Social Marketing

Social Marketing shows how marketing techniques can be used to social ends and tackle the
immense challenges humankind faces. Social inequalities have driven popular revolts, from
Black Lives Matter to Brexit, the climate is in crisis, and COVID-19 has highlighted power imbal-
ances across the globe. In these turbulent times, this fourth edition will arm you with:

•• Fresh content on climate breakdown, inequality and diversity, public health and poverty

•• The critical capacity to analyse the origins, workings and future of our economic system

•• Contemporary case studies from around the world demonstrating how change happens

•• Reflective questions and critical thinking tasks to aid understanding

This popular introductory textbook has been fully updated to enable you to challenge the bad,
champion the good and enact meaningful change. If you already have marketing know-how, then
it will help you apply this in a health, social and ecological context. If you come from a social sci-
ence, public health or ecological background, and have little knowledge of marketing, it will intro-
duce you to its key principles and give you the chance to apply these ideas in familiar settings.

Gerard Hastings is a Professor Emeritus at Stirling University, where he founded the Institute for
Social Marketing and Health (ISMH). His research and teaching focus on the impact of marketing
on society – both for good and ill. This has involved him in advising government and civil society
nationally and internationally and publishing widely in both academic and non-academic out-
lets. His latest book Hyperconsumption is published by Routledge. In 2009 he was awarded the
OBE for services to health care. In 2014 he accepted the Queen’s Anniversary Prize on behalf of
the University of Stirling for ISMH’s critical marketing research.
Christine Domegan, B.Comm, MBS, PhD, is a Personal Professor of Social Marketing at the
University of Galway, Ireland. Christine is an Honorary Professor at Stirling University in Britain
and Adjunct Professor of Marketing at Griffith University in Australia. Christine is the Research
Leader for the Applied Systems Thinking investigating systems-thinking social marketing for
systemic change and stakeholder engagement through a multidisciplinary lens and leading an
EU LIFE IP grant for climate action with national partners in relation to large-scale regenera-
tive peatlands, people and policies. She teaches sustainable marketing and social marketing at
undergraduate and postgraduate levels, including extensive PhD supervision, as well as topics
such as marketing research. Award-winning publications appear in Journal of Macromarketing,
Canadian Medical Association Journal, BMJ open, Marketing Theory and European Journal of
Marketing. Christine is European Editor of Journal of Social Marketing.
S o cial M a rket in g
P rin ci pl es and P r a c t i c e
for Del i v er i ng G lo b a l
Ch ange

Fourth Edition

Gerard Hastings and

Christine Domegan
Designed cover image: Tina Claffey
Fourth edition published 2023
by Routledge
4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2023 Gerard Hastings and Christine Domegan
The right of Gerard Hastings and Christine Domegan to be identified as
authors of this work has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78
of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or
utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now
known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in
any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing
from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or
registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation
without intent to infringe.
First edition published by Butterworth-Heinemann 2007
Third edition published by Routledge 2018
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Hastings, Gerard (Professor), author. | Domegan, Christine, author.
Title: Social marketing: principles and practice for delivering global change/
Gerard Hastings and Christine Domegan.
Description: Fourth Edition. | New York, NY: Routledge, 2023. | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2022043902 | ISBN 9781032059662 (hardback) | ISBN
9781032059679 (paperback) | ISBN 9781003200086 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Social marketing.
Classification: LCC HF5414. H37 2023 | DDC 658.8–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022043902
ISBN: 978-1-032-05966-2 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-032-05967-9 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-20008-6 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/9781003200086
Typeset in Utopia
by KnowledgeWorks Global Ltd.
Access the Support Material: www.routledge.com/9781032059662
For Sarah, whose wisdom and diligence did so much to make this book possible.

In fond memory of Roger Layton.

Cover Photo

The picture is of Abbeyleix bog in County Laois, a community-owned peatland in Ireland’s

Hidden Heartlands.

Peatlands play a vital role in our efforts to combat climate breakdown. These intensely carbon-
rich ecosystems, which scientists now think contain twice as much carbon as all the world’s for-
ests, formed around 12,000 years ago in high latitudes following glacial retreat at the end of the
last ice age. Unfortunately, they have been exploited by us for many decades and this destruction
causes up to 5 per cent of global greenhouse gas emissions – more than all our aeroplanes put
together. Fortunately, things are changing, and bogs that were being drained and dried out for
peat harvesting are now being rewetted and rewilded. Community bogs such as Abbeyleix are in
safe hands.

Peatlands, their local stories and national ecosystems are becoming a symbol of planetary health.
Contents

List of tables x
List of figures xi
Case study contributors xiii
Acknowledgmentsxxi
Prefacexxii

1. Delivering global change: how social marketing can make a difference1

2. The four social marketing orientations17

3. The shoulders of giants: why theory matters34

4. Strategic planning: the social marketer’s roadmap53

5. Research: the social marketer’s satnav69

6. How social marketers communicate: the search for compelling content88

7. Critical marketing: addressing the commercial determinants of

ill-health and planetary harm105

8. Alternatives: in search of new wisdom123

9. Ethics, morality and human rights in social marketing139

10. Systems social marketing155

viii Contents

Social marketing case studies from around the world 175

1. Encouraging sustainable energy performance in multi-stakeholder

systemic school environment: the ENERGE project 179
Dmitry Brychkov, Christine Domegan, Edelle Doherty,
Raquel de Castro Rodrigues Lima and Eoghan Clifford

2. Trust the meat thermometer 188

Marisha Anand and Aileen McGloin

3. Acting on the climate crisis through the arts and culture:

A social innovation journey at the city of Águeda 195
Susana Marques, Ana Estima, Edson Santos, Célia Laranjeira,
Adriana Mesquita and Carla Couceiro

4. Making Australian universities culturally safe places for first nations peoples 204
Maria Raciti, Jennifer Carter, David Hollinsworth and Kathryn Gilbey

5. “What could masculinity be?”: using participatory co-design to define and support
healthier masculinities 209
Glen Donnar, Jon Hewitt, Fiona Finn, Lukas Parker, Linda Brennan and John Dingeldei

6. “Standing Strong Together”: a culturally appropriate adaptation for a social and

emotional well-being intervention in an Australian First Nations community 215
Robert J Donovan, Lesley A Murray, Julia Anwar-McHenry,
Amberlee Nicholas and Cathy Drane

7. The humble egg in Malawi 222

Puja Peyden Tshering, Kalpana Beesabathuni, Srujith Lingala and Rowena Merritt

8. Turning the tide on poor Blue Space quality through stakeholder

engagement – Lessons from PIER 234
Sinead Duane, Maeve Louise Farrell, Alexandra Chueiri, Christine Domegan,
Liam Burke and Dearbháile Morris

9. Evaluating real change in the real world: creativity, connection and

the unseen as felt evidence in aspiring communities 240
Marisa de Andrade, Colin Campbell, Jean Dobbing,
Felicity Fyall and Rilza Montgomery

10. Leaf collective: piloting a social marketing approach to remove eucalypt

leaves from stormwater drains 249
Luisa Lopez Cordova, Yue Xi, Sharyn Rundle-Thiele, Renata Anibaldi,
Aaron Tkaczynski, Cuong Pham and Vanessa Salamone

11. Logan City Council wildlife movement campaign 266

Tori Seydel, Erin Hurley and Sharyn Rundle-Thiele
 Contents ix

12. Tackling gender inequality and promoting a healthy lifestyle:

the women in sport roadshow 282
Michelle O’Shea, Hazel Maxwell, Nicole Peel and Sarah Duffy

13. The role of civil society in advancing the sugar-sweetened beverages

tax policy in Mexico 288
Rafael Pérez-Escamilla

14. The Baby Killer revisited: regulating the marketing of breast milk substitutes 298
Gerard Hastings, Kathryn Angus, Douglas Eadie and Kate Hunt

15. Healthy breakfasts in Armenia 304

Rowena Merritt and Nanna Skau

16. Social marketing at multiple levels of the fashion system with fashion revolution 313
Anna Earl and Ann-Marie Kennedy

17. Autism: change your reactions 321

Sandra C. Jones, Jennifer Lowe, Nicola Edwards and Jade Maloney

18. Active play for 0–3 years old in Galway city 330
Christine Domegan, Tina Flaherty, Dmitry Brychkov,
Evelyn Fanning and Caroline Murray

Index 339
Tables

1.1 Social Marketing Case Studies from around the World 12

10.1 Rewilding nature and peatlands project 164
Figures

1.1 “Why should the devil have all the good tunes?” 4
1.2 A sample of systemic reviews of social marketing effectiveness 7
2.1 Four social marketing orientations 17
2.2 Lawrence Wallack’s river 25
2.3 Why critical marketing analysis matters 27
2.4 A strategic vision of social marketing30
3.1 Seven useful theories 34
3.2 Theory is always a good bet 35
3.3 Stages of change mark 238
3.4 Social cognitive theory39
3.5 Bonding, bridging and linking42
3.6 A social ecological model43
3.7 Value-based exchanges and sustainable tourism47
3.8 Donovan’s consensus49
4.1 The social marketing strategic plan56
4.2 The social marketing environment57
4.3 Commonly used segmentation criteria in social marketing61
4.4 Setting objectives63
5.1 Action research71
5.2 Social marketing research – cyclical and action oriented71
5.3 The basic types of research method72
5.4 Secondary research and systems thinking74
5.5 The Benefits Process Evaluation81
5.6 The thalidomide scandal82
5.7 Reflective evaluation research84
6.1 Headlines after Wells’ broadcast 91
6.2 An anti-slavery campaign leaflet from 1783 95
7.1 Marketing concerns in the early twentieth century 107
7.2 The commercial determinants of behaviour108
7.3 The planet-wrecking fossil fuel industry110
7.4 A whistle blower’s testimony on big tech to the US Senate116
xii Figures

7.5 A key lesson from COVID-19117

7.6 What customer needs does McDonald’s meet?118
8.1 The Global North 124
8.2 Two wolves – A Cherokee parable 128
8.3 Rosser Reeves model of advertising effects 130
8.4 What other options were there? 132
8.5 The Torres Strait 8: Australian Islanders in landmark climate fight 133
9.1 Ethical dilemmas in social marketing142
9.2 The Conference of the Birds147
9.3 The Nanny State150
10.1 Types of provisioning systems161
10.2 A systems social marketing strategic plan162
10.3 Provisioning system identification165
10.4 Examples of power versus interest grid mapping of stakeholders
in a provisioning system166
10.5 An example of creativity is demonstrated by stakeholder mapping167
10.6 An example of a CLD systems map for a regenerating peatland169
10.7 Potential social marketing offerings171
10.8 Indicators for systems social marketing171
Case study contributors

Marisha Anand is a Research Assistant in the Applied Systems Thinking research unit at J.E.
Cairnes School of Business & Economics at the University of Galway, Ireland. She also works as
a Research Fellow in social marketing, behaviour change and public health with safefood, an
all-island body that aims to promote food safety and healthy eating. As part of her research, she
evaluates and promotes the public health campaigns of safefood regarding obesity, handwashing
and food poisoning across digital platforms.

Marisa de Andrade is the Co-director of the Binks Hub; Associate Director of the Centre for
Creative-Relational Inquiry; and Programme Director of the MScR Health Humanities and Arts
at the University of Edinburgh. Marisa uses “traditional” and (post)-qualitative methodologies to
situate arts at the helm of strategic decision-making across multiple sectors including health and
social care, employability, education and social justice.

Kathryn Angus is a Researcher and Information Specialist at the Institute for Social Marketing
and Health at the University of Stirling which she joined in 2001. Her research interests include
the impact of commercial marketing on people’s health and behaviour, the effectiveness of social
marketing and systematic review methodologies and literature search strategies. She has exten-
sive experience in content analyses of marketing, designing literature searches and conducting
evidence-based reviews on a variety of public health, critical marketing and social topics.

Renata Anibaldi is a Senior Research Assistant at Griffith University and is currently focused on
PhD research which applies the concepts and methods of systems-thinking social marketing to
develop, implement and evaluate interventions to promote the establishment of healthy eating
behaviours in Australian Defence Force personnel (ADF).

Julia Anwar-McHenry is with the Western Australian Department of Education. He was formerly
an Act-Belong-Commit Evaluation Officer.

Kalpana Beesabathuni holds an MBA from Harvard Business School, a Master’s in Agricultural
and Biological Engineering from University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign and a Bachelor’s
degree from Indian Institute of Technology (Kharagpur) in Agricultural and Food Engineering.
xiv Case study contributors

Her work as Global Lead: Technology and Entrepreneurship, Sight and Life focuses on food sys-
tems; analytics, technology tools, distribution & supply chains.

Linda Brennan is a Professor in the School of Media and Communication at RMIT University,
Australia. Her research interests are the use and abuse of advertising and social marketing for
social change.

Dmitry Brychkov, MA English, MA Desert studies, PhD, is a Postdoctoral Researcher with the
Applied Systems Thinking Group in the Whitaker Institute at the University of Galway, Ireland. He
currently works on the ENERGE project which focuses on energy efficiency in schools.

Liam Burke, PhD, is a Lecturer in the Discipline of Bacteriology at the School of Medicine,
University of Galway and a member of the Ryan Institute Centre for One Health. His research
interests include antimicrobial-resistant and pathogenic bacteria of public health concern. He is
interested in their studying their resistance and virulence mechanisms and understanding their
occurrence and spread between humans, animals and their shared environment.

Colin Campbell is a Co-ordinator at Bethany Christian Trust, which is committed to ending home-
lessness in Scotland – one person at a time. Jane Dobbing, Felicity Fyall and Rilza Montgomery
are Community Development Workers at the same organisation. They are a vastly experienced
team in ABCD.

Jennifer Carter is a Professor of Geography at the University of the Sunshine Coast, Australia.
Jennifer has a specific interest in First Nations geography, critiquing and proposing environmen-
tal management structures and processes that are more inclusive of First Nations Australians.

Raquel de Castro Rodrigues Lima is a PhD Candidate in Civil Engineering at the School of
Engineering, University of Galway, Ireland. She is also president of the ASHRAE NUIG Student
Branch and co-chair of Student Activities at ASHRAE Ireland. She joined the ENERGE project
while working on integrating users’ perspectives to energy management systems across multiple
organisations.

Alexandra Chueiri MSc is a Research Assistant in the Discipline of Bacteriology at the

School of Medicine, NUI Galway. Alexandra is experienced in molecular biology and holds a
Masters in Biomedical Science. As a member of the Antimicrobial Resistance and Microbial
Ecology Group, she has contributed to projects such as One Health EJP WorldCOM and
PIER (Public health Impact of Exposure to antibiotic Resistance in recreational waters).
Her research interests include antimicrobial-resistant bacterial pathogens and molecular
diagnostics.

Eoghan Clifford is a Senior Lecturer in Civil Engineering at the School of Engineering, University
of Galway, Ireland. He is the coordinator of the EU InterReg NWE funded ENERGE project which
focuses on energy efficiency in schools. ENERGE takes a multidisciplinary approach that includes
sociological, pedagogic and communications expertise combined with digital approaches to
energy monitoring to help reduce energy consumption in school communities. The project lev-
erages engineering, behavioural studies and new educational approaches to enable impacts to
translate to the wider community.
 Case study contributors xv

Carla Couceiro holds a degree in Communication, with a specialization in Interior Tourism -

Education for Sustainability. Since 2014, she has been implementing multiple national and
European projects in the area of environment and sustainability, in partnership with the
Municipality of Águeda and external entities.

John Dingeldei is an advertising industry practitioner, teacher and researcher in the School of
Media and Communication at RMIT University Australia. He has published in the area of social
marketing, with a focus on social media and storytelling.

Edelle Doherty is a Post-Doctoral Researcher in Civil Engineering at the School of Engineering,

University of Galway, Ireland. She is the project manager of the EU InterReg NWE funded ENERGE
project which focuses on energy efficiency in schools. She joined the ENERGE project after work-
ing on implementing energy-related behavioural change in the Irish healthcare sector.

Robert J Donovan, is an Adjunct Professor at the School of Human Sciences, University of

Western Australia, Adjunct Professor at the School of Medical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan
University, Perth, Australia. He is an Act-Belong-Commit Founder.

Glen Donnar is a Senior Lecturer in the School of Media and Communication at RMIT University,
Australia. Glen’s research interests include screen representations of men and masculinities, and
he is the author of Troubling Masculinities (University Press of Mississippi, 2020).

Sinead Duane PhD is a Lecturer in Marketing in the Discipline of Marketing in the Cairnes School
of Business and Economics, University of Galway. Her research interests include systems social
marketing and the role of stakeholder engagement and partnership development when address-
ing complex societal challenges such as Antimicrobial resistance.

Sarah Duffy is a Senior Lecturer in the School of Business, Western Sydney University.
Dr Duffy teaches Social Marketing to postgraduate students and her research is concerned
with issues relating to social equity, diversity and inclusion in an institutional context.

Cathy Drane, Research Fellow, Future of Work Institute, Curtin University, Perth, Australia.

Anna Earl is a Senior Lecturer in Management at the University of Canterbury Business School.
Her main key interests include the complexity of stakeholder relationships and their impact on
social, legitimacy and ethical issues.

Nicola Edwards is the Executive Manager of Communications at Amaze, a leading autism

organisation based in Melbourne, Australia. Nicola has overseen a range of integrated social mar-
keting and behaviour change campaigns including the implementation of the second wave of the
Autism: Change Your Reactions social marketing campaign.

Ana Estima holds a PhD in Marketing and Strategy. Ana is currently an Assistant Professor at the
University of Aveiro where she coordinates the degree in marketing since 2018.

Evelyn Fanning is a Senior Health Promotion Officer with Community Healthcare West, HSE.
She has led out on a number of health and well-being initiatives including early years projects.
xvi Case study contributors

Previously she was a Project Coordinator and Community Development Worker with Westside
Resource Centre. She is a graduate of NUI Galway with a BA and MA in Community Development
and also has a Professional Diploma in Project Management.

Maeve Louise Farrell is a PhD student in the Discipline of Bacteriology at the School of Medicine,
NUI Galway. She is a qualified veterinary nurse and has an Honours degree in Veterinary
Bioscience. Her research interests include antimicrobial-resistant bacteria relating to human,
environmental and veterinary health concerns.

Fiona Finn is a Lecturer in the School of Media and Communication at RMIT University,
Australia. Her pedagogy places a strong emphasis on experiential learning, enabling students to
engage with complex real-world problems facing the advertising industry, particularly as it relates
to gender representations.

Tina Flaherty is a Postdoctoral Researcher in the Applied Systems Cluster in the Whitaker Institute,
University of Galway. Having been awarded the inaugural three-year Research Fellowship with
safefood in 2015, Tina assisted in the development of behavioural and community change inter-
ventions within the island of Ireland while completing her PhD in the area of digital technologies
and their role in systemic behaviour change. Tina also has expertise in social listening and sys-
tems thinking methodologies.

