lower dollar cost
averaging for installation and maintenance of the meters. For smaller systems, it
may be more beneficial to maintain a flat rate system (unmetered) and ensure
users use water responsibly.

Cross Connections
In order to ensure the safe delivery of water to users, any potential cross
connections with contaminated sources need to be addressed. This includes
simple threats, such as leaving the garden hose in a pool or hot tub or leaving it
connected to a pesticide dispenser. Any loss of pressure (negative pressure)
from water delivery may turn the hose into a vacuum and draw the
contaminated water into the plumbing system. More complex threat include a
direct connection of an irrigation system to a water supply without the barrier of
a backflow preventer, or the direct connection of the water to a chemical supply.
The backflow preventer contains a spring-loaded valve that closes if the water
flows in reverse, hence isolating the contaminated source from the water supply.
In order to protect drinking water from all potentially contaminated sources, a
cross connection control program should be instituted.

PUMPING STATION

Introduction

Pumping stations are either as in-line for lifting the sewage from a deeper
sewer to a shallow sewer or for pumping to the STP or the out fall. They are
required where low lying development areas cannot be drained by gravity to
existing sewerage infrastructure, and/or where development areas are too far
away from available sewerage infrastructure to be linked by gravity. The O&M
of pumping systems presented here applies to all such types of pumping
stations.

Types and Structure of Pumping Stations

The type of pumping stations can be (a) Horizontal pumps in dry pit, (b)
Vertical pumps in dry pit, (c) Vertical pumps in suction well and (d)
Submersible pumps in suction sump. All these types include a sewage-receiving
sump, which is called suction sump or wet well. These types of pump
arrangements are shown in Figure 3.29.
Dry Pit

The size of the dry pit should be adequate for the number of pumps planned and
should be such as to handle the sewage load at the desired pumping capacity.
Allowance should also be made for future requirements of additional or larger
pumps. In the configuration, (a) separate dry pit and wet well are required: one
to hold the sewage, and one to house the pumps and appurtenances. This option
is required for installations where the pumps will otherwise need separate
priming and where-as otherwise long suction pipes are needed. It is typically
used to pump large volumes of raw sewage, where uninterrupted flow is critical
and sewage solids could clog suction piping. It is also used to pump solids in
pipe galleries between digesters or other solids-handling equipment. While
construction costs may be higher and a heating, ventilation and cooling system
is necessary when installed below the floor level, this configuration is best for
O&M activities because operators can see and touch the equipment.

Suction Sump or Wet Well

Sewage sump is a compartment or tank in which sewage is collected. The

suction pipe of a pump may be connected to the wet well or a submersible pump
may be located in the wet well. Sewage sump design depends on the type of
pumping station configuration (submersible or dry well) and the type of pump
controls (constant or variable speed). Wet wells are typically designed to
prevent rapid pump cycling but small enough to prevent a long detention time
and associated odour release.

Sewage sumps should always hold some level of sewage to minimise odour
release. Bar screens or grinders are often installed in or upstream of the wet well
to minimize clogging problems. Instead of manually operated screens at the
bottom, which requires the staff to get down into the screen sump, it is better to
install mechanical bar screens, which can automatically remove the screenings
and lift the same safely above the ground level. There can also be two such
screens one after the other for coarse screenings and fine screenings. This will
require rectangular channels to maintain longitudinal non-turbulent linear flow.

Lift Stations

In general, lift stations are invariably used in gravity sewer network where
depth of cut of sewers poses a problem in high water prone areas. The
procedure is to sink a wet well on the road shoulder or an acquired plot after the
shoulder and divert the deeper sewer there. The submersible pump will lift the
sewage and discharge it to the next on line shallow sewer. This is a very useful
practice in such locations. Equipment located in the wet well should be
minimized, including suction and discharge valves, check valves, or other
equipment that require routine, periodic maintenance. This equipment can be
located in separate and suitable dry pits located adjacent to the wet well to
facilitate accessibility and maintenance for the operator.

Operation and Maintenance

Pumping machinery is subjected to wear & tear, erosion and corrosion due to its
nature of functioning, and therefore it is vulnerable to failures. Generally,
failures or interruptions are mostly attributed to pumping machinery rather than
any other component. Therefore, correct operation and timely maintenance and
upkeep of pumping stations and pumping machinery are of vital importance.
Sudden failures can be avoided by timely inspection, follow up actions on
observations of inspection and planned periodical maintenance. Downtime can
be reduced by maintaining inventory of fast moving spare parts. Obviously due
attention needs to be paid to all such aspects for efficient and reliable
functioning of pumping machinery.
Operation of the Pumps

The following points should be observed while operating the pumps.

A. Dry running of the pumps should be avoided.

B. Centrifugal pumps if installed with negative suction should be primed before

starting.

C. Pumps should be operated only within the recommended range of the head
discharge characteristics of the pump. If pump is operated at a point away from
duty point, the pump efficiency normally reduces.

• Operation near the shut-off point should be avoided, as it causes substantial

recirculation within the pump, resulting in overheating of sewage in the casing
and consequently, overheating of the pump.

D. As far as possible positive suction is to be provided to avoid priming during

design itself.