Kathryn Gilbey is a First Nation Australian, Associate Professor and Director of the Graduate
School Research Division at Batchelor Institute of Indigenous Tertiary Education, Australia.

Jon Hewitt is a PhD Candidate in the School of Media and Communication at RMIT University.
His research interests include the marketing practices of social enterprises (based in the fash-
ion sector), marketing sustainable fashion and consumer behaviour change within the fashion
industry.

David Hollinsworth is an Adjunct Professor at the University of the Sunshine Coast, Australia.
David has worked with Aboriginal people since 1968 as both an activist and an academic.

Kate Hunt is a Professor of Behavioural Sciences and Health in the Institute for Social Marketing
and Health at the University of Stirling. Before moving to Stirling, she worked for many years in
the MRC Social and Public Health Sciences Unit at the University of Glasgow. She has a long-
standing interest in inequalities in health and in Gender and Health (moving from an early
interest in women’s health to a focus on men, masculinities and health). Kate has served on
several UK funding boards, including MRC Population and Systems Medicine Board, NIHR
Public Health Research funding board and MRC Population Health Intervention Development
Scheme.

Erin Hurley’s work centres on examining ways that people from diverse backgrounds can be
empowered to drive real change within their communities. She has substantial experience in the
use of participatory design techniques, involving local communities during the design, imple-
mentation and evaluation of campaigns and community programmes across a broad range of
social and environmental issues.
 Case study contributors xvii

Sandra C. Jones is the Pro Vice-Chancellor (Research Impact) at the Australian Catholic
University (ACU) in Melbourne, Australia, following 15 years as a leading social marketing
researcher. Sandra leads the “Autism at ACU” research programme and is the author of “Growing
into Autism” (Melbourne University Press, 2022).

Ann-Marie Kennedy is an Associate Professor in Marketing at the University of Canterbury. She

specialises in marketing for behaviour change, macro-social marketing, systems thinking and
ethics.

Célia Laranjeira is a Doctoral Student in Sciences and Environment engineering, holds a post-
graduation in Sustainable Development, a Master’s degree in Environment and Forest Resources
and a degree in Biology. She is the Head of the Environment and Sustainability Division of Águeda
City Council, since 2014.

Srujith Lingala holds a Master’s Degree in Public Administration from Columbia University, an
MBA from Indian Institute of Management and a Bachelor’s degree in computer science engi-
neering. In his role in Technology & Entrepreneurship Manager, Sight and Life, Srujith works
closely at the intersection of business and development designing and implementing social busi-
ness innovations that improve the availability and affordability of eggs and other nutritious foods
in low- and middle-income countries.

Luisa Lopez Cordova After completing her Master’s degree in Integrated Water Management
at Griffith University, Luisa joined Social Marketing at Griffith University in 2021 as a Research
Assistant since she has actively pursued knowledge of the effects of behavioral change on behalf of
the environment and people’s wellbeing. Luisa’s personal areas of interest include Conservation
of Protected Areas, Climate Change, Social Marketing, and Water Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH)
research projects.

Jennifer Lowe is a Research Associate in the Research Impact Unit at the Australian Catholic
University in Melbourne, Australia. She is also a PhD Candidate in Public Health at La Trobe
University where her interdisciplinary research is being conducted in collaboration with the
Public Health Palliative Care Unit and Olga Tennison Autism Research Centre. Jennifer has a
background in corporate brand marketing and consumer events marketing.

Jade Maloney is a Partner and Managing Director of ARTD Consultants, an independent evalua-
tion consultancy. She works with people with disability and lived experience of mental ill health,
government agencies and non-government organisations to design, evaluate and refine policies,
services and programmes. ARTD evaluated the Autism: Change Your Reactions social marketing
campaign.

Susana Marques holds a PhD in Marketing. Susana is currently an Assistant Professor at the
University of Aveiro where she coordinates the Master’s degree in marketing and digital com-
munication.

Hazel Maxwell is a Senior Lecturer in the College of Health and Medicine at the University
of Tasmania (Sydney campus). She has extensive experience in health promotion and sport
xviii Case study contributors

management in not-for-profit and Government sectors in both Australian and UK. Her research
and teaching focuses on equity, social inclusion and diversity.

Aileen McGloin is the Director of Marketing and Communications at safefood, the all-island
body responsible for promoting food safety and healthy eating. She leads safefood’s communica-
tions programme to inform, encourage and support citizens in relation to both food safety and
healthy eating behaviours. Combining a background in food, health and behaviour change with
experience in management, research, PR, marketing and digital communications, she also led
safefood’s digital communications from 2010 to 2018.

Rowena Merritt is a Research Fellow, University of Kent and a Behavioural Scientist who has
helped to design and implement behaviour change solutions for a range of social, health and
environmental challenges in over 30 countries. Rowena currently works for the UNICEF as their
SBC lead for nutrition and is Affiliate Professor at the University of South Florida, USA.

Adriana Mesquita holds a Master’s degree in Management and Planning in Tourism and a degree
in Applied Foreign Languages. She is the Head of the Culture and Sports Division of Águeda City
Council, since 2017.

Dearbháile Morris is a Professor of Antimicrobial Resistance and One Health and Head of the
Discipline of Bacteriology at the School of Medicine University of Galway. She is Director of the
Antimicrobial Resistance and Microbial Ecology Group and Director of the Ryan Institute Centre
for One Health at University of Galway. She has over 20 years’ experience in research on zoonotic
waterborne pathogens and antimicrobial resistance and has published widely in high-impact
journals.

Caroline Murray is a Senior Health Promotion Officer with Community Healthcare West, HSE.
She is a graduate of the University of Limerick with a degree in Sport and Exercise Science and
completed MA in Health Promotion at NUI Galway. Previous to her Health Promotion role she
was involved in sports development. She has a keen interest in physical activity promotion for all
ages.

Lesley A Murray is a Board Member and Art Director at the Beananging Kwuurt Institute, Perth,
Australia, a practicing Visual Artist for Wangaba Roebourne Art Group, Roebourne, Australia. He
was formerly an Act-Belong-Commit Aboriginal Project Manager.

Amberlee Nicholas is a Mental Health Promotion Specialist at The Push for Better Foundation,
Perth, Australia. He was formerly Act-Belong-Commit Campaign Manager.

Michelle O’Shea is a Senior Lecturer in the School of Business at Western Sydney University. Dr
O’Shea teaches Sport Management and her research is concerned with issues relating to social
equity, diversity and inclusion in an institutional context.

Lukas Parker is an Associate Professor and social marketing and advertising scholar at the
School of Media and Communication at RMIT University, Australia. His research and teaching
are focused on behaviour change, communicating health and digital advertising.
 Case study contributors xix

Nicole Peel is a Lecturer in Recreational Therapy in the School of Health Sciences at Western
Sydney University. Her research focuses on the use of therapy with disadvantaged groups to assist
in progressing their lives within complex and complicated support systems.

Rafael Pérez-Escamilla, PhD, is a tenured Professor at the Yale School of Public Health where he
directs the Center for Implementation and Prevention Science (CMIPS) Maternal-Child Health
Promotion Program, the Global Health Concentration and the Office of Public Health Practice.
His research and programme evaluation initiatives have helped improve maternal nutrition and
infant and young child feeding, as well as early childhood development and household food secu-
rity, globally.

Cuong Pham is a consumer behaviour systems-thinker and is currently investigating what

influences decision-making. He sees a large potential for a systems-thinking approach to assist
marketers in addressing ill-defined or complex problems more effectively.

Maria Raciti is a First Nation Australian and social marketer who is passionate about educational
justice. Maria is a Professor of Marketing and Co-director of the Indigenous and Transcultural
Research Centre at the University of the Sunshine Coast, Australia.

Vanessa Salamone is a circular by design systems thinker and offers senior-level marketing
experience leading regional and national communication campaigns. Her focal project seeks to
understand how supermarket retailers can reduce single-use plastics in the service environment.

Tori Seydel is a behaviour change scientist and early career researcher who has delivered across
design, implementation and evaluation of conservation behaviour change programmes in the
community. She designed behaviour change messaging for “Leave It” to increase dog’s abilities to
avoid koalas. Leave it resulted in a 40% reduction in koala deaths from dog attacks.

Sharyn Rundle-Thiele was trained in marketing and today she works as a behavioural sci-
entist. In 2021, more than 300,000 people were engaged delivering change for the better. The
work Sharyn has led has changed adolescent attitudes to alcohol drinking, reduced food
waste, reduced koala deaths from dog attacks by 40%, reduced leaves entering waterways
and many more.

Nanna Skau, Deputy Country Director, WFP Armenia, has more than 20 years of experience in
international relations, humanitarian and development assistance which has taken her around
the world and seen people struggling yet finding solutions, people who never got a chance
yet always smiled, people who taught themselves to read yet only one book to practice on. Nanna
have been shaking hands with presidents and kids who hadn’t eaten for two days. She has written
a million reports, 200 log-frames, pitches to donors, turned ideas on how to solve food security
problems into stock motion Lego video’s hoping to get traction and funds. For the past 13 years,
Nanna have been working for the UN World Food Programme (WFP), supporting access to food
and nutrition security for populations in need around the world.

Aaron Tkaczynski is a Senior Lecturer in Tourism and Events at the University of Queensland.
Dr Tkaczynski is an expert in market segmentation and event evaluation. He has delivered
xx Case study contributors

segmentation solutions for Easterfest (Australia), the Winnipeg Fringe Festival (Canada) and
Johannesburg International Mozart Festival (South Africa). This research has used both online
and in-person surveys to identify attendee’s motivations and behaviour (e.g. satisfaction) of
attendees. Aaron has debriefed research committees on how event organisers can best use the
results to inform future marketing and communication plans. These results have been used by
the event organisers in their future marketing strategies (e.g. targeting a regional socially focused
segment).

Puja Peyden Tshering is the Consumer Insights Specialist at Sight and Life, responsible for
designing social marketing activities across the organisation’s diverse projects, with a focus on
increasing demand for nutritious foods and products in a bid to tackle malnutrition.

Yue Xi is on her way to learn and become a social marketer in behaviour change. Currently, she
is a Research Assistant and a soon to be a PhD candidate in Social Marketing @ Griffith. Yue
believes in behaviour change can drive and establish a balanced system. She is keen on seeking
balance from the systematic issues across multidisciplinary contexts. Her current research focus
is increasing e-waste recycling rates.
Acknowledgments

There are so many to whom we owe thanks. All the colleagues and students who have taught us
so much. All the people we have interviewed and consulted who have kept our feet on the ground
and our eyes on the real world. All the writers, thinkers, musicians, and poets who have encour-
aged us to reach higher and imagine better. All the animals and plants, mountains and lakes who
have reminded us with each passing day how urgent is the task.

Our heartfelt thanks to you all.

Preface

Once again it is my absolute pleasure to welcome Professors Hastings and Domegan’s brand-new
edition of their book Social Marketing: Principles and Practice for Delivering Global Change. These
world-class scholars have delivered again: those familiar with their work will not be surprised
by the crystal-clear explanations of the essentials of social marketing, nor by their emphasis on
the critical aspects of our discipline, not least the commercial determinants of so much of our
lives, and the need for appropriate understanding of these. You will enjoy the sober, sometimes
philosophical reflections on modern life, not least how we in the West should learn from humbler
[and often wiser?] parts of the world. To this end, Gerard and Christine have put together one
of the most substantial set of globally sourced case studies I have seen – all brand new for this
edition - giving us that much richer a reading experience. Add to that three entirely new Chapters
7–9 examining critical marketing, alternatives [to our economic system], and ethics and human
rights, and we have a fantastic asset for readers seeking a complete view of what is causing so
many of our social marketing issues and what to do about them. I warmly welcome this latest
edition.

Alan Tapp
Professor of Social Marketing
Bristol Business School
 Chapter
1
Delivering global change
How social marketing can make
a difference

Welcome to our fourth edition. There has never been a greater need for a behaviour change disci-
pline like social marketing, nor a better time to study it. The problems we humans face, especially
the ecological trio of pollution, biodiversity loss and climate breakdown, show us that we need to
make fundamental changes to our way of life. Social marketing provides the principles and prac-
tices that will enable us to do this.

This first chapter provides you with a guide to the book and an introduction to the subject. With it,
you can plan your study and start to hone your change-making skills.

Momentous times
Rebecca Solnit puts it bluntly: “the world as we knew it is coming to an end, and it’s up to
us how it ends and what comes after.”1 Momentous words, but she is only echoing what
scientists and the United Nations have been telling us for at least five decades. Putting into
everyday language what it means to live in the “anthropocene,” the era “when human activ-
ity is the dominant influence on climate and the environment.”2 Reminding us that when we
use the word “unsustainable” to describe our current way of life – as we all do with increas-
ing frequency – this means it cannot continue. That global change is not just necessary, it is
inevitable.

This can be a daunting realisation, but it need not be. For a start, change is nothing new for us
human beings. Have a go at Critical Thinking Task 1.1.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003200086-1
2 DELIVERING GLOBAL CHANGE

CRITICAL THINKING 1.1:  CHANGE HAS ALWAYS

BEEN WITH US

Think about how much our lives have changed over the centuries. What would it have
been like living during the French revolution, in the Roman Empire, or earlier still, as
a hunter gatherer? How does your life differ from that of your parents and grandpar-
ents? What impact has digital technology – the smartphone, the internet – had on our
lives and how quickly have these effects happened? Think also about indigenous cul-
tures, like the Kogi in middle America whose story is told in Chapter 8 and Australia’s
First Nation peoples discussed in Case Studies # 4 and 6.

As the exercise makes clear, we humans have undergone many transformations over the centu-
ries: from hunter-gatherer to settled agriculture to industrialisation to metaverse; from tribe to
the city-state to nation-state to global community; from speaking to writing to printing to posting.
Change, then, has always been with us, it is part of the human condition; we just need to ensure
that it is sustainable and informed by decent values: inclusivity, mutual respect and fairness. This
is why “climate justice” has become such a prominent idea, why indigenous peoples are gaining
a voice and the Global South is becoming a key partner.

The prospect of change is also a stimulating challenge, a great opportunity to rethink our current
way of life. It is a chance for us to become the authors of our own fate. Furthermore, our extensive
previous experience of change has taught us much about how best to handle it – how to facilitate,
manage and optimise it. Social marketing brings this learning together, and this textbook will
present it to you. Rebecca Solnit’s words underline how useful it is likely to be.

The origins of marketing

We need to start by thinking more deeply about marketing. We often think of it as a new phenom-
enon which emerged with the modern consumer economy. In reality though, it has been around
since the dawn of human civilisation and has driven much of the change we have just been dis-
cussing. We are social animals: alone we are weak and vulnerable but when we come together we
can do great things. If you can hunt and I can cook, together we can eat. If we extend this arrange-
ment into the future, we can plan all sorts of collaborative projects: build houses, develop villages
and construct hospitals and schools. If some focus all their efforts on hunting and cooking, this
will free up others to create music and art and pursue science.

Commerce – trade, markets, distribution, advertising and doing deals – has always been at the
heart of all this. As Yuval Harari3 explains in his book Sapiens, it even drove the emergence of writ-
ing. The first written words archaeologists have found are on 5000-year-old Sumerian tablets and
they don’t concern literature or high-minded ideas, but facts and figures about transactions. Who
bought what from whom and for how much. The original writers weren’t poets but accountants.
Their contribution to human progress was nonetheless profound: without these early bookkeep-
ers there would be no poets – or at least no record of their work.

Read and consider the words of Martin Luther King in Critical Thinking Task 1.2.
 DELIVERING GLOBAL CHANGE 3

CRITICAL THINKING 1.2:  OUR INTERCONNECTED WORLD

Martin Luther King was a founding figure of the Civil Liberties Movement in the US
in 1960s. Here he is talking about the impact of business on our lives. Read and
consider his words. What is his key message?

“Did you ever stop to think that you can’t leave for your job in the morn-
ing without being dependent upon most of the world? You get up in
the morning and go to the bathroom and reach over for the sponge,
and that’s handed you by a Pacific Islander. You reach for a bar of soap,
and that’s given to you at the hands of a Frenchman. And then you go
into the kitchen to drink your coffee for the morning and that is poured
into your cup by a South American. And maybe you want tea: that’s
poured into your cup by a Chinese.
Or maybe you desire to have cocoa for breakfast, and that’s poured into
your cup by a West African. And then you reach over for your toast, and
that’s given you at the hands of an English-speaking farmer, not to men-
tion the baker. And before you finish eating breakfast in the morning,
you’ve depended on more than half the world.
This is the way our universe is structured. It is its interrelated quality.”4

King is reminding us that our lives are interconnected, both with each other and more broadly
with other forms of life not just across the world but the universe. And that commerce both reflects
and facilitates this interconnectivity.

Marketing is the discipline that emerged to manage these inter-connections, and maintain trust
and respect even when they multiply and grow in complexity, when deals are done between
strangers, across borders or without the participants ever even meeting. In everyday language
marketing is sometimes used as a synonym for advertising, and although communication is
indeed important, the reality is more subtle than this. At the heart of marketing is the idea of
understanding a potential client or partner, of working out what their needs and priorities are,
and then constructing and pitching an offer that will cater to these. If done well this doesn’t just
generate one-off transactions, it builds into long-term relationships. Colleagues become part-
ners, customers become and remain loyal and success snowballs. Advertising is just one of the
tools that commercial marketers have adopted and perfected to put the underlying principle of a
meeting of minds into effect. Others include the marketing mix, market research, strategic plan-
ning, targeting and segmentation. We will think critically about all of these in this book.

Thirty million admen

The spectacular success of commercial marketing is showing itself today in two ways. First, it has
grown into a massive multinational business. By the turn of the millennium, in the US alone, a
detailed review showed that the “aggregate marketing system” employed some 30 million people
and drove consumer spending worth $5 trillion a year. To illustrate the magnitude of this figure,
the review authors explain: “if we were to try to count it at the rate of $1 per second, it would take
more than 150,000 years, or much longer than the history of civilization. Although the aggregate
4 DELIVERING GLOBAL CHANGE

marketing system in the United States may not stretch quite to ‘eternity’ it certainly does stretch a
very long way.”5 This is just in the US, and marketing is now very much a global force.

Marketing has also enabled businesses to grow and succeed on an unprecedented scale.
Companies like Amazon, Apple and Volkswagen have become far bigger than many countries.
A recent analysis by Oxfam6 shows that the combined revenue of the world’s 10 biggest corpora-
tions – amongst them Wal-Mart, Shell and Apple – is greater than the combined revenue of 180
countries (including Ireland, Indonesia, Israel and Greece).

Second marketing has transformed our lives. We can satisfy every desire we can dream of. The
shops are full of tempting things, and the internet has enabled us to access these 24/7. Be it
FaceTime with family across the globe, unseasonal fruit or endless entertainment wherever
we are, the benefits are many. However, the drawbacks are also considerable. For a start, you
need to be relatively wealthy – and live in a wealthy country – to access the consumer goodies.
Most of the world is simply too poor to do so. Also, consumption itself has its downsides. As we
will explore in subsequent chapters, products such as tobacco, alcohol and junk food are so
harmful that almost 90% of Europeans now die from diseases caused by their consumption.7 At
a global level smoking alone is killing around 8 million people every year.8 More broadly, our
excessive acquisition of stuff is a root cause of the ecological crisis. As climate scientist Steve
Emmett said a decade ago “we need to consume less. A lot less. Less food, less energy, less
stuff. Fewer cars, electric cars, cotton T-shirts, laptops, mobile phone upgrades. Far fewer.”9
Marketing drives this excess.

Enter social marketing

Arguably, though, these problems are not caused just by marketing – which, as we have noted,
long predates our current consumerism – but by an economic system which assumes there are
no limits to growth, ignores the consequences of exploiting the natural world and puts profits
ahead of all other considerations. Marketing is not bad; it is just being manipulated and misused
by over-powerful commercial interests. These ideas occurred to General Booth, the founder of
the Salvation Army, over a century ago. He worked in deprived districts of London trying to bring
material and spiritual comfort to the poor. He found that time and again they were drawn away
from his ministry by the attractions of the nightclubs, music halls and bars. Most notably, the
music was enticing (see Figure 1.1) and he proceeded to compete by producing his own music,
arguing that there was no reason why “the Devil should have all the good tunes.”

General Booth, the founder of the Salvation Army was one of the earliest social innova-
tors to realise that the forces of good could learn from commerce.

“Most strikingly, Booth created a new kind of church music. He took the tunes from
popular songs of the day and wrote Christian words to them. His slogan was, ‘Why should
the devil have all the good tunes?’ He took the instruments from brass bands and created
a new church sound that was bold and uplifting. He made the message of Jesus relevant
and accessible.”10

Figure 1.1 “Why should the devil have all the good tunes?”
 DELIVERING GLOBAL CHANGE 5

We do not have to share Booth’s religious convictions to realise that the principle of learning from
success is a good one. The Salvation Army flourishes to this day – it has nearly 2 million members,
operations in over 130 countries and does many good works.11

Fifty years later, American academic Gerhard Wiebe picked up Booth’s line of thought when he
analysed contemporaneous social advertising campaigns and argued that the best ones were
those that mimicked their commercial counterparts. He concluded that it is possible to “sell
brotherhood like you sell soap.”12 In 1971, Kotler and Zaltman coined the term social marketing,
defining it in a ground-breaking Journal of Marketing article as “An Approach to Planned Social
Change,”13 which is exactly what we humans need in the face of such turbulent times. Since then,
social marketing has grown in influence and popularity and a recent study by Liz Foote of Antioch
University, New England, shows that courses are now being offered at 70 institutions in 20 differ-
ent countries across the world, mainly in the Global North and also in the Global South.14

Social marketing in a nutshell

Social marketing looks at people in the round. Whilst commercial marketing focuses only on one
type of behaviour – how we shop – social marketing addresses all the different sorts of human
behaviour. Critical Thinking Task 1.3 shows how important this wider frame is.

CRITICAL THINKING 1.3:  WHY DOES BEHAVIOUR

CHANGE MATTER?

Make a list of what you think are the most pressing problems facing
society. Think about the things that have the biggest impact on peo-
ple’s happiness and welfare. Illness and premature death or crime and
criminal justice may come to mind, along with inequality, conflict and
oppression, prejudice and intolerance, and environmental harm.
Now consider how important human behaviour is to each of these. How
in each case these complex and multifaceted problems have our deci-
sions, actions and lifestyles at their heart.

Human behaviour underpins all the key challenges we as a species must address – criminal jus-
tice, international diplomacy, racism, sexual identity, and so on. Most importantly, it is driving
the ecological problems we are now facing. Social marketing addresses all these types of behav-
iour and with it we can, in Kotler and Zaltman’s words, “plan social change.” It is necessarily a
complex discipline – we are a complex species – but at its heart lie two basic ideas:

•• Grassroots empowerment. We all matter. We all have much to contribute and a right to
be properly engaged in our collective journey. Indeed, as we will discuss in Chapter 9, this
right for self-determination has been laid down in international human rights law by the
United Nations (UN). This means that change is best achieved by partnership and collabora-
tion rather than command and control. Social marketing therefore puts much emphasis on
understanding, empowering and engaging all sections of society.
6 DELIVERING GLOBAL CHANGE

•• Collective action. Systems also matter. We individuals, although important in our own right,
are at the same time a part of the human group, and in modern times this collective exist-
ence has become extremely complex. There are many facets of our society that lie beyond
our individual control. I can do little about the dominance of fossil fuels in our economy,
for example, or the unfair wages being paid in a Bangladeshi sweatshop. These issues need action at
the national and international levels: investment in alternative energy production; laws to contain
over-powerful individuals or groups; or the UN’s human rights interventions we just mentioned.

As Sufi wisdom expresses it, change has to include both the wave and the ocean.15 Social market-
ing works to pull these two forces together and so bring about progressive, consensual behav-
ioural and social change. A glance at the newsfeeds and even a superficial awareness of the
current problems humankind is facing show that this is easier to say than to do.

The importance of critical thinking

Rebecca Solnit’s words, with which we opened the chapter, are daunting and the obstacles are
many. We have to think carefully and clearly if we are to respond effectively. This book is here
to challenge you to think critically: to question the world around you meticulously and system-
atically; to call out error, deceit and injustice wherever you find it; to look beyond the obvious
and accepted towards new ideas and alternative approaches. As J K Rowlings said in her Harvard
Commencement speech: “We do not need magic to change the world, we carry all the power we
need inside ourselves already: we have the power to imagine better.”16

None of this will be easy, but we make no apology for that. The world needs your energy and
insight. As you progress through the course remember critical thinking harnesses five qualities:

•• Caring: a concern about the problems facing society.

•• Critiquing: working out why these problems have arisen.
•• Connecting: uncovering and explaining linkages – how one thing leads to another.
•• Concluding: summarising the key issues and their implications.
•• Committing: the determination to do something about it.

You can get more information about it here: https://www.nuigalway.ie/academic-skills/critical-

thinking/whatiscriticalthinking/. You can also take comfort from the fact that social marketing
has, time and again, been shown to be effective.

Social marketing works

There is a long-established evidence base that social marketing is very effective and can influence
many different behaviours way beyond our shopping habits. Twenty years ago, for instance, a sys-
tematic review of social marketing interventions designed to improve nutrition showed that, out
of 25 interventions, no fewer than 21 had a significant effect on at least one dietary behaviour.17
Similar reviews were commissioned by the UK government and showed that social marketing
ideas and techniques can successfully shift exercise, drinking, smoking and drug-use behaviours.
This early review work has now been greatly updated and extended by Sharyn Rundle-Thiele and
colleagues (see Figure 1.2) at Griffith University in Brisbane. This confirms that social marketing
 DELIVERING GLOBAL CHANGE 7

1. Aceves-Martins, M., Llauradó, E., Tarro, L., Moreno-García, C.F., Trujillo Escobar,
T.G., Sola, R. and Giralt, M., 2016. Effectiveness of social marketing strategies to
reduce youth obesity in European school-based interventions: a systematic review
and meta-analysis. Nutrition reviews, 74(5), pp.337-351.

2. Almestahiri, R.D., Rundle-Thiele, S., Parkinson, J. and Arli, D., 2017. The use of the
major components of social marketing: a systematic review of tobacco cessation pro-
grams. Social Marketing Quarterly, 23(3), pp.232-248.

3. Compernolle, S., DeSmet, A., Poppe, L., Crombez, G., De Bourdeaudhuij, I., Cardon,
G., van der Ploeg, H.P. and Van Dyck, D., 2019. Effectiveness of interventions using
self-monitoring to reduce sedentary behavior in adults: a systematic review and
meta-analysis. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity,
16(1), pp.1-16.

4. Čož, S. and Kamin, T., 2020. Systematic literature review of interventions for pro-
moting postmortem organ donation from social marketing perspective. Progress in
Transplantation, 30(2), pp.155-168.

5. Dimova, E.D., Elliott, L., Frankis, J., Drabble, L., Wiencierz, S. & Emslie, C., 2022.
Alcohol interventions for LGBTQ+ adults: A systematic review. Drug & Alcohol
Review, 41(1), pp.43-53.

6. Firestone, R., Rowe, C.J., Modi, S.N. and Sievers, D., 2017. The effectiveness of social
marketing in global health: a systematic review. Health policy and planning, 32(1),
pp.110-24.

7. Goethals, L., Barth, N., Hupin, D., Mulvey, M.S., Roche, F., Gallopel-Morvan, K. and
Bongue, B., 2020. Social marketing interventions to promote physical activity among
60 years and older: a systematic review of the literature. BMC public health, 20(1),
pp.1-11.

8. Harris, J.A., Carins, J.E. and Rundle-Thiele, S., 2021. A systematic review of interven-
tions to increase breakfast consumption: A socio-cognitive perspective. Public Hlth
Nutrition, 24(11), pp.3253-68.

9. Kim, J., Rundle-Thiele, S. and Knox, K., 2019. Systematic literature review of best
practice in food waste reduction programs. Journal of Social Marketing.

10. Kubacki, K., Hurley, E. and Rundle-Thiele, S.R., 2018. A systematic review of sports
sponsorship for public health and social marketing. Journal of Social Marketing.

11. Kubacki, K. and Szablewska, N., 2019. Social marketing targeting Indigenous peo-
ples: a systematic review. Health Promotion International, 34(1), pp.133-143.

12. Kwasny, T., Dobernig, K. and Riefler, P., 2022. Towards reduced meat consumption:
A systematic literature review of intervention effectiveness, 2001–19. Appetite, 168,
p.105739.

Figure 1.2 A sample of systemic reviews of social marketing effectiveness (continued)

8 DELIVERING GLOBAL CHANGE

13. Mathews, R. and Buys, D., 2020. Healthy eating social marketing campaigns: A sys-
tematic review of the literature. Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics,
120(9), p.A81.

14. Olawepo, J.O., Pharr, J.R. and Kachen, A., 2019. The use of social marketing
campaigns to increase HIV testing uptake: a systematic review. AIDS care, 31(2),
pp.153-162.

15. Riedel, A., Mulcahy, R., Beatson, A. and Keating, B., 2022. Young adult drug interven-
tions: a social marketing systematic review and research agenda. Journal of Social
Marketing.

16. Schmidtke, D.J., Kubacki, K. and Rundle-Thiele, S., 2021. A review of social market-
ing interventions in low-and middle-income countries (2010–2019). Journal of Social
Marketing.

17. Truong, V.D., Dong, X.D., Saunders, S.G., Pham, Q., Nguyen, H. and Tran, N.A.,
2021. Measuring, evaluating, and documenting social marketing impact. Jnl of Social
Marketing.

Figure 1.2 (continued)

has successfully changed a wide range of behaviours, and also that specific social marketing
techniques – segmentation, stakeholder involvement, benchmarking and digital interventions –
have also proved effective. We will explore these techniques in this book.

Human rights and ethics

At this point you should have alarm bells going off. We have concluded that social marketing is a
powerful discipline which can change how we think, feel and behave. It can alter us as individu-
als as well as our collective, political lives. It has the potential to bring about planetary change
and so impact not just humans, but all life on earth. This power needs careful handling. We have
explained that it calls on you to think critically, to question, to imagine better and commit to tak-
ing action. These are potentially revolutionary forces.

We have discussed how social marketing can bring about desirable change: preventing addiction, dis-
ease and premature death; easing ecological problems. But we have also noted that in the hands of
the tobacco and junk food companies the same techniques are causing great harm to public health –
and, with the help of the fossil fuel companies, to our planetary health. We have also touched on
digital technology, which is greatly enhancing the power of commercial marketing. As Shoshana
Zuboff powerfully lays out, digital capability is fostering a new industrial revolution and the emer-
gence of a much more powerful version of marketing which she calls Surveillance Capitalism18 –
where data harvesting, algorithms and artificial intelligence enable programmatic advertising and
deliver success on an unprecedented scale. As Zuboff also points out this has grave political conse-
quences because “power accrues to the owners of the means of behavioural modification.”

We social marketers are also in the behaviour modification business. Do we want to follow
in Big Tech’s footsteps or do their methods cause us concern? Who decides when acceptable
 DELIVERING GLOBAL CHANGE 9

behaviour change interventions become unacceptable threats to civil liberties; when progressive
social marketing becomes authoritarian social engineering?

These are profound and urgent moral dilemmas, not just for social marketers, but for all human
beings. It was these concerns that led the United Nations to develop the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights in the last century. Three key concepts underpin the declaration:

•• Moral agency: we are all capable of making ethical judgements. Indeed, it is this ability that
makes us fully fledged human beings.

•• Human potential: “human rights are less about the way people are than about what they
might become.”

•• Active participation: we all have the right, not just to be protected from oppression, but also to
be actively consulted and engaged in the process of progressive social change.

We will discuss how these ideas help social marketers respond to the alarm bells in Chapter 9.

The book at a glance

The book is divided into ten chapters, each including critical thinking tasks and reflective ques-
tions to help you assimilate ideas and build your understanding:

Ch 1: Delivering global change: How social marketing can make a difference

This first chapter shows how the need for profound change, not just of individual behaviour
but also to our whole way of life, is now clear. Social marketing can help deliver this change
through a combination of individual agency and collective action. The chapter explains its
basic principles and provides a guide through the rest of the text.

Ch 2: Social marketing orientations

In social marketing the process of change starts with understanding why we currently behave
as we do, individually, communally and as a species, and using these insights to provide
empowering ways to engage everyone in sustainable and respectful ways forward. This think-
ing underpins the four SM orientations: client, creative, collective and competitive.

Ch3: The shoulders of giants: Theoretical foundations

Isaac Newton, who laid down the laws of gravity, explained that he owed his immense success
to the work of previous scientists – as he put it, he had stood on the shoulders of these giants
and so been able to see further. We social marketers can also stand on the shoulders of giants
and learn from past experience, and these insights are to be found in behaviour change theory.
This chapter presents and critiques the key theories which underpin our work.

Ch 4: Strategic planning for social marketing

Effective social marketing is built on sound strategic planning. This starts with a clearly stated vision
of where we want to get to, analyses the macro and microenvironment in which we need to oper-
ate, defines realistic and measurable objectives and then identifies who needs to do what and how
they can be encouraged to do it. Strategic planning also reminds us of the need to think long-term.
10 DELIVERING GLOBAL CHANGE

Ch 5: Research: The Satnav of social marketing

Research guides us through the strategic planning process, helping us answer three types of
questions: preparatory questions about whether it is ethical and feasible to go ahead with a par-
ticular intervention; intervention-building questions about how we should do so; and evaluation
questions to monitor progress towards our goals. This chapter also discusses the value of partici-
patory research and its ability to uncover the stories we all tell as we try to make sense of our lives.

Ch 6: How social marketers communicate

The story is also an invaluable tool for change. We now understand that audiences are actively
involved in the communication process: that our experiences, understanding and stories
influence how we communicate, respond and behave. These interactions inform our relation-
ship with our fellow humans, our fellow creatures and the natural environment. Getting these
stories right is crucial in our efforts to resolve our ecological problems.

Ch 7: Critical marketing

The next two chapters look critically at our current way of life. Chapter 7 examines commer-
cial marketing, showing that there have been concerns about its effects and methods for over
100 years, with particular criticism focused on industries like tobacco, alcohol and junk food.
This has caused increasing concern about “industrial epidemics” and the “commercial deter-
minants of ill-health” and led to the regulation of commercial marketing. The chapter then dis-
cusses how the emerging problems with climate have moved the discussion beyond specific
industries to concerns about our overall levels of consumption. When scientists are telling us
that there will soon be more plastics in the oceans than fish, it is time to think again.

Ch 8: Alternatives

This chapter continues the critical analysis by looking more broadly at our economic system.
It takes us from its colonial origins, through the advent of mass production and the modern
corporation to the hyper-consumption society in which we now live. In the process, we will
encounter Indigenous people, many of whom were killed as western empires expanded, but
are now becoming a crucial source of wisdom and hope in the search for a sustainable future.
We will see how social marketing can play a key role in this joint endeavour.

Ch 9: Ethics and human rights

Answering profound questions about our lives requires us to explore what it is to be human.
This chapter does this by examining the importance of moral agency, collective well-being and
instruments such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in supporting both. The need
is to maximise human potential in a way that shows mutual respect for all other forms of life.

Ch 10: Systems social marketing

All the ideas discussed so far come together in systems thinking, which addresses the sort of full
system change called for by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the United
Nations (UN), the World Health Organisation (WHO) and the Organisation Economic Cooperation
and Development (OECD). This final chapter provides a blueprint for diagnosing and designing
the behavioural and structural dynamics in our social and economic (or “provisioning”) systems,
and for tackling the wide-scale change facing communities across the globe today.
 DELIVERING GLOBAL CHANGE 11

Learning from experience: The case studies

Just as important as the chapters, the book includes a superb selection of case studies from social
marketers around the world (see Table 1.1). These cover a wide range of topics from climate
breakdown and corporate malfeasance to mental well-being and water quality; they reach across
from Mexico in the west to Armenia in the east, from Scotland in the north to Australia in the
south; they engage with the disadvantaged and disempowered, the neglected and disparaged;
and they challenge power and vested interest. In short, they exemplify the great things well-
deployed social marketing can achieve.

The table also highlights links to the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and the key
social marketing issues illustrated by each case. The UN SDGs were agreed on 25 September 2015
and are a series of 17 ambitious targets that aim to wipe out poverty, protect the planet and ensure
prosperity for all by 2030.19 You can find out more about each goal by following this link20 (scroll
down a little and click on each one).

Who should read this book?

This book is suitable for anyone with an interest in changing the world for the better whether or
not you have a prior understanding of marketing.

If you already have marketing know-how then it will help you apply this in a health, social and
ecological context. It will demonstrate how knowledge about selling baked beans can be applied
to road safety, crime prevention or safer sex – and the ways in which it needs to be adapted. It will
also address some of the challenging questions about marketing that may have already occurred
to you and have been raised by commentators like Naomi Klein, Joel Bakan and George Monbiot.
Should marketers be selling products that kill one in two of their most loyal customers? Should
the fast-food industry bear any responsibility for the obesity epidemic? Is an excess of commercial
marketing turning us all into over-consuming planet-destroyers? Social marketing can both help
find the answers and provide solutions.

If you come from a public health, social science or ecological background, and have little
knowledge of marketing, it will introduce you to its key principles and give you the chance
to apply these ideas in familiar settings. It is not that social marketing is some sort of pana-
cea or revolutionary super-solution, but it can provide genuinely useful insights for us in
our attempts to influence human behaviour and bring about progressive change. It should
be seen as complementing traditional approaches in such fields as health promotion, road
safety and ecology – indeed any spheres where influencing human behaviour can bring ben-
eficial results.

Social marketing can help us all become more complex beings who can question current assump-
tions, critique the status quo and think through the consequences of our actions. It can enable us
to consider alternative lifestyles, connect with indigenous wisdom and find a sense of purpose
and hope. It can guide us through the complexities of democratic and consensual change. It can,
in other words, help us to respond to our current crisis.
 12
Table 1.1 Social marketing case studies from around the World

DELIVERING GLOBAL CHANGE

Case study Authors Context Key SM issues

1. ENERGE; Encouraging Dmitry Brychkov, Christine SDG #4 Quality education Exchange Marketing
sustainable energy performance Domegan, Edelle Doherty, SDG #7 Affordable and clean research Digital solutions
in a multi-stakeholder systemic Raquel de Castro Rodrigues energy
school environment Lima & Eoghan Clifford
Energy efficiency
Europe
2. Trust the Meat Thermometer Marisha Anand & SDG #3 Good Health and Theory
Aileen McGloin Wellbeing Research
Food Safety Intervention mix
Europe
3. Acting on the climate crisis Susana Marques, Ana Estima, SDG #13 Climate Action Relationships,
through the arts and culture: a Edson Santos, Célia Laranjeira, Climate change mitigation and Creativity
social innovation journey at the Adriana Mesquita & Carla adaptation Communities
city of Águeda Couceiro
Europe
4. Making Australian Universities Maria Raciti, Jennifer Carter, SDG #10 Reduces Inequalities Formative research
Culturally Safe Places for First David Hollinsworth & Kathryn First Nations Values, benefits
Nations Peoples Gilbey
Higher education
Australia
5. “What could masculinity be?” Glen Donnar, Jon Hewitt, SDG #5 Gender Equality Planning – User-centred
Using participatory co-design Fiona Finn, Lukas Parker, Wicked problems design approach
to define and support healthier Linda Brennan & co-creation, co-design
Masculinities
masculinities John Dingeldei
Asia
6. “Standing Strong Together”: A Robert J Donovan, Lesley A SDG #3 Good Health and Beliefs
Culturally Appropriate Adaptation Murray, Julia Anwar-McHenry, Wellbeing Cultural adaptation
for a Social and Emotional Well- Amberlee Nicholas & Cathy Mental Health Intervention
being Intervention in an Australian Drane
Australia Indigenous cultures
First Nations Community
7. The humble egg in Malawi Puja Peyden Tshering, Kalpana SDG #12 Responsible Consumption Segmentation
Beesabathuni, Srujith Lingala and Production Branding
& Rowena Merritt. Food nutrition Behaviour change
Africa objectives
8. Turning the tide on poor Blue Sinead Duane SDG #6 Clean Water and Sanitation Stakeholder analysis and
Space quality through Stakeholder Maeve Louise Farrell, SDG #14 Life Below Water engagement
engagement – Lessons from PIER Alexandra Chueiri, Christine Marketing Research
Bathing water, Anti-microbial
Domegan, Liam Burke & resistance, Ireland Partnerships
Dearbháile Morris
9. Evaluating Real Change in the Marisa de Andrade, Colin SDG #10 Reduced Inequalities Evaluation
Real World: Creativity, Connection Campbell, Jean Dobbing, SDG #11 Sustainable Cities and Marketing Research
and the Unseen as Felt Evidence Felicity Fyall & Rilza Communities Ethics
in Aspiring Communities Montgomery
Community Development
Scotland

DELIVERING GLOBAL CHANGE

10. Leaf Collective: Piloting a Luisa Lopez Cordova, Yue Xi, SDG #11 Sustainable Cities and Research methods
social marketing approach to Sharyn Rundle-Thiele, Renata Communities Partnerships,
remove Eucalyptus leaves from Anibaldi, Aaron Tkaczynski, Healthy Environments Branding
stormwater drains Cuong Pham & Vanessa
Australia Communication
Salamone

(continued)

13
 14
Table 1.1 (continued)

DELIVERING GLOBAL CHANGE

Case study Authors Context Key SM issues
11. Logan City Council Wildlife Tori Seydel, Erin Hurley & SDG #15 Life on Land Planning
Movement Campaign Sharyn Rundle-Thiele SDG #11 Sustainable Cities and Marketing research
Communities Intervention mix
Koalas
Australia
12. Tackling Gender Inequality Michelle O’Shea, Hazel SDG #5 Gender Inequalities Theory
and Promoting a Healthy Lifestyle: Maxwell, Nicole Peel & Women, Sports, Behaviour change
The Women in Sport Roadshow Sarah Duffy objectives
Australia
Systems change
13. The Role of Civil Society in Rafael Pérez-Escamilla SDG #3 Good Health and Critical marketing,
Advancing the Sugar Sweetened Wellbeing Social mobilisation
Beverages Tax Policy in Mexico SDG # 17 Partnerships for the goals Policy
Sugar-Sweetened Beverages
Mexico
14. The Baby Killer Revisited Gerard Hastings, Kathryn SDG #3 Good Health and Critical marketing
Regulating the Marketing of Angus, Douglas Eadie & Kate Wellbeing
Breast Milk Substitutes Hunt SDG #13 Climate Action
Infant Nutrition
Global
15. Healthy Breakfasts in Armenia Rowena Merritt & SDG #3 Good Health and Marketing research
Nanna Skau Wellbeing Intervention mix
Food Nutrition, Children, Outcomes
Armenia
(continued)
16. Social Marketing at Multiple Anna Earl & SDG #12 Responsible Consumption Wicked problems
Levels of the Fashion System with Ann-Marie Kennedy and Production Social media
Fashion Revolution SDG# Gender inequalities Outcomes
Fashion, social movement
Global
17. Autism: Change Your Sandra C. Jones SDG #10 Reduced Inequalities Communication
Reactions Jennifer Lowe Education Community social
Nicola Edwards & Jade Australia marketing
Maloney Evaluation
18. Active Play 0-3 year olds in Christine Domegan SDG #3 Good Health and Stakeholder analysis
Galway City Tina Flaherty Dmitry Brychkov Wellbeing Systems social marketing
Evelyn Fanning & Caroline SDG # 17 Partnerships for the goals Systems map
Murray Ireland

DELIVERING GLOBAL CHANGE

15
16 DELIVERING GLOBAL CHANGE

Last word
We started with dramatic words from Rebecca Solnit. She is right, profound change is on its way.
But she also reminds us that when the chips are down we humans can respond with immense
energy and determination. “The Covid-19 pandemic is proof that if we take a crisis seriously, we
can change how we live, almost overnight, dramatically, globally, digging up great piles of money
from nowhere, like the $3tn the US initially threw at the pandemic.” This book will help you to
play a role in this transformation and help make sure it is genuinely progressive – built on respect
for each other, our fellow creatures and the natural world.

Notes
1 Solnit, Rebecca (2021). https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/nov/18/ten-ways-
confront-climate-crisis-without-losing-hope-rebecca-solnit-reconstruction-after-covid
2 https://languages.oup.com/dictionaries/
3 Harari, Y.N. (2014). Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind. London: Harper.
4 https://fcpablog.com/2016/01/18/dr-king-before-you-finish-breakfast-youve-depended-on-half-t/
5 Wilkie, W.L. and Moore, E.S. (2002). Marketing’s Relationship to Society. Handbook of Marketing,
pp. 9–38.
6 Oxfam (2017). https://www.oxfam.org/sites/www.oxfam.org/files/file_attachments/bp-economy-
for-99-percent-160117-en.pdf P16
7 WHO (2016) http://apps.who.int/gho/data/view.main.CODREG6EURV?lang=en
8 https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/tobacco
9 Emmett, S. (2013). 10 Billion. London: Penguin Books. pp. 168–169.
10 https://www.assemblies.org.uk/sec/2320/why-should-the-devil-have-all-the-good-tunes
11 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Salvation_Army
12 Wiebe, G.D. (1951). ‘Merchandising commodities and citizenship in television’, Public Opinion
Quarterly, 15(4): 679–691.
13 Kotler, P. and Zaltman, G. (1971). ‘Social marketing: An approach to planned social change’,
Journal of Marketing, 35(3): 3–12.
14 Foote, L. (2022). The diffusion of a discipline: The institutionalization of social marketing as an
innovative practice within environmental contexts [Manuscript in preparation]. Environmental
Studies Department, Antioch University, New England.
15 Douglas-Klotz, Neil (2005). The Sufi Book of Life. London: Penguin Compass, pp. 4–6.
16 https://www.harvardmagazine.com/2008/06/the-fringe-benefits-failure-the-importance-
imagination
17 McDermott, L., Stead, M., and Hastings, G. (2005). ‘What is and what is not social marketing: The
challenge of reviewing the evidence’, Journal of Marketing Management, 21(5–6): 545–553.
18 Zuboff, S. (2019). The Age of Surveillance Capitalism Profile ISBN 13: 9781781256848.
19 https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdinaction/newsletter/september2015
20 https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-development-goals/

Bibliography
Emmett, S. (2013). 10 Billion. London: Penguin Books
Harari, Y.N. (2014). Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind. London: Harper
Kotler, P. & Zaltman, G. (1971). ‘Social marketing: An approach to planned social change’, Journal of
Marketing, 35(3): 3–12
Zuboff, S. (2019). The Age of Surveillance Capitalism. London: Profile Books, ISBN 13: 9781781256848
 Chapter
2
The four social
marketing orientations

This chapter explains how social marketers work around four key forces: (i) the needs of our
clients – the people we want to work with to bring about change; (ii) the crucial role that emotion
and creativity play in our lives; (iii) the social and contextual factors that empower or constrain us
and (iv) the competitive forces that would push back against our social marketing efforts. We do
this by adopting the four orientations summarised in Figure 2.1.

Client orientation: Identify people’s needs, aspirations, values and priorities

Creative orientation: Find imaginative ways to engage them
Collective orientation: Recognise systemic drivers
Competitive orientation: Critically address the competition

Figure 2.1 Four social marketing orientations

Learning outcomes
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

✓✓ Explain the four key orientations of social marketing and why each is important.

✓✓ Demonstrate why client orientation is the starting point for effective social marketing.

✓✓ Discuss the importance of insight and creativity to ensure client engagement.

✓✓ Argue for the need to address the collective influences on our behaviour.

✓✓ Outline the different types of competition faced by the social marketer.

✓✓ Explain the value of building strategic relationships which combine these ideas.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003200086-2
18 THE FOUR SOCIAL MARKETING ORIENTATIONS

Keywords
Client orientation – creative orientation – collective orientation – competitive orientation –
external and active competition – internal and passive competition – relationship marketing –
complex exchanges.

The four social marketing orientations

In Chapter 1, we noted how social marketing addresses both individual and group behaviour to
bring about social change. In this chapter, we will look in more detail at how this works in prac-
tice. How engaging the individual makes it vital to start by getting a detailed understanding of
the people we want to involve in the process of change – our clients. To learn why they behave as
they do at present and how they might be empowered to change. This process needs to go beyond
mere data collection and incorporate a genuine empathy for the client group – a client orienta-
tion. As the old Indian proverb has it, we need to walk a mile in their shoes. The aim is to find a
mutually beneficial exchange – a way forward that is devised by and satisfies both parties.

To these insights need to be added vital elements of imagination and innovation to make our
approaches as attractive and motivating as possible, always remembering that social marketers
deal primarily in voluntary behaviour change. We cannot compel people to do business with us.
We use the term creative orientation to express this.

However deep we dig, though, in our bid to understand people, we won’t get a full picture unless
we also recognise the importance of the social determinants of behaviour. All of us are influenced
by the circumstances in which we find ourselves: a young person’s inclination to smoke is not
only a matter of personal choice but also a function of their local environment (e.g. whether
friends smoke and tobacco is readily available in neighbourhood shops) and wider social norms
(e.g. whether tobacco advertising or smoking in public places is permitted). The promotion of
electronic cigarettes, with flavours like bubble gum or cand crush, might also suggest that nico-
tine use is normal even for children. Similarly, road accidents are not just a matter of driver and
pedestrian behaviour but also of car design (manufacturer behaviour) and road infrastructure
(government behaviour). By the same token, social marketing solutions also have to be multifac-
eted; often it is as important to think about wider-scale social change as individual behaviours.
Effective social marketing therefore has to adopt a collective orientation.

This complex social picture also means that we all have lots of choice. Think about obesity,
for instance, and the many ways a person can manage their weight: buying gym membership
to exercise; ‘diet’ foods to limit calorie intake; lifestyle programmes to rebalance work/life or
surgery to shrink the stomach. The individual also has the freedom to choose not to deal with
obesity, despite what the experts and social marketers might say. The terrain becomes even
more contested, because there are other interests – the fast food and soft drinks industries for
instance – who have a vested interest in pushing against many obesity interventions. As well
as the social determinants, there are also powerful commercial determinants of ill-health (and
climate breakdown).

These multiple choices or decision points for the individual represent competition for the social
marketer. By adopting a competitive orientation, we never forget our clients have a choice. It also
 THE FOUR SOCIAL MARKETING ORIENTATIONS 19

reminds us that sometimes the best thing we can do for the individual is to protect them from
unscrupulous competition. Maybe the overweight adult would have avoided becoming fat in the
first place if there had been statutory nutritional standards when they were at school and effective
controls on the marketing of energy-dense food.

These four orientations become even more powerful when applied strategically, not just to change
ad hoc behaviours but also to build ongoing relationships. The final part of the chapter discusses
the benefits of relationship marketing.

A practical start
To help us understand how this works, we will become social marketers. Read Critical Thinking
Task 2.1 and you will see that your government has just signed up to a COP commitment promis-
ing to go carbon neutral by 2040 and has issued a tender-seeking idea about how this can best
be achieved. You work for a Social Marketing Agency which is responding to the tender. As we
progress through the chapter you will have the chance to develop your proposal using the social
marketing ideas and concepts we will discuss.

CRITICAL THINKING TASK 2.1:  GOVERNMENT TENDER

ON ACHIEVING CARBON
NEUTRALITY

Achieving carbon neutrality

In 1994 world leaders signed up the United Nations Framework Convention on

Climate Change (UNFCCC) in order to tackle climate breakdown and the profound
harm that is being done to the planetary ecosystem. Since then, despite an annual
meeting called the ‘Conference of the Parties on Climate Change’, or COP for short,
not a great deal has been achieved and the ecological situation has continued to
deteriorate. In April 2021 the Secretary-General of the United Nations, António
Guterres, speaking at the start of the 26th COP, cautioned that “we need a green
planet—but the world is on red alert …. We are at the verge of the abyss. We must
make sure the next step is in the right direction. Leaders everywhere must act.”1
Nonetheless, little changed, and in 2022 he opened the COP27 in Egypt with the
even starker warning that “we are losing the fight of our lives…we are on a highway
to climate hell with our foot still on the accelerator”2.

Your government has at last got the message and committed your country to carbon
neutrality by 2040. To realise this, it has issued a call for tenders asking for help. This
states “We are seeking ideas about how to achieve carbon neutrality for our country
by 2040. Your tenders should consider the need to take the population with us on this
journey, whilst also recognising the structural barriers to change and exploiting wider
opportunities. We want to acknowledge the challenges involved but avoid raising pub-
lic alarm – climate breakdown is already frightening prospect for many people. At the
same time, we know that António Guterres is right and there is a need for profound
and systemic change – so radical ideas are welcome. Your tender should include a stra-
tegic, evidence-based plan that will provide a roadmap to success by 2040.
20 THE FOUR SOCIAL MARKETING ORIENTATIONS

Client orientation
At base any community comprises a group of individuals attempting to rub along with each other,
to work out how we can maximise mutual benefits without undermining the individual; how we
can work together and do deals in a way that suits both – indeed multiple – parties. I respect my
neighbour’s privacy and property in part because I want her to respect mine; she will moderate
her love for heavy metal because she wants me to resist using my lawn mower at dawn. All but the
most antisocial of us understand this balance.

In particular, the smooth running of any complex social system depends on people will-
ingly living their lives in a way that serves both personal and collective needs; on coop-
eration, collaboration, compromise and the search for mutual benefit. Criminal justice,
international diplomacy, the democratic process itself all depend on voluntary, cooper-
ative behaviour; on give and take. If mutual interests aren’t properly served, any group
enterprise ultimately fractures and fails. Dialogue falters, culture wars break out and real
ones become more likely.

Nowhere are the dangers of such failure more apparent than with climate breakdown. We
all have contributions to make and a right to be consulted. This inclusivity needs to be wide-
ranging: climate breakdown has been caused almost entirely by the wealthy 20% who live
in the north of the planet3; in the search for solutions, we need to listen to the other 80%.
Indigenous people who, “despite only making up around 6% of the global population …
protect 80% of biodiversity left in the world,”4 have a particularly valuable role to play. More
broadly still, the planet, nature and our fellow creatures, are part of our collective human
project and their needs and interests also have to be given due consideration. They have the
right to our empathy and respect and it is the absence of these that is driving our ecological
problems.

Social marketing, then, puts this empathy, this need for mutual understanding, to work in the
interests of systemic change. So, the first step in our response to the tender in Critical Thinking
Task 2.1 is to think about our clients – the people we want to engage in the process of change –
and get to know them better. In this example the primary client is the general public, and we
should start by working out why they behave as they do at present, their values and motivations,
and use this understanding to develop an offering that is equally or more appealing but with
better ecological outcomes.

The most immediate benefit of this approach is that it allows for the fact that, time and again,
the picture is much more complex than mere ignorance of the facts. In public health, for exam-
ple, most people know that smoking is dangerous or how their diet could be improved. They
continue to behave “badly” because they see some other benefit in doing so, relaxation per-
haps or a treat. The secret for the social marketer is to devise a way of enabling them to get
the same benefit more healthily. In this sense, social marketing has a great deal in common
with good, patient-centred healthcare. The proficiency of experts and other professionals is
much more effectively deployed when combined with empathy for the client. Ultimately, better
health, a better environment and a better-functioning society is best seen as a joint endeavour.
Co-creation is the best way forward.
 THE FOUR SOCIAL MARKETING ORIENTATIONS 21

Social marketers then embrace the idea of mutually beneficial exchange. However, this raises two
contentious issues:

i) The first concerns motivation, not just of the client group but also of the social marketer. The
idea of mutually beneficial exchange suggests that the social marketer also gains something.
At first glance this can seem unpalatable: surely people seeking to make the world a better
place – doctors, teachers, conservationists and social marketers – should not be doing it for
personal gain. They should be selfless and altruistic; theirs’s is a vocation. Have a go at Critical
Thinking Task 2.2.

CRITICAL THINKING TASK 2.2: ALTRUISM OR GAIN

Think back to all the teachers you have had so far in your life. Which was the best
one? What made them a good teacher? Were they easy going, or did they some-
times drive you to do more than you wanted? Were their classes always fun, or did
they make you work hard? Did they always remain even tempered and pleasant, or
did they sometimes get cross and irritable with you? Were they pleased when you
succeeded or unhappy when you did not?

The exercise encourages us to realise that change – in this case driven by education – requires
much more than an active giver and passive recipient. The teacher has to challenge and push
the pupil – and, crucially, the pupil needs to push back. As any competent teacher will tell you,
they are always learning from their pupils as well as teaching them. In the words of the Irish
poet WB Yeats: “education is not the filling of a pail, but the lighting of a fire” – and everyone
is warmed by the flames. For social marketers it is only by listening to our clients that we can
understand the limitations of our interventions and the narrowness of our own views. We
need their help. This is particularly apparent with the Government tender on climate. Nobody
has the full answer to how we can and should change our behaviour and lifestyles to reach
zero carbon – it is something we all have to work on together.

ii) The second sensitive issue is that of compromise, which is at the heart of any mutually beneficial
exchange. If give and take is so important, the social marketer should be able to vary their offer
according to the wishes and priorities of the client group. But can social marketers really do
this? Aren’t interventions fixed by the evidence base – heroin is extremely toxic, the only solu-
tion is to avoid or stop using; smoking kills, therefore our non-smoking product is surely set in
stone. Not so. Compromise is possible, and indeed often considered best practice. Thus, in HIV/
AIDS interventions, for example, it has been widely accepted that messages of absolute safety
and behaviours such as celibacy and complete abstinence from injecting drugs will simply not
sell to many potential clients. They have been replaced by offerings of relative safety – safer sex
and safer drug use. Similarly, many in tobacco control have embraced e-cigarettes as a means
of reducing tobacco related harm. Given the TI industry’s business planning (see Competitive
Orientation below) it remains to be seen whether this is a wise decision, but the key point here
is that adjusting the offer in collaboration with the client group is a well-established practice.
Again, such nuance is particularly important on climate, with all its complexities: witness the
debate as to whether nuclear provision of energy is or is not a potential solution.5
22 THE FOUR SOCIAL MARKETING ORIENTATIONS

Finally, it is important to remember that social marketing is concerned with voluntary and con-
sensual change. We empower and encourage rather than compel. This makes client orientation
the most important of the four orientations. All the case studies adopt it. Take a look, for exam-
ple, at Case Study #4 and see how important understanding the perceptions and values of First
Nation peoples have been in efforts to make Australian universities culturally safe for them. Or
Case Study #6, “Standing Strong Together,” which uses the same empathetic approach to boost
social and emotional wellbeing.

Creative orientation
Client orientation becomes even more effective when combined with insight and innovation. When
we recognise that our lives are often influenced as much by emotion as rationality. That our behav-
iour is not always the perfect product of rational-deductive reasoning. If it were, no one would drop
litter, driving urban SUVs would be a distant memory and mindful consumption would be the order
of the day. But sometimes we let our hearts rule our heads: we want to prove we are grown up or look
good in front of others. Occasionally we may feel we just can’t do otherwise: the “right behaviour”
seems unattainable. Social marketing recognises these challenges and tries to add a strong emo-
tional dimension to interventions – to build trust and offer respect, for instance.

Marques et al in Case Study #3 show how cultural heritage and creativity play a strategic role in
the Portuguese town of Agueda’s fight against climate breakdown in the form of flooding and for-
est fires. Their integrated environment and tourism department oversees such creative projects as
Monty Python-inspired “silly walks” against pollution, environmentally themed street mural painting
with children in disadvantaged neighbourhoods and ‘the sea starts here’ urban art installations, all
to engage Agueda’s citizens, communities and visitors with climate issues. In Case Study #11, Seidel
et al illustrate how a mix of real koalas (including injured ones) and cartoon images were used across
a variety of formats to reach diverse audiences in the community and schools. Similarly, Merritt and
Skau (Case Study #15) show how their campaign’s innovative tongue in cheek tone, focused on the
love family members have for each other and their children, and slogan (this day is yours) emerged
from creative research with their client group and enabled them to avoid the trap of preaching.

Hello Sunday Morning is another great example of an insightful and innovative approach to social
change. Log on to https://hellosundaymorning.org to see how it is working to “change the world’s
relationship with alcohol, one Sunday at a time” using its Pioneering, Empathic, Authenticity,
Respectful and Supportive core values.

Our response to the Government tender also needs to address some powerful emotions. The state of
the planet is causing distress to many people, and one of the biggest obstacles to progress is despair.
So, we need to balance a powerful call to action (e.g. stop driving fossil fuel cars) with a sense of
empowerment (e.g. you can rely on our greatly improved public transport system). Urgent action is
needed, which, when taken, will help to resolve the problem. A mixture of concern and hope.

Collective orientation
Such empowered behaviour, however, is not always sufficient or even possible. The American phi-
losopher David Foster Wallace6 (2008) tells the story of two young fishes who are swimming along
 THE FOUR SOCIAL MARKETING ORIENTATIONS 23

when they meet an older fish swimming the other way, who nods at them and says, “Morning, boys,
how’s the water?” And the two young fishes reply, “It is lovely, thank you.” They swim on for a bit,
and then one of them looks over at the other and asks: “What the heck is water?” Wallace goes on to
explain that the story shows that the most widespread and powerful influences on our behaviour are
often ones we take for granted or do not notice, and so cannot discuss or critique. Our immediate
environment is to us as the water is to the young fish. Have a go at Critical Thinking Task 2.3.

CRITICAL THINKING TASK 2.3:  THE IMPORTANCE OF

SOCIAL CONTEXT

Think about some facet of your own behaviour – your alcohol drinking perhaps, or
recycling and reusing choices. Write down all the different influences you can think
of that make you behave as you do. These may range from full-on pressure, such as
your friend urging you to have another drink because it’s your round, or neighbours
putting out recycling bins and shaming you into doing the same, to background
nudges like a tempting bottle of lager on a supermarket cold shelf or a local charity
shop with 10% off ‘pre-loved clothes’. When you have thought of every possible
trigger, ask your friends what influences them – and add these to the list.

The exercise typically results in an extensive list. Recognising these broader determinants of how
we live our lives is important to social marketers for four key reasons. First, it provides us with a
fuller understanding of why our clients behave as they do, so it enhances our client orientation
and hence all the benefits of this discussed above. In short, it makes all our behaviour change
efforts more effective.

It also avoids the danger of “victim blaming”: pushing someone to change a behaviour that is
not – or not entirely – of their own making. This is not only ineffective but also potentially unethi-
cal. The dilemma is most apparent when we consider vulnerable groups: there are obvious prob-
lems with a media intervention telling poor sub-Saharan villagers to feed their children better
when they can’t access food because there has been a drought, their government is corrupt and
the world economic system is dysfunctional. The same potential problems are present, if less
obvious, in wealthy countries where food is plentiful and government subject to working democ-
racy. The UK and the US, for example, two of the richest countries in the world, have many poor
people who struggle to feed themselves properly (see Chapter 8). In Foster Wallace’s terms, the
problem is with the water not the fish. In Chapter 1, we picked up on the idea of individual agency,
our ability to be the authors of our own fate; now we are recognising that this needs to be balanced
against the structural barriers – poverty, climate and oppression – that limit our agency.

Third, a collective orientation can provide much more effective and efficient solutions than
individual level work. Consider the example of water fluoridation. This involves water provid-
ers adjusting the natural level of fluoride in the public water supply so as to produce substantial
improvements in the dental health of the population, especially among children and those liv-
ing in deprived communities. It is well proven to be both effective and safe, but it is not the only
option for improving dental health. Have a go at Critical Thinking Task 2.4.
24 THE FOUR SOCIAL MARKETING ORIENTATIONS

CRITICAL THINKING TASK 2.4:  IMPROVING DENTAL

HEALTH

Here are four alternative ways of improving dental health:

a. fluoridating the water supply,

b. encouraging good oral hygiene,

c. encouraging the use of fluoride supplements such as tablets, drops and fluori-
dated salt, and

d. remove refined sugar from the diet.

Which do you think is likely to be the most effective?

Alternatives b, c and d are all less effective than water fluoridation. They are also much less
efficient. The underlying reason is the same: they depend for their success on far more people
doing something. In the case of water fluoridation, just the provider has to act, then the health
benefits simply flow through the tap. In option a) interventions have to be funded on an ongo-
ing basis, and every individual has to respond. In option b) all dentists have to apply these
measures to all their patients and even then, coverage will be partial – only a third of English
children have seen an NHS dentist in the last year.7 Option c) requires everyone to buy and
use these products forever, and option d) demands revolutionary changes in everyone’s diet –
again forever.

Furthermore, uptake of b–d will inevitably be greater amongst the better off, so these options will
increase inequalities. Fluoridation does the reverse.

A collective orientation can also help us to tackle problems that people do not even know they
have. Spina bifida provides an evocative illustration. It is known that the occurrence of this debili-
tating and sometimes fatal birth defect can be prevented if women consume adequate quanti-
ties of vitamin B folate before and during the early stages of pregnancy. An individualistic social
marketing solution to the problem would be to inform women of the risk, and advise them to eat
foods, such as broccoli and sprouts, that are rich in folates. The social marketer could add to this
communication campaign measures which ensure that these foods are readily available – per-
haps by getting celebrity chefs to promote tasty recipes. In this way he or she might get 50% of
women who are intending to get pregnant eating a preventative diet.

This leaves 50%, however, rejecting the offering. One response to this is to increase the cost of
their intransigence by running media messages about the awfulness of spina bifida. (This is not
quite as daft as it sounds; we still do it for lung cancer.) Alternatively, a more enlightened social
marketer might scan the technological environment and suggest that instead of pushing unpopu-
lar vegetables like broccoli, the solution is to market folic acid supplements. This might get 75% of
intending mothers to cooperate.
 THE FOUR SOCIAL MARKETING ORIENTATIONS 25

However, a large proportion of the priority group do not even know that they are the target: data
first published in 2020 show that “nearly half of all pregnancies worldwide – about 121 million –
are unintended.”8 Who is going to take steps to prevent a risk to which they have no intention of
exposing themselves? Pedestrians do not wear crash helmets. In the US this problem has been
resolved by acting collectively. Since 1998 all US wheat, rice and corn flour have been fortified
with folic acid. The Food and Drug Administration ordered the measures after research showed
that only about 25% of women of childbearing age regularly consume enough folic acid in the
form of a vitamin supplement. The measure worked. By 1999 the Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention found that the average red blood cell folate concentration had increased by over 50%
and was able to show a decline in spina bifida and anencephaly rates.9

The final benefit of a collective orientation is that it helps us to be strategic. We will discuss strategic
planning in detail in the next chapter, but at this point let us just note that a collective orientation
pushes us to raise our eyes above the detail of individual behaviours and see the bigger picture.
Lawrence Wallack’s story (see Figure 2.2) neatly illustrates of benefits of moving upstream.

Thus a collective orientation encourages us to ask the key strategic question for any social market-
ing intervention: whose behaviour needs to change – that of the individual, the marketer or the
minister of finance? And then recognise that in most cases, the answer will be all of them. Case

A man out walking comes across a river in which people are being swept along and
in danger of drowning. His immediate desire is to help them and he considers various
options – throwing in lifebelts, diving in himself and pulling some to shore or even shout-
ing out instructions on how to swim. And each of these certainly has the potential to help;
but it is equally clear that some people will drown – he hasn’t got the time or resources
to reach them all. He begins to question why this calamity has arisen; why are so many
people in the river in the first place? To find out he has to go upstream. When he does
so, he finds that a few hundred metres further on there are huge and evocative billboards
extolling the virtues of the river – how clean and refreshing it is – and calling on people
to “jump on in; the water’s lovely.” A beautiful new diving board has been provided to
make the prospect even more enticing, and it costs only 10 cents a go. Kids are daring
each other to give it a try.

The man shakes his head and carries on upstream.

After he walks for a few more minutes, the bank begins getting wet, muddy and treacher-
ous. He becomes anxious about falling in the river himself. Then he sees houses built on
these poor foundations. They are cheap and dilapidated, more like shacks than houses,
and some are clearly in danger of collapse. As he is watching, a small child slips down the
bank and only just manages to save itself from falling in the river.

The man is left pondering about how he can best do something about the drowning peo-
ple: should he help the people who have already fallen in, stop advertisers encouraging
others to jump in or move right upstream and change economic policy so that the poor
can afford better housing?

Figure 2.2 Lawrence Wallack’s river10

26 THE FOUR SOCIAL MARKETING ORIENTATIONS

Study #8 presents an excellent example of how careful thought about all those with an interest in an
issue (often referred to as stakeholders) is a vital social marketing skill. The focus is on clean “Blue
Places” (rivers, lakes and seas) and Sinead Duane et al group their stakeholders into three levels:
Micro, Meso and Macro. You can see how this simple classification aided the team’s understand-
ing of the current actors, drivers and power relations – or as they put it “how this system operated”.

We face similar – even greater – complexities with the Government tender on climate. It is clear
that we, the general public, have a role to play in reducing our individual carbon footprints, but
other drivers are beyond our control. We can’t do much about power generation or fossil fuel
extraction, for example, which really needs government or even international action. Our abil-
ity to act will also be constrained by the system. If we are living in poverty, for example, or with
domestic violence, the climate is likely to seem a distant concern at best. Similarly, if we are con-
tinually bombarded with ads for long-haul holidays, our desire for a greener staycation will be
depleted. So, the response to the tender needs to raise issues such as fairness and equity and talk
about the unhelpful pressures commercial marketing puts on us to consume more – the com-
mercial determinants of climate breakdown. Ultimately, coming full circle, a fairer, kinder system
helps us all play our part, not just in behaving more ecologically, but in making the system better
and so improving the quality of all our lives. Whilst we can’t stop oil drilling in the arctic, we can
protest about it, write to our representatives and join action groups like Extinction Rebellion. So,
a collective orientation fits perfectly with the Client and Creative orientations.

Competitive orientation
This bigger picture, as we’ve just noted, has to include the competition, which for social mar-
keters comes in two forms. First, there is passive competition. Social marketing recognises that
clients, whether government ministers or teenage tearaways, have choices. They can, and often
do, continue with their current behaviour. There are internal barriers to change, which could be
in the form of beliefs, feelings, attitudes or intentions. It is therefore very important to look closely
at this “competition” to understand what benefits it is perceived to bring and how alternative
behaviour can be made more attractive. For example, it is clear that for some teenagers smoking
is felt to hold a range of benefits, including rebellion, weight control and sophistication, which
can outstrip health concerns such as lung and heart disease in years to come. Social marketers
need to take these perspectives into account if there is to be any hope of winning over young peo-
ple. The truth campaign, a US anti-smoking campaign of many years standing, does precisely this
by adopting the theme of rebellion – not against society but against the manipulative practices of
the tobacco industry. It is one of the most successful prevention interventions ever run11; we will
discuss it further in Chapter 6.

Mention of the tobacco industry brings us to the second sense in which social marketers need to
address the competition. As well as internal barriers, there are external organisations actively push-
ing in the opposite direction. What social marketers see as a problem – poor diet and addiction to
nicotine – these competitors see as a profitable opportunity. This results in direct and active com-
petition. For example, one reason so many people are overweight and obese is because junk food
companies have been so successful in marketing their energy-dense products.12 The marketing of
alcohol and tobacco is also causing major public health harm.13,14 Figure 2.3 discusses why this addi-
tional competitive dimension to social marketing, termed critical marketing, is so important.
 THE FOUR SOCIAL MARKETING ORIENTATIONS 27

Critical marketing brings three key benefits:

1. Understanding the marketing strategies of the competition – the tobacco, alcohol
and fossil fuels companies for instance - and consumer response to them, provides
us with invaluable intelligence. If marketing can get us to drive a Ferrari, it can also
encourage us to ride a bike.

2. Commercial activity is a crucial part of the environment that we have already recog-
nised as a key determinant of behaviour; studying the impact of commercial market-
ing makes our work both more effective and more ethical.

3. Commercial marketers sometimes directly oppose social marketing efforts and need
to be combatted.

Figure 2.3 Why critical marketing analysis matters

Case Study #13 from Rafael Pérez-Escamilla illustrates the third point in Figure 3.2 about direct
opposition from commercial interests. In comes from Mexico where there are enormous prob-
lems with obesity and a resulting wave of death and disease. Taxing sugary drinks to increase their
prices is a well-proven and effective policy response, but, as the case describes it was not popular
with the food and drinks companies. They formed a strong anti-sugar tax alliance to lobby con-
gress and policy makers, claiming (wrongly) that lack of physical activity – not nutrition – was the
problem. They also funded studies to try to undermine the evidence base supporting the policy,
in the same way the tobacco companies had done when cigarette taxes are proposed15. The Case
Study shows how El Poder del Consumidor (Consumer Power), comprising almost thirty civil
society organisations, successfully fought back and ultimately won the day. In the process they
remind us that speaking truth to power is a crucial part of the social marketer’s role.

So our response to the tender in Critical Thinking Task 2.1 must address both passive and active
competition. At a passive level we need to shake people out of long-established habits that are car-
bon wasteful – from short-haul driving and long-haul holidays to sustainable transport and sustain-
able tourism. It must also address the active competition, and particularly the role of commercial
marketing in encouraging consumption. In the UK the removal of tobacco marketing has driven
down teen smoking; the removal of marketing for carbon-heavy products such as SUVs, cruises and
industrially farmed beef would reduce other harmful consumption – and benefit the planet.

We will continue our discussion of competitive and critical thinking in Chapters 7 and 8.

The orientations combined

In 2006 Scotland passed a law making all public places smoke-free. It was one of the great success stories
of Scottish public health and perfectly illustrates the importance of the four social marketing orientations:

•• Client orientation. Smoke-free legislation typifies this first orientation; the measure was almost
(see competitive orientation below) universally welcomed. Press speculation about mass diso-
bedience by smokers proved completely groundless. A public opinion survey16 just a few days
after the law’s introduction showed that no fewer than 84 per cent of 16- to 24-year-olds not only
approved of the measure but also thought it one “that Scotland could be proud of.”
28 THE FOUR SOCIAL MARKETING ORIENTATIONS

However, the success was by no means a solo effort by the authorities; the public also played
an important role. Their experiences of smoky pubs told them that going smoke-free was a
good idea, not so much because it would save them from illness as the ad campaigns main-
tained, but because it was so unpleasant. The need to wash your hair and clothes after every
night out was as influential as the threat of second-hand lung cancer. This policy measure
worked because both the authorities and the public wanted it to. This is a good example of
co-created mutually beneficial exchange.

•• Creative orientation. Going smoke-free was an immensely innovative move. Prior to the legisla-
tion Scotland had long been caricatured as the “sick man of Europe,” and Glasgow pubs were a
byword for hard-drinking, unhealthy lifestyles. To make these semi-shebeens the spearhead of a
pioneering public health measure was extremely bold.

•• Collective orientation. This success depended on the engagement of multiple stakeholders. The
attention of politicians was captured with a carefully marshalled evidence base showing that:
(a) second-hand smoke is extremely toxic; and (b) making hospitality venues smoke-free does not
harm business. This attention turned to commitment when the Scottish First Minister met with the
Irish Minister for Health, Micheál Martin, who had already brought in similar legislation. Reputedly,
when asked by Jack McConnell what he would do differently if he had his time over, Martin replied
simply: “I would have done more sooner.” McConnell was won over: he had gone over to Ireland
on the Friday night set against going smoke-free and he returned on the Monday all in favour, one
of the clearest examples of source effect (see Chapter 6) ever recorded. Other key stakeholders in
the social system, including the hospitality trade unions, the health and safety professionals and, of
course, the medics were recruited to the cause, discussing the benefits both through their profes-
sional bodies (more helpful source effects) and concerted press and PR activity.

•• Competitive orientation. There was, however, also loud and very active competition. Extreme
opposition came from the tobacco companies. Perhaps the most well-documented evidence
of their hostility was revealed in a paper published in the journal Tobacco Control.17 Of the
97 studies on the economic impact of smoke-free ordinances, 35 showed it had a bad effect
on bars and restaurants. However, 31 of the 35 studies had two things in common. First, they
were generally of poor quality (e.g. they lacked control groups or objective outcome meas-
ures) and, second, every single one was supported in some way by the tobacco industry. (The
funding sources for the other four studies are unknown.) The high-quality independent stud-
ies all showed that smoke-free had no negative commercial impact. Nonetheless most of the
hospitality sector remained adamantly opposed to going smoke-free and an excellent public
health intervention had to proceed despite their opposition.

Relational thinking
The smoke-free success of Scotland is impressive, but only addresses one element of one prob-
lem, smoking. How much more effective would it be if we were able to build on this success,
along with the positive experience of the public and (most of) the stakeholders? How many other
issues could be resolved? Maybe Scotland could become an international leader not just in the
elimination of second-hand smoke, but public health more widely – or indeed the fight against
climate breakdown and for sustainable living. Given what we have already said about the gravity
and complexity of these challenges, and of the need to empower people and build their agency to
engage in transformation, this positive energy would be invaluable.
 THE FOUR SOCIAL MARKETING ORIENTATIONS 29

Such long-term or relational thinking has much to offer social marketing because we so often
want to move beyond the ad hoc. We don’t want people to wear a seat belt once, refrain from
hitting their partner every now and then or behave sustainably occasionally. We want them to
do these things again and again – indeed forevermore. Actually, our interest is often in lifestyles
rather than isolated behaviours. Even when target behaviours seem like one-offs, such as with
vaccination during the Covid-19 pandemic or temporary speed restrictions following a road traf-
fic accident, relationship issues are still important. The anti-vax movement is driven by poor rela-
tionships between health/government authorities and some sections of the public; road safety
depends on drivers trusting the authorities to set reasonable speed limits.

As Morgan and Hunt18 express it in their analysis of relational thinking in the commercial sector:
“Understanding relationship marketing requires distinguishing between the discrete transac-
tion, which has a ‘distinct beginning, short duration and sharp ending by performance,’ and
relational exchange, which ‘traces to previous agreements [and] . . . is longer in duration, reflect-
ing an ongoing process.’” Their work also identified two key relational constructs: trust and com-
mitment, both of which have been shown to have particular relevance to social marketing.

Trust and commitment

Duane19 defines trust as the willingness and confidence to depend upon exchange partners. It is this
confidence that allows the individual to assess the dangers of engaging in exchange when the benefits
of doing so are often intangible or delayed; trust then is closely linked to the credibility of the social
marketer. In social marketing scenarios where risk and uncertainty are present, as with Covid vaccines,
trust becomes particularly important, and problems arise when relationships haven’t been nurtured.

Trust is a precursor of commitment: people will not commit unless they trust and it takes time
to turn trust into commitment.20,21 Duane (2012) explains that commitment in social marketing
can manifest itself in different forms, for example, a pledge to undertake and maintain a positive
behaviour or even a formal contract22,23 (Lagarde et al., 2005; Donovan and Henley 2010).

Marques and Domegan24 point out that trust “is based on cooperation with customers, other
stakeholders and network partners” who all “benefit from a win-win situation, where the parties
work as partners.” Such relationship building in social marketing is demanding. There is rarely
one single entity involved. Consider the typical social marketing scenario – interventions are
funded, developed and delivered by different organisations. The delivery, in particular, tends to
make use of the existing infrastructures ranging from commercial retail outlets to health and edu-
cational pathways, for example, schools, doctors or community partners. Furthermore, conflict
and tensions often occur. For instance, delivery agents may not approve or have any allegiance to
the funder or the developer, which poses challenges such as the need to define who is responsible
for the relationship and for developing the consistency and integration of the “collective.”

Complex relational exchanges

The point is that complex relational exchanges demand innovative ways of thinking about social
issues. As Marques and Domegan put it: “[T]he main contributions of relationship marketing is
that it helps to uncover fundamental contradictions in, and challenges to, current social
30 THE FOUR SOCIAL MARKETING ORIENTATIONS

marketing thinking. First and foremost, the collaboration is with the client as a co-creator of
value. The organisation starts with the client and where their behaviour is and not where the
organisation wants their behaviour to be.”25

Anna Earl and Ann-Marie Kennedy, in Case Study #16, demonstrate exactly this sort of complex-
ity. They present Fashion Revolution, “a self-proclaimed fashion activism movement, mobilising
citizens, brands and policymakers through research, education and advocacy” in 94 counties.
Fashion Revolution advocates for policy change, better regulation and law enforcement. It also
undertakes research into the environmental and social impacts of fashion supply chains, champi-
ons responsible brands and runs awareness and education about fast fashion impacts on people
and the planet. Thus it shows the complex and collective action needed for systemic change.

Given this complexity, projects had to be seen as a joint or co-learning process allowing all parties
and stakeholders to become enthusiastic and willing to grow and develop. This further learning
“points to the power of dialogue and co-learning to re-contextualise specific problems in wider
social issues.26” Thus, the benefits of relational thinking – satisfaction, transparency, sustainabil-
ity, trust and commitment – raise the potential for more profound concepts of change; ones that
take in the idea of partnership working, social movements and wide-scale social or “systemic”
change. This type of “bigger picture” thinking is of vital importance if we are to tackle complex,
multifaceted and highly contended problems such as climate breakdown.

We will return to this discussion in Chapter 10. For the moment though, we will just note that the
best social marketing combines all four orientations using relational thinking (see Figure 2.4).

Figure 2.4 A strategic vision of social marketing

 THE FOUR SOCIAL MARKETING ORIENTATIONS 31

Wrap-up
In this chapter, we have examined four social marketing orientations:

1. Client orientation which puts a premium on understanding the people we want to work with
and engaging them in the change process.

2. Creative orientation emphasising the need for meaningful insights, innovative thinking and
imaginative solutions to problems.

3. Collective orientation recognising that the individual’s behaviour is shaped, moulded and
influenced by those around them, such as family and friends, together with the structures and
policies of the society they live in. Effective social marketing has to be equally multifaceted.

4. Competitive orientation – social marketing is all about voluntary behaviour change: clients
have choices – they can ignore, subvert or reject our overtures. The challenge for the social
marketer is to understand this “passive” competition and, whenever possible, transform into
cooperation. There is also the need to recognise, critique and address the “active” competition,
which are most apparent in the commercial determinants of ill-health and climate breakdown.

These orientations build on the concept of mutually beneficial, complex exchanges and become
strategic drivers when combined with relational thinking and recognition of the need to engage
with multiple stakeholders. Ultimately, these ideas make most sense when we see social market-
ing as a process for engaging with people in social change, rather than just an event, a means to the
end of getting or telling them to behave in a certain way. Complex, multifactorial problems such
as climate breakdown can only be tackled when we all feel empowered to address them and live
in social structures and systems that enable us to do so. In this sense, social marketing is as much
about power, agency and social movements as it is about smoking cessation services or recycling
interventions.

Reflective questions
1. What are the four orientations of social marketing?

2. Discuss what being client-oriented means to the social marketer.

3. That “behaviours have context” is a core premise of social marketing’s collective orientation.
Elaborate with examples.

4. The concept of exchange underlies the client, creative, collective and competitive orienta-
tions of social marketing. What does exchange mean to you?

5. How might exchange be relevant to social, environmental and welfare issues?

6. What does relationship thinking offer the social marketer?

Reflective assignments
1. Make sure you are comfortable with the four orientations of social marketing by writing a
concise paragraph about each.
32 THE FOUR SOCIAL MARKETING ORIENTATIONS

2. Based upon the organisation you work in, or an organisation of your choice, map out its client
and competitive orientation.

3. How, where and why do the four orientations – client, creative, collective and competitive –
integrate with our discussions of social marketing in Chapter 1.

4. Consult the Journal of Social Marketing and/or Social Marketing Quarterly to read a classic
or contemporary article, or more, on social marketing’s philosophy to advance your under-
standing of its client, creative, collective and competitive foundational pillars.

5. Our case studies from around the globe demonstrate the United Nations Sustainable
Development Goals (UN SDGs) at work. Visit https://sdgs.un.org/goals and write a critical
analysis explaining what the UN SDGs are; where they came from; why they are important
and what their relevance is to social marketing.

Notes
1 https://www.un.org/press/en/2021/sgsm20694.doc.htm
2 https://theglobalherald.com/news/un-secretary-guterres-says-we-are-losing-the-fight-of-
our-lives-in-cop27-opening-speech/#:~:text=The%20United%20Nations%20%28UN%29%20
secretary%20general%20António%20Guterres,said%20during%20his%20Cop27%20opening%20
speech%20in%20Egypt.
3 Laudato, S. (2015). http://w2.vatican.va/content/francesco/en/encyclicals/documents/papa-
francesco_2050524_enciclica-laudato-si.html
4 https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/nov/02/cop26-indigenous-activists-
climate-crisis
5 https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/jan/03/fury-eu-moves-ahead-plans-label-gas-
nuclear-green
6 Wallace, D.F. (2008). ‘Plain old untrendy troubles and emotions’, The Guardian, 20 September
2008. Online: www.guardian.co.uk/books/2008/sep/20/fiction/.
7 https://digital.nhs.uk/data-and-information/publications/statistical/nhs-dental-statistics/
2020-21-biannual-report
8 https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2022/mar/30/contraception-myths-
mean-nearly-half-of-pregnancies-worldwide-unintended-report
9 Mathews, T.J., Honein, M.A., & Erickson, J.D. (2002). ‘Spina bifida and anencephaly prevalence–
United States, 1991–2001’, MMWR Recommendations and Reports, 51(RR13): 9–11.
10 Based on Wallack, L., Dorfman, L., Jernigan, D., & Themba, M. (1993). Media Advocacy and Public
Health. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
11 Farrelly, M.C., Healton, C.G., Davis, K.C., Messeri, P., Hersey, J.C., & Haviland, M.L. (2002). ‘Getting
to the truth: Evaluating national tobacco countermarketing campaigns’, American Journal of Public
Health, 92(6): 901–907.
12 Smith, R., Kelly, B., Yeatman, H., & Boyland, E. (2019). ‘Food marketing influences children’s atti-
tudes, preferences and consumption: A systematic critical review’, Nutrients, 11(4): E875.
13 Jernigan, D., Noel, J., Landon, J., Thornton, N., & Lobstein, T. (2017). ‘Alcohol marketing and youth
alcohol consumption: A systematic review of longitudinal studies published since 2008,’ Addiction,
112 (Suppl 1): 7–20.
14 National Cancer Institute. (2008). ‘The role of the media in promoting and reducing tobacco use’.
In: Tobacco Control Monograph No. 19. Bethesda, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services, National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute.
15 Smith, K. E., Savell, E., & Gilmore, A. B. (2013). What is known about tobacco industry efforts to
influence tobacco tax? A systematic review of empirical studies. Tobacco control, 22(2), e1-e1.
 THE FOUR SOCIAL MARKETING ORIENTATIONS 33

16 Cancer Research UK Press Release (2006) ‘Young Scots “most proud” to be smoke-free as
iconic image unveiled’. Online: www.cancerresearchuk.org/cancer-info/news/archive/
pressrelease/2006-03-14-young-scots-most-proud-to-be-smokefree-as-iconic-image-unveiled
(accessed 16 May 2013).
17 Scollo, M., Lal, A., Hyland, A., & Glantz, S. (2003). ‘Review of the quality of studies on the economic
effects of smoke-free policies on the hospitality industry’, Tobacco Control, 12(1): 13–20.
18 Morgan, R.M. & Hunt, S.D. (1994). ‘The commitment-trust theory of relationship marketing’,
Journal of Marketing, 58(3): 20–38.
19 Duane, S. (2012). A Social Marketing Partnership Framework: An Extension of Morgan and Hunt’s
(1994) Commitment – Trust Key Mediating Variable Model. PhD thesis, National University of
Ireland, Galway, Ireland.
20 Hastings, G. (2003). ‘Relational paradigms in social marketing’, Journal of Macromarketing, 23(1):
6–15.
21 Donovan, R. & Henley, N. (2010). Principles and Practice of Social Marketing. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, UK.
22 Lagarde, F., Doner, L., Donovan, R.J., Charney, S., & Grieser, M. (2005). ‘Partnerships from the
downstream perspective: The role strategic alliances play in implementing social marketing pro-
grams’, Social Marketing Quarterly, 11(3–4): 38–45.
23 Donovan & Henley op cit.
24 Marques, S. & Domegan, C. (2011). ‘Relationship marketing and social marketing’. Ch. 3 In G.
Hastings, K. Angus and C. Bryant (eds), The SAGE Handbook of Social Marketing. London: Sage
Publications Ltd.
25 ibid op cit.
26 ibid.

Bibliography
Donovan, R. & Henley, N. (2010). Principles and Practice of Social Marketing. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, UK
Farrelly, M.C., Healton, C.G., Davis, K.C., Messeri, P., Hersey, J.C., & Haviland, M.L. (2002). ‘Getting to
the truth: Evaluating national tobacco countermarketing campaigns’, American Journal of Public
Health, 92(6): 901–907
Laudato, S. (2015). http://w2.vatican.va/content/francesco/en/encyclicals/documents/papa-
francesco_2050524_enciclica-laudato-si.html
 Chapter
3
The shoulders of giants
Why theory matters

The best social marketing campaigns learn lessons from previous attempts to change behaviour. There
have been many such attempts and lots of insights have resulted. For example, we now know that com-
plex behaviours can take a long time to change; that the social circumstances in which we live – our
relative wealth perhaps or family circumstances – can enhance or limit our ability to change our indi-
vidual behaviour; and that how other people act around us can have a big impact on what we do. The
idea of exchange – that we look for benefits when considering a change – has also recurred in past work.
These insights have been welcomed and analysed for many years by behavioural scientists and
fashioned into theories which attempt to map and explain our behaviour. But we humans are
complex creatures, and many theories have emerged which can seem almost as daunting as the
problems they are intended to help us tackle. It need not be so, and in this chapter, we will intro-
duce you to some of the key theories (see Figure 3.1), explain why they matter and show how they
might help solve social marketing problems.

Theory Key principles

Stages of Change Theory Behaviour change is a gradual multistage process

Theories of Social Change:
• Social Cognitive Theory Social context matters
• Social Norms Theory What other people do around us matters
• Social Capital Theory The sense of community matters
• Social Ecological Theory Everything is connected
Exchange Theory We look for benefits when considering change

Figure 3.1 Seven useful theories

DOI: 10.4324/9781003200086-3
 THE SHOULDERS OF GIANTS 35

Learning outcomes
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

✓✓ Critique why and how theory is important in social marketing.

✓✓ Demonstrate how theory can help answer three key questions: where people are in relation to
a particular behaviour; what factors influence this positioning and how it might be changed.

✓✓ Analyse three theories of behaviour change: Stages of Change Theory; Social Cognitive Theory
and Exchange Theory – while recognising that there are many other useful ones as well.

✓✓ Evaluate “value” and its vital role in Exchange Theory.

✓✓ Apply theory to a practical social marketing problem.

Keywords
Stages of Change Theory – Theories of Social Change – Exchange Theory – Values – Self-interest –
Mutuality – Morality – Restricted and Complex Exchanges.

Why theory matters

Theory summarises and focuses lessons from past research and interventions; it enables us to
learn from experience. Although it sometimes sounds very academic and complex, we all use it
on a daily basis – as Figure 3.2 shows.

Harry is an experienced punter and well versed in horse-racing lore. He is rightly proud of his
skills. But he would probably be surprised to discover that he is also an accomplished user of
theory. Indeed, his Wincanton punt harnessed three theories: that lineage will influence a horse’s
performance; that past performance is predictive of future outcomes; and that different horses
are suited to different conditions. These theories have emerged because generations of racegoers
have observed, recorded and analysed results to try to work out how they can anticipate winners.

Harry likes a flutter on the horses. He has just driven his invalid trike four miles (eight miles
there and back) to the next village because the local bookie is closed on a Tuesday. After
much pondering, he put ten Euros on Agamemnon to win in the 3.30 at Wincanton. The
odds were ten to one, so he stands to make 100 Euros.

He decided on Agamemnon because the filly comes from good stock – her sire (father)
won the Grand National in his youth and her dam (mother) was also a well-regarded racer.
He also considered Agamemnon’s form to date – one win, and three times placed in the
first three. Finally, he thought about “the going” (the condition of the racecourse, which is
typically rated on a six-point scale: heavy – soft – good to soft – good – good to firm – firm)
and calculated that Wincanton’s firm all-weather track would suit the young filly.

Harry was now back home with the telly on and waiting for the race to begin.

Figure 3.2 Theory is always a good bet

36 THE SHOULDERS OF GIANTS

In short, a legion of past experience has been neatly and economically turned into three predic-
tive models, three theories, with which Harry has been able to improve his chances of winning.

We social marketers do the same thing to improve our chances of changing behaviour. As we’ve
already discovered, this is challenging territory: many things influence how we behave – from
individual knowledge, attitudes and agency through to collective attributes such as community
coherence and family structures and on to systemic geopolitical factors. With these multiple vari-
ables and levels of behavioural influence, where does the social marketer start?

Newton famously said that he had achieved so much, not on his own, but by “standing on the shoulders
of giants,” a reference to all the hard work done by fellow scientists that formed the basis for his ideas
about gravity. So, whether the behaviour change sought relates to health, the environment or safety;
whether it is in a conurbation in a wealthy northern country or an impoverished village of sub-Saharan
Africa, the starting point for all social marketing is with previous thinking – or what we call theory.

Theories bring four key benefits to our work:

1. Like Newton, they enable us to learn from previous thinking and research, and so build our
efforts on solid foundations.

2. They help us avoid the duplication of error and the reinvention of solutions.

3. They enable us to see things more clearly by simplifying them. Theories model, or provide a
basic idea, of how typically much more complex phenomena in the real-world work. They
can explain for example, the workings of a car engine or the laws of planetary motion, and
thereby help us to get a grip on them. In the case of social marketing the complex real-world
phenomenon is our behaviour.

4. They make our work more effective: “interventions that are based on social and behavioural
science theories are more effective than those lacking a theoretical base.1”

There is nothing so practical as a good theory

In essence, a social marketer’s focus on behaviour change begs three questions:

1. Where are people in relation to a particular behaviour?

2. What factors influence this positioning?

3. How can they be encouraged to change in the desired way?

Theory can help us answer all three, and we will show how in this chapter. In doing so we will
embrace Kurt Lewin’s2 observation that “there is nothing so practical as a good theory” and exam-
ine how it might help us respond to Critical Thinking Task 2.1 on going carbon neutral.

Where are we in relation to the climate crisis?

In our countries (both in western Europe) it is fair to say that there are a wide range of positions on
the ecological crisis, and that these have changed a lot over the last few years. A decade ago, there
would have been much ignorance and a significant proportion of outright denial, but now there
 THE SHOULDERS OF GIANTS 37

is almost universal acceptance that there is a very real problem and consequent need for change.
But not everyone agrees about the extent or urgency of the situation. Some are just becoming
aware of it and feel some minor adjustments – a bit more recycling, using “bags for life” – will suf-
fice; others are getting increasingly worried and thinking about major changes (or panicking and
burying their heads in the sand); others again have already started changing – they don’t fly or
drive anymore, have stopped eating meat and are looking for other actions to take.

Stages of Change Theory (more formally: the Transtheoretical Model of Behaviour Change) cap-
tures this complexity. The basic idea underlying Prochaska and DiClemente’s3 theory is that we
do not make and carry through decisions about important parts of our behaviour in a simple on/
off fashion. So, we don’t just wake up one morning and think, “OK, I’ll go carbon neutral,” then
do so and sit down to breakfast as an ecological saint. It is much more likely we will spend a long
time thinking about the problems of climate change and ecological harm, consider ways in which
we may help with easing these problems, reject the challenge as too difficult, then come back to
it when another worrying climate story appears in the press, then try out certain practices (using
public transport or buying a bicycle) and then spend weeks or months adjusting to any changes.

Prochaska and DiClemente noticed these tendencies and began to study them in detail. They focused
on addiction, but their ideas apply to any hard-to-change behaviour – and becoming more ecologi-
cal is certainly one of these. (Indeed, you could argue that it is also linked to addiction in that we have
all become dependent on our current unsustainable ways of living.) Prochaska and DiClemente’s
model suggests that we move through five stages, from ignorance of or indifference towards the idea
of changing, through acceptance and trial and then on to becoming committed to the new behaviour:

•• Precontemplation: you may be aware of the new behaviour (e.g. giving up flying or avoiding
single use plastics) but are not interested in it, at least at this point in your life.

•• Contemplation: you are consciously evaluating the personal relevance of the new behaviour.

•• Preparation: you have decided to act and are trying to put in place measures needed to carry
out the new behaviour.

•• Action: you give it a go.

•• Confirmation (or maintenance): you are committed to the behaviour and have no desire or
intention to regress.

Alan Andreasen argues that, from a social marketing standpoint, three features of this model are
useful. First Prochaska and DiClemente have been able to show that it is relatively straightfor-
ward to separate people into these five stages by asking them a few simple questions. Second they
found that the appropriate intervention strategy depends on position in the process. For example,
it is important to emphasise benefits in the early stages and costs in later stages. Finally they rec-
ognised that a social marketer’s goal should not be to propel the client to the Confirmation Stage
in one step, but just to move them to the next stage. Only through a series of steps will the client
reach the social marketer’s goal of sustained behaviour change.4

As with all theories, Stages of Change has weaknesses. It was criticised for assuming people move
in a linear fashion through the stages.5 In response, the model was tweaked and behaviour change
is now presented as a “spiral” where the individual may relapse back to a previous stage, but
through experiential learning can eventually reach maintenance.6
38 THE SHOULDERS OF GIANTS

Figure 3.3 Stages of change mark 2

Second, the model has been criticised for not considering those who change their behaviour with-
out consciously going through all five predefined stages.7 This point was refuted by the authors
who suggest that people may pass through some stages more rapidly than others.8 Nonetheless,
later versions of the model recognise these dynamics and variations (see Figure 3.3).

These refinements of the model, however, still fall a long way short of providing a complete repre-
sentation of our behaviour. Remember what we said about theories simplifying complex phenom-
ena; this inevitably results in some oversimplification. This is particularly true with climate because
it involves not just one, but multiple behaviours. Indeed, as we have already noted, it is more accu-
rate to say that our interest is not just in behaviours, but lifestyles. The climate crisis and all the
United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (UN SDGs) demand that we make profound adjust-
ments to our whole way of living and the values that underpin this. Nonetheless, from a social mar-
keter’s point of view, Stages of Change is still useful. It brings the helpful idea that behaviour change
is a process rather than an on/off switch, and it is sensible for those interested in enacting change
to start by finding out how far people have progressed along this process. This gradualist view also
fits well with the social marketing idea of relationship building which we discussed in Chapter 2.

However, we need to turn elsewhere to understand why people arrive at a particular stage.

What factors influence our position on climate?

Our individual stance towards an issue as complex as climate is heavily influenced by the social
and economic system in which we live. In a western European country, for example, material
plenty and 24/7 marketing encourage us to think that our heavy consumption is perfectly
 THE SHOULDERS OF GIANTS 39

normal: that there is nothing odd about supermarkets with 40,000 different products to choose
from; taking our kids to school in an SUV that could cross the Sahara or flying across the world for
a two-week holiday. Now have a go at Critical Thinking Task 3.1.

CRITICAL THINKING 3.1: INDIGENOUS VIEWS 9

This video https://youtu.be/Nm8Ctb2w81Y presents the views of six young

Indigenous women. We will discuss it in detail in Chapter 8, but for the moment just
listen to them and consider how they would perceive supermarkets, urban SUVs and
long-haul holidays.

By contrast people from Indigenous cultures, whose circumstances are very different, are likely to
find all this extremely peculiar. It will conflict with both their experience and values.

Research has demonstrated these social forces do have an important influence on the individual.
Social Cognitive Theory10 (Figure 3.4) outlines the basic processes, arguing that our behaviour
is determined by a mix of internal personal characteristics (such as knowledge and skills) and
external environmental factors. The latter comprise the relatively direct influence of friends, fam-
ily and the local community (the “immediate environment”) and the more indirect influence of
social mores, economic conditions and cultural norms (the “wider social context”).

As social marketers, then, our view of behaviour should take into account the influence not only
of the individual but also of their social context. In addition, we should note that this is a two-way

Figure 3.4 Social cognitive theory

40 THE SHOULDERS OF GIANTS

relationship: social context shapes people and their behaviours, but people can also shape their
social context.11 Apply this thinking with Critical Thinking Task 3.2.

CRITICAL THINKING 3.2:  THE INFLUENCES ON CLIMATE

BEHAVIOUR

Think about the issue of climate in your country, and the current state of public
knowledge, attitudes and behaviour.

Now produce your own version of Figure 3.4.

It is easy to see that multiple individuals and social determinants are at play. Some people lack suf-
ficient information about climate change and how to tackle it. Others are well aware of the problem
and already taking direct action, but the authorities are challenging their right to do so.12 Everyone
is constrained by poor public transport systems and tempted by the constant promotion of con-
sumer goods. The exploitation of nature is also deeply embedded in the national psyche: most peo-
ple see nothing wrong with drilling for oil or mining coal. Revisit our discussion of social marketing’s
Collective Orientation in Chapter 2 and remember how it makes our interventions fairer, more effec-
tive and strategic. Social Cognitive Theory provides the theoretical underpinning for these benefits.

Three other theories – social norms, social capital and social ecology extend this broader concep-
tion of our behaviour.

Social norms theory

Social Norms Theory builds on the observation that our behaviour is partly derived from what
other people do or say (descriptive norms), and what are approved behaviours (injunctive
norms). The “lead by example” principle lies at the core of descriptive norms. We are influenced
by our perceptions of what others do because those who are like us provide behavioural cues and
triggers. This is particularly important in new situations such as a first-year university student or
a child arriving at her new secondary school. This is the herd instinct at work – conforming to and
wanting to be accepted by others in one’s group, such as family members, friends, workmates and
wider society. Rewards (e.g. acceptance, status and power) are provided for conformity; while
punishments (e.g. exclusion, fines and jail) result from noncompliance.

This thinking underpins the idea of “denormalization” – that if we can adjust people’s perceptions of
how common and normal a particular behaviour is we will also be able to influence their inclination to
engage in this behaviour.13 For example, young people’s perceptions of the prevalence and acceptabil-
ity of smoking in both their immediate peer and family group, and in society as a whole, are key predic-
tors of their tendency to take up smoking. Accordingly, smoking uptake will be reduced if pro-smoking
norms are challenged and anti-smoking norms are strengthened. Normative education, or denor-
malization programmes, therefore, correct “erroneous perceptions of the prevalence and acceptabil-
ity of drug and alcohol use and establish conservative group norms. . . [they] are postulated to operate
through lowering expectations about prevalence and acceptability of use and the reduced availability of
substances in peer-oriented social settings.14” Evidence reviews suggest this is a useful insight and that
normative education can be a valuable ingredient of substance use prevention.15

Social Norms Theory is at work in Case Study #17, which deals with the issues around autism
(Jones, et al). Three advertisements capture the “before” or existing social norm and the “after” or
 THE SHOULDERS OF GIANTS 41

desired social norm in three scenarios: at a supermarket checkout, in the office and at a café. The
“overarching aim” was “to foster understanding, acceptance and engagement” and so “create a
more inclusive community for autistic Victorians, their families, carers and friends.”

Explore how Social Norms Theory might work for climate by doing Critical Thinking Task 3.3.

CRITICAL THINKING 3.3: CLIMATE NORMS

You are employed as a social marketer by a nongovernmental organisation to

design a social marketing campaign to encourage first-year university students to
be more ecological. Consider how you could use the social norms approach to plan
an intervention to increase active travel (cycling, walking, skateboarding, etc.)

What are the limitations of this approach to your campaign?

The success of social norms campaigns is grounded in a sound understanding of the majority atti-
tudes and/or behaviours, so you could start by doing a survey to gather reliable data about first-
year students. This would need to establish how much active travel students currently do, as well
as their perceptions of their peers’ travel patterns. Any tendency for the latter to be understated
would suggest a need for a campaign correcting these misperceptions. The evidence suggests
that repeated exposure to a variety of positive, credible data-based norms messages can correct
misperceptions and assist in changing behaviour. At the same time the approach has limitations.
Credible norms messages can be difficult to create: “your poster may say most students are cycling,
but my experience is that they are not.” People, particularly rebellious students, may prefer to defy
norms. Why should I cycle, when the University Vice Chancellor drives a gas-guzzling limo and the
senior academics are always jetting around the globe to conferences? Or even if the students do
want to conform, their ability to do so may be limited by poor walking or cycling facilities.

Social capital
Social Capital Theory focuses on the patterns and configurations of connections between people.
The World Bank defines social capital as the relationships that shape societal interactions, while
bodies such as the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the
World Health Organisation (WHO) acknowledge that social capital influences education, social
justice, health, civic engagement and hence the quality of life in a society.

Importantly for social marketing, social capital highlights the importance of structural and rela-
tional embeddedness within and among individuals in a society; that is our sense of belonging
to and trust in our communities. The structural aspect looks at networks and their ties; their con-
nectivity; density and form. The relational element concerns values, trust, norms, identity and
expectations, reflected in shared narratives, meanings and language. Together, these shape the
quantity and quality of a society’s social interactions.

There are three kinds of social capital: bonding, bridging and linking as presented in Figure 3.5.

The core insight is that relationships matter, which, as we have already noted, very much accords
with social marketing thinking. Increased social capital encourages cooperative behaviour,
which is vital for any complex change programme. In fact, “the quality of these networks can help
42 THE SHOULDERS OF GIANTS

“Bonding, bridging and linking have to be carefully balanced if society is to function

effectively. Bonding refers to the networks that exist among ‘people like us’ or people
who share the same values. . . . In extreme cases bonding can lead to terrorism. . . . The
OECD refers to this as the ‘ties that bind turning into ties that blind.’ Bridging social capi-
tal is the relationships with ‘people not like us’ such as those from different faith or ethnic
group . . . the vertical links that go up and down the social ladder. . . . Linking social capi-
tal refers to the networks people use to leverage resources from powerful institutions. . . .
I suspect bonding has increased considerably whereas bridging and linking social capital
has decreased because of the growing mistrust of citizens. . . . Broken societies can result
unless all types of social capital are present in roughly equal amounts.”16

Figure 3.5 Bonding, bridging and linking

explain variations in key policy outcomes between communities in areas such as crime, educa-
tion and health. In general, higher levels of social capital result in communities, and individuals
within them, that are better able to act and take responsibility for themselves. Social capital can
also assist in spreading behavioural change amongst the community.17” These ideas are clearly
very relevant to our attempts to address climate.

Read Case Study #12 (O’Shea et al), dealing with gender inequality. It shows how Social Capital
Theory underpinned their data collection to help understand how relationships between people
operating within organisations develop trust and reciprocity and how these can then be leveraged
to provide opportunities for girls to participate in sport and physical activity.

Social ecological theory (SET)

SET adopts an even wider perspective on change, looking at whole social systems (see Figure 3.6).

As the Figure shows, it distinguishes four distinct but interlinked systems: the microsystem (the
individual), the mesosystem (family or local community), the exosystem (wider social groups,
mass media and education services) and the macrosystem (societal values and cultural mores). It
recognises what is called “the butterfly effect,” a phrase coined by meteorologist Edward Lorenz
to convey how tiny seemingly unrelated events, such as butterfly wings flapping in Brazil, could
become magnified by the world’s essential interconnectedness and have potentially huge effects
on the other side of the world – causing, for instance, tornado weather in Texas. In essence, the
butterfly effect describes coordinated and interactive links; individuals and groups are loosely
bonded in the system, permitting it to operate as a whole, while at the same time allowing for
alterations and modifications in parts by some of those individuals or groups.18 It explains indi-
vidual/environment interactions as dynamic and active processes.

To this end, McHugh19 in her work demonstrates how social ecological theory moves us towards
an understanding of multiple group behaviours and networks. This integrates multi-structural,
multi-factorial and multi-institutional influences and coordinates the cross-level interrelation-
ships in a system. Applied to diet, for example, this challenges us to think not just about individual
eating behaviour but also about cooking skills and school lunch policies, as well as the regulation
of food advertising and the global food production and supply chain. Advocating more fruit and
vegetable consumption, for instance, may be meaningless until our highly processed and sugary
food production methods are radically altered.
 THE SHOULDERS OF GIANTS 43

Figure 3.6 A social ecological model

The climate crisis presents the most pressing example of a problem that would benefit from a social eco-
logical perspective. Here the tiny butterfly-wing consumption acts of an individual in Paris or Madrid
are linked with the activities of multinationals, the decisions of governments and the degradation of the
planet – and across the world in Bangladesh fishing villages are disappearing under the sea. Indeed,
if we think back to Martin Luther King’s words in Critical Thinking Task 1.2, it is clear that we need to
think even more broadly – he says, “This is the way our universe is structured. It is its interrelated quality.”

We will return to these complex, interconnected problems and how to deal with them in later chapters.
For the moment, let us just note that they need equally sophisticated and far-reaching solutions – Social
Ecological Theory helps us to appreciate the dynamics and detail of this complexity.

Exchange theory: How we can encourage change

We now turn to the third of our questions: how can we be encouraged to change, or specifically for
Critical Thinking Task 2.1, how can we be encouraged to be more ecological? Exchange Theory
is the “engine under the bonnet” of social marketing that pulls our social theories together in
the face of a specific problem, which is why we have already touched on it in the two previous
chapters. The theory posits that, given behavioural options, people will ascribe values to the alter-
natives and select the one that offers the greatest benefit – or enhancement – to themselves. We
44 THE SHOULDERS OF GIANTS

are a species with a built-in inclination which try to improve our lot. We cooperate with others to
make things better for ourselves. Zak20 explains that “exchange is necessarily other regarding” –
we interact with strangers on a routine basis, gauging our own and others’ behaviours against our
expectations, based on a degree of trust, to make things better for ourselves.

In order to increase a person’s readiness to change, therefore, social marketers must offer them
something beneficial in return. In this sense, exchange involves the transfer of tangible or intan-
gible items between two or more social actors.21 Kotler22 suggests five prerequisites are required
for exchange to take place:

1. There are at least two parties.

2. Each party has something that might be of value to the other party.
3. Each party is capable of communication and delivery.
4. Each party is free to accept or reject the offer.
5. Each party believes it is appropriate or desirable to deal with the other party.

Central to these assumptions is the notion that the exchange must be mutually beneficial for the
people involved. There must be something of value for each party in the exchange or the exchange
won’t happen. Clearly then, no discussion of what makes for a winning exchange is complete
without some insights into what we value and don’t value.

Value
We know value is individualised and subjective, based upon experiences, actual and perceived.
When talking about value, we equate value with money, price, quality and cost. As Hastings and
Lowry remind us “values ascribed to the marketer’s offering during an exchange may be tangible
(e.g. monetary) or psychological (e.g. status), immediate (e.g. nicotine now) or deferred (e.g. bet-
ter health later), but they will always be subjective.23” In the plural, “values” take in high-minded
principles – as in “the values of a civilised society.” Value, therefore, has many meanings.

This makes life complicated for the social marketer because people, policymakers, stakeholders
and funders all have different values. (This also explains in part why there are so many behav-
ioural theories!). Think of the doctor who sees nonsmoking as a valuable health advantage; the
teenager who uses smoking to control weight, to impress, or to “be cool”; and the overworked
executive who smokes to relieve stress or when socialising. This highlights one last important
aspect of value – values drive our choices and exchange behaviours.24

Schwartz25 helps us understand values by explaining that they:

1. are based on emotions, not facts,

2. trigger action, and

3. transcend specific actions and situations.

Now try Critical Thinking Task 3.5

 THE SHOULDERS OF GIANTS 45

CRITICAL THINKING 3.5: VALUES AT WORK AND PLAY

The sun is shining; blue skies roll out as far as the eye can see and the odd white
cloud gently floats by. It’s hot, so hot you can almost smell the heat, but there’s
a gentle breeze blowing that refreshingly cools you down. Schools are closed.
Families and friends are on the beach for a day of fun and laughter, swimming, sand
castles, picnics and the all-important ice creams.
At the end of a fabulous day, as the sun sets, people head home. Some put their rub-
bish in the bin while others leave the evidence of their beach day behind on the sand.
What values do you see at work?

For most individuals, a day at the seaside with family and friends represents having a good time and
enjoying life. This is the hedonism value at work. Those who went sailing or went on a banana boat
ride were adding excitement and adventure to their day, which is the stimulation value in operation.
For others, the day at the beach could represent tradition; the family custom is for everyone to go
for a swim and build sand castles, followed by a homemade picnic, where there is great chat, laugh-
ter and stories told and shared for all to enjoy. These are mutuality values where the individuals
consider the outcomes of their actions and reflect the common interests of the group. The individual
is concerned with themselves and with others. The individuals who put their rubbish in the bins
provided by the local authority were following the rules and acting according to their conformity
values (high mutuality). On the other hand, those who ignored the signs saying “Put your rubbish in
the bins provided,” “Don’t leave your litter behind” and “leave no trace,” and left evidence of their
behaviours that day – bottles, cans and other plastic packaging – on the sand to be washed out to
sea, may have been nonconformists (high self-interest values) or persons with little concern or low
appreciation for nature (low universalism mutuality value). Alternatively, perhaps there were no
bins provided by the local authority in the first place to activate pro-environmental values.

Also in operation on the beach were moral values. Morality represents broad acceptance or pro-
hibition of behaviours within a society (Zak, 2011). We’ll follow-up on human rights and moral
agency in Chapters 9 and 10.

This brings us to two important and final characteristics that social marketers have to contend
with when thinking about the values:

1. Recall what we said above about improving our lot and cooperation. We all have self-interest
values and mutuality values underpinning our daily lives. What’s important is the relative
importance and balance behind these different values. For example, self-interest values such
as the attainment of wealth, personal status and success are opposed to and/or can suppress
mutuality values such as the well-being of others or the environment.
2. The blend of different values for different groups (e.g. the self-interest of hedonism and stimu-
lation or the mutuality of tradition and conformity), in the same setting or context, gives rise
to a diversity of behaviours and exchanges.

In effect, each group – a family, a tight-knit group of friends, communities and so on – represents
blends of values, self-interest and reciprocity, trust and commitment, at play on the beach that
46 THE SHOULDERS OF GIANTS

hot summer’s day. Mutuality and morality values, such as being more ecological, tend not to be
fully articulated in economic terms, whereas self-interest values are often not.

Value-based exchanges
These blends of values are akin to the saying “different folks, different strokes.” Bagozzi26
explains – “there is most definitely an [mutually beneficial] exchange in social marketing rela-
tionships” and that “the exchange is not the simple quid pro quo notion characteristic of most
economic exchanges.” Individuals and stakeholders in different contexts are participants, social
actors in complex networks of value exchanges, which do not occur in isolation. Value-based
exchanges manifest at small group level and are about the relationships between what people
value. People, communities, stakeholders and competitors are all interacting, cooperating or not
(sometimes we compete as we discussed in Chapter 2) with their own unique blend of values that
shape and influence the exchanges social marketers seek for behavioural change.

For example, consider the emerging signs of sustainable tourism, where the health and well-being of
individuals, the planet and climate change are interconnected. The tourism industry is growing expo-
nentially across the world and is closely linked to the economic, environmental and social well-being
of countries.27 Tourism is highly susceptible to climate change, yet also contributes to greenhouse gas
emissions. The United Nations World Tourism Organization states that sustainable tourism should
“conserve natural heritage and biodiversity” and put in place preventative measures to ensure that
the environment would not be negatively impacted by the tourism sector by factors such as transport,
food production and waste management. The pathway to sustainable tourism and carbon neutrality,
or better still, carbon positive exchanges, for domestic and international visitors is extremely complex.

Personal factors are linked to sustainability awareness, knowledge, beliefs, attitudes and the per-
son’s motivation to cut or reduce their carbon footprint. The individual’s social networks, fam-
ily, friends and workplace, also play their part in the decision. Will they fly? Will they offset their
flight? Will they hire an electric car, or can they use public transport? Will they choose plant- or
meat-based food? Social norms, personal and professional relationships, media habits and social
networks can all influence the individual’s factual and experiential practices around tourism and
sustainability. In turn, wrapped around the variety of individuals and their social networks, are the
environmental, societal, cultural, political and technological policies in any one tourism region
or destination that shape and frame values, choice mechanisms, delivery methods and desired
norms. Figure 3.7 attempts to map some of these forces and we can see the resulting complexity.

The case studies also grapple with this complexity: in Case Study #3, for example, we see how Marques
et al tackle “the involvement of the community, different sectors, and stakeholders, including the arts
and culture” in sustainable tourism exchanges, while de Andrade et al (Case Study #9) look at exchange
at the micro, meso and macro levels. They warn us that value exchanges are complex, far from equal
for all and difficult to evaluate, and note that “it’s also impossible to delineate between the individual,
group and structural level at times. The lines between these are more often than not blurred. For exam-
ple, in discussion with a woman on the phone and hearing about her situation and issues (homeless-
ness, addiction, isolation, unemployment) – I can record that at an individual level, but it may also be
indicative of a group or structural level situation or issue. What the women individually are saying, is
often what the group together might be saying, which is often true of what might be happening on a
wider structural scale. Fear and anxiety felt at a micro-level with individuals were also felt as a group,
and more widely with talking to others and listening to media, others would feel that too.”
 THE SHOULDERS OF GIANTS 47

Figure 3.7 Value-based exchanges and sustainable tourism

Thus, Exchange Theory is complex because human life is complex. Our job as social marketers
is to sell unseen benefits and appeal to multiple high-minded values, while suppressing or dis-
rupting other less noble ones, and this is particularly challenging. Value-based exchanges can be
created. Equally, they can be derailed, disrupted or destroyed as our discussion of competition in
Chapter 2 shows. To borrow Wiebe’s words from Chapter 1, selling brotherhood seems to be far
harder than selling soap.

Two main criticisms are levelled at Exchange Theory. The first picks up on the idea that both
parties – the client and the social marketer – should gain in an exchange. This seems inappropri-
ate for a disciple focussed on doing good, but as we discussed in Chapter 2 it is just part and parcel
of treating our clients – who are really our partners – with due respect.

The second concerns the relative power of the parties involved in an exchange and is a very seri-
ous problem. Recall our discussion of Kotler’s prerequisites for fair exchange to take place (see
above), and that third and fourth ones are:

3. Each party must be capable of communication and delivery.

4. Each party must be free to accept or reject the offer.

These assume a balance of power that is often not there; many groups in society lack the knowl-
edge, articulacy and means to ensure a genuine compromise is reached – as Case Studies #12
(O’Shea et al) on gender inequality and #17 on autism (Jones et al) illustrate.
48 THE SHOULDERS OF GIANTS

The same problem applies with Critical Thinking Task 2.1: those living in disadvantaged commu-
nities may not have either the money or resources necessary to address climate breakdown. This
reemphasizes the need to maintain a collective as well as an individual perspective in social mar-
keting; there is a continuous need to be cognisant of both the individual and social determinants
of behaviour and all the theories about this discussed above. It also underlines the importance of
thinking critically about how people’s lives are constrained by those with power. We will return to
these themes throughout the book.

Choosing your theory

As we explained at the outset, the aim in this chapter is not to present an exhaustive list of the
60-plus models discussed in the social marketing literature (Darnton 2008; French et al. 2010).
Instead, we simply wanted to demonstrate that theory is helpful – and will continually become
more so: theory is constantly being tested and amended, giving it the ability to explain more.
With more explanatory and diagnostic power comes greater capability and capacity to achieve
innovation and transformation. So, having established that theory matters, the key skill is that
of selecting the particular theory that will help you with your social marketing challenge. To this
end, we suggest the following six rules:

1. Theory is essential

There has to be a theoretical basis to any social marketing strategy. Without theory, there is no
reliable basis upon which to explain or predict human behaviour. Without theory, there’s no
building on past experience or existing knowledge – no giants’ shoulders on which to stand.

2. Exchange is at the core of social marketing

Exchange Theory lies at the heart of social marketing. Exchange Theory does not replace or
supersede other behavioural theories, but its premise of mutually beneficial rewards is central
to social marketing’s change agenda. Without Exchange Theory, there is no social marketing.

3. Combine theories

Behavioural theories that explain human actions/inactions together with theories of behav-
iour change are utilised to complement Exchange Theory in social marketing. As Brennan
et al28 explain in their overview of behaviour change models, theories and applications
“integrated approaches and synthesis of multiple theories may be more effective in promot-
ing behaviour change than the use of an individual guiding theory.” Social marketer Rob
Donovan points out there are now some generally agreed principles of behaviour change (see
Figure 3.8).

4. Include social perspectives

Survival in the wild for an individual horse is exceptionally rare; as a result, they all have
strong instincts to be with other horses. There is safety in numbers and horses are, inherently,
social animals. In a similar manner, people don’t live their lives in isolation (OK, except for
hermits – but how many can you name?); the importance in our lives of exchange, values,
networks and relationships all testify to this. That is why models like Social Cognitive Theory
and so many others recognise this collective dimension; and why this chapter has given it so
much emphasis.
 THE SHOULDERS OF GIANTS 49

“Behavioural scientists have now generally come to the following set of principles with
respect to an individual performing a recommended behaviour:

1. There are no physical or structural environmental constraints that prevent the behav-
iour being performed.

2. The individual has the skills and equipment necessary to perform the behaviour.

3. The individual perceives themselves to be capable of performing the behaviour.

4. The individual considers that the rewards/benefits of performing the behaviour out-
weigh the costs/disbenefits.

5. Social normative pressure to perform the behaviour is perceived to be greater than

social normative pressure not to perform the behaviour.

6. The individual perceives the behaviour to be consistent with their self-image and
internalised values (i.e., morally acceptable).

7. The individual perceives the behaviour to be consistent with their social roles and

8. The individual’s emotional reaction (or expectation) in performing the behaviour is

more positive than negative.”

Figure 3.8 Donovan’s consensus29

5. Think about the change domain

As well as focussing on individual change, social marketing also considers altering the envi-
ronment or situation to free or unblock the person to change their behaviour – banning
tobacco advertising to help teenagers avoid smoking or improving public transport to reduce
car use.

6. Recognise the limits of theory

Remember what we said at the beginning of the chapter. Theory is an attempt to model the
complexities of the real world and will inevitably fall short in this task. It pays, therefore, to be
sceptical and to question. As for other aspects of social marketing, theories are no substitute
for critical thinking.

Wrap-up
Ultimately, social marketers are interested in people – in understanding and responding to their
needs. Theories are one important way of helping us do this because they help explain patterns
of behaviour. They also direct us to possible change options. Theories are very useful guides, but
that is all they are. Theories don’t design programmes or interventions. Theories are no substitute
for research and planning, creativity or critical thinking. They can inform our decision-making
about the needed exchange processes – about the plans we devise and the activities we engage
in – but as we see in the remaining chapters, so do other tools and techniques.
50 THE SHOULDERS OF GIANTS

Against this background and by way of example, this chapter has introduced you to the more
popular theories of behaviour change that are of potential value to social marketers:

1. Stages of Change, which shows that decisions about complex behaviour are often protracted,
ranging from first beginning to considering the possibility of change through to the reinforce-
ment of permanent change.

2. Social Cognitive Theory, which emphasizes the social as well as the individual causes of
behaviour, particularly when extended by social norms, social capital and social ecology
theories.

3. Exchange Theory (combined with values and relational thinking), which helps us think about
how people can be encouraged to change.

This chapter is not – nor is it intended to be – an exhaustive list of theories. Its primary goal is to
illustrate the enormous potential for theory to help, and hopefully in the process has removed
some of the negative connotations the word can have. Finally, remember theory is only as useful
as it is practical; in the next few chapters, we turn to these more applied considerations, starting
with the strategic planning process.

Reflective questions
1. What is theory? What are the strengths and weaknesses of theories.

2. Model and explain the Stages of Change theory.

3. Social Cognitive Theory draws attention to the social determinant of behaviour. Critique 2
other social theories which help analyse the social determinant of behaviours.

4. Explain how Exchange Theory is foundational to social marketing.

5. How are values defined? What role do values play in social marketing exchanges.

Reflective assignments
1. Critique any of the UN SDGs and identify a health or environmental theory together with a
social theory that could be used in conjunction with Exchange Theory for a social marketing
intervention or programme

2. Download scholarly papers about the “Food Dudes” social marketing offering. Describe how
Exchange Theory is combined with theories from other fields to change children’s behaviour
about trying new fruits and vegetables.

3. Identify one behavioural theory and one behaviour change theory that could be applied to
an issue facing an organisation of your choice. Outline the behaviour change implications of
these theories for this organisation.

4. You are the social marketing manager for the WHO’s Healthy Cities in your area. Choose one
aspect of Healthy Cities, such as gardening, cycling, waste management or drunk driving and
develop a theory grid to identify relevant behavioural and behaviour change theories that
 THE SHOULDERS OF GIANTS 51

could potentially underlie a social marketing initiative. The more specific you can be about
the particular intervention, the better to guide the selection of theories.

5. Consult the Journal of Social Marketing and/or Social Marketing Quarterly to read a classic or
contemporary article, on social marketing’s use of theories, especially exchange, to advance
your understanding of this key principle.

Notes
1 Glanz, K. & Bishop, D.B. (2010). ‘The role of behavioral science theory in development and imple-
mentation of public health interventions’, Public Health, 31: 399.
2 Lewin, K. (1951). Field Theory in Social Science; Selected Theoretical Papers. Cartwright D. (ed). New
York: Harper & Row, p. 169.
3 Prochaska, J.O. & DiClemente, C.C. (1983). ‘Stages and processes of self-change of smoking:
Toward an integrative model of change’, Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 51(3):
390–395.
4 Andreasen, A.R. (1995). Marketing Social Change – Changing Behavior to Promote Health, Social
Development, and the Environment. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
5 Davidson, R. (1992). ‘Prochaska and DiClemente’s model of change: A case study (Editorial)’,
British Journal of Addiction, 87(6): 821–822.
6 Basler, H.D. (1995). ‘Patient education with reference to the process of behavioral change’, Patient
Education and Counseling, 26: 93–98.
7 Davidson (1992) op cit.
8 Prochaska, J.O., DiClemente, C.C., & Norcross, J.C. (1992). ‘In search of how people change’,
American Psychologist, 47: 1102–1114.
9 Newspaper article: https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/nov/02/cop26-indigenous-
activists-climate-crisis Video: https://youtu.be/Nm8Ctb2w81Y
10 Bandura 1986;
11 Maibach, E.W. & Cotton, D. (1995). ‘Moving people to behaviour change: A staged social cogni-
tive approach to message design’, Ch. 3 In E.W. Maibach & R.L. Parrott (eds), Designing Health
Messages: Approaches from Communication Theory and Public Health Practice. Newbury Park, CA:
Sage Publications, pp.41–64.
12 See for example: https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/oct/15/extinction-rebellion-
protest-ban-chilling-assault-on-civil-rights
13 Sussman, S. (1989). ‘Two social influence perspectives of tobacco use development and preven-
tion’, Health Education Research, 4: 213–223.
14 Hansen, W.B. (1992). ‘School-based substance abuse prevention: A review of the state of the art in
curriculum’, Health Education Research, 7(3): 411.
15 e.g. Coggans, N., Cheyne, B., & McKellar, S. (2003). The Life Skills Training Drug Education
Programme: A Review of Research. Edinburgh: Scottish Executive Drug Misuse Research
Programme, Effective Interventions Unit. Crompton, T. (2010). Common Cause the Case for
Working with Our Cultural Values, Available at: http://valuesandframes.org/
16 Jones, J. (2011). ‘Lessons learned from the London riots’, The Irish Times, Tuesday, 30 August,
p. 20.
17 Hyndman, D., Hodges, A., & Goldie, N. (2007). National Landcare Programme Evaluation 2003–06,
p. 25, The Department of the Environment and Energy and the Department of Agriculture and
Water Resources, Australian Government, https://www.dcceew.gov.au/sites/default/files/
documents/nlp-review-final-report-2017.pdf
18 Alderson, W. (1957). Marketing Behaviour and Executive Action: A Functionalist Approach to
Marketing Theory. Illinois, US: Richard D. Irwin Inc.
52 THE SHOULDERS OF GIANTS

19 McHugh, P. (2013). The Use of Social Marketing and Innovation Theory for the Development of
Process Indicators for Science Communication. PhD thesis, National University of Ireland, Galway,
Ireland.
20 Zak, P. (2011). ‘Moral markets’, Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization, 77(2): 222.
21 Bagozzi, R. (1979). ‘Toward a formal theory of marketing exchanges’. In O.C. Ferrell, S.W. Brown
and C.W. Lamb Jr (eds), Conceptual and Theoretical Developments in Marketing. Chicago, IL:
American Marketing Association, pp. 431–447.
22 Kotler, P. (2000). Marketing Management – Analysis, Planning, Implementation and Control. 10th
Edition. London: Prentice Hall International.
23 Hastings, G. & Lowry, R. (2010). ‘Social marketing: a tale of beer, marriage and public health’. in
A.e.a. Steptoe (ed), Handbook of Behavioral Medicine. New York: Springer Science & Business
Media, pp. 275–287.
24 McHugh, P., Domegan, C., Devaney, M., & Hastings, G. (2015). A Set of Sea Change Guiding
Principles and Protocols. EU Sea Change Project, Whitaker Institute, University of Galway, Ireland.
25 Schwartz, S.H. (2012). ‘An overview of the Schwartz theory of basic values,’ Online Readings in
Psychology and Culture, 2(1): 3–4.
26 Bagozzi (1975) op cit p. 38.
27 World Tourism Organization. (2013). Sustainable Tourism for Development Guidebook. Madrid,
Spain: UNWTO. Available at: https://www.e-unwto.org/doi/pdf/10.18111/9789284415496
28 Brennan, L., Binney,W., Parker L., Aleti, T., & Nguyen, D. (eds). (