E. Voltage during operation of the pump-motor set should be within ±10% of

the rated voltage. Similarly, current should be below the rated current shown on
the name plate of the motor.

F. When parallel pumps are to be operated, the pumps should be started and
stopped with a time lag between two pumps to restrict change of flow velocity
to minimum and to restrict the dip in voltage in the incoming feeder and should
be adequate to allow the pump head to stabilise.

When the pumps are to be operated in series, they should be started and stopped
sequentially, but with minimum time lag. Any pump next in sequence should be
started immediately after the delivery valve of the previous pump is even partly
opened. Due care should be taken to keep open the air vent of the pump next in
sequence, before starting that pump.

H. The stuffing box should allow a drip of leakage to ensure that no air passes
into the pump and that the packing gets adequate wetness for cooling and
lubrication. When the stuffing box is sealed with grease, adequate refill of the
grease should be maintained.
I. The running of duty pumps and standby pumps should be scheduled so that
no pump remains idle for a long period and all pumps are in ready-to-run
condition. Similarly, the running schedules should be ensured so that all pumps
do not wear equally needing simultaneous overhaul.

If any undue vibration or noise is noticed, the pump should be stopped

immediately and the cause for vibration or noise should be checked and
rectified.

K. Generally, the number of starts per hour shall not exceed four. Frequent
starting and stopping should be avoided as each start causes overloading of
motor, starter, contactor and contacts. Although overloading lasts only for a few
seconds, it reduces the life of the equipment.

L. Troubles in a sewage pumping station can be mostly traced to the design

stage orbonio itself. This is all the more true when too much grit is likely to
come into the sewage pumping stations from sewage at monsoon time, which is
difficult to handle. Hence, sewers should not collect any storm water.

Undesirable Operations

The following undesirable operations should be avoided:

A. Operation at higher head

A pump should never be operated at a head higher than the maximum

recommended head otherwise such operation may result in excessive
recirculation in the pump, and overheating of the sewage and the pump. Another
problem that arises if a pump is operated at a head higher than the
recommended maximum head is that the radial reaction on the pump shaft
increases causing excessive unbalanced forces on the shaft, which may cause
failure of the pump shaft. As a useful guide, appropriate marking should be
made on the pressure gauge. Efficiency at a higher head is Blu normally low
and such an operation is also inefficient.

B. Operation at lower head

If a pump is operated at a lower head than the recommended minimum head, the
radial reaction on the pump shaft increases causing excessive unbalanced forces
on the shaft, which may cause premature wear of bearings and possibly shaft
failure if qra persisted. As a useful guide appropriate marking should be made
on both pressure gauge and ammeter. Efficiency at a lower head is normally
low, hence such an operation is inefficient. In such cases, it is advisable to
throttle the delivery side valve to create more head to work within safe head.
This will also reduce the power. If this is a design flaw additional head has to be
created at tail end by elevating the delivery. However, these are not energy
efficient solutions; change of impeller to suit the actual head is the solution.

C. Operation on higher suction lift

If a pump is operated on suction lift higher than the permissible value, pressures
at the eye of impeller and the suction side fall below vapour pressure. This
results in flashing of sewage into vapour. These vapour bubbles collapse during
passage, resulting in cavitation in the pump, causing pitting on the suction side
of impeller and casing, and excessive vibrations. In addition to mechanical
damage due to pitting, pump discharge also reduces drastically.

HOUSE SERVICE CONNECTION

A typical water connection, connecting the service pipe and municipal water
main is shown in figure.

The water connection consists of:

(a) Ferrule - It is a right angle sleeve made of brass or gun metal and is joined
to a hole drilled in the water main and is screwed down with a plug. Its size
varies between 10 to 50 mm dia.

(b) Goose neck - A small size curve pipe made of flexible material usually lead,
about 75cm length forming a flexible connection between the water main and
the service pipe.

(c) Service pipe - Galvanised iron pipe < 50mm dia laid underground in a
trench. The service pipe is connected to the municipal main through the goose
neck and ferrule.
(d) Stop cock - Provided before the water meter in the house. It is housed in a
masonry chamber with removable cover and fixed in the street close to the
boundary wall.

(e) Water meter - Measures/ records the quantity of water consumed in the
house. It is connected to service pipes by union joint. It is fixed inside iron box
fitted Jooqe in cavity made in boundary wall of house and covered with
movable iron cover.

Stop cocks

• It is a screw down type sluice valve fitted in small sized (< 50mm) pipes for
opening or stopping the supply.

• They are provided at the water entrance of each building or within the
building.

• They should be enclosed in cast iron box having a hinged cover. Water
passes basis through an orifice when the valve is raised. When the valve is
closed, it rests on the seat, thereby closing the orifice.
Water taps/Bib Cocks :

• They are provided at the end of service pipes through which water is
withdrawn by the consumers.

• The common type of water tap is the Bib cock.

• By rotating the handle, the orifice opens and water passes out through the
spout.

• They can be fitted in pipe size from 10 to 15mm dia.

Bib cocks may also be of push type. It opens with a slight push vertically
upward and closes down automatically under self weight.

• Bib cocks should be water-tight and should not leak.

• The rubber or leather washers used in them should be replaced as and when
needed.

Pipe fittings :

Fittings are used in making service connections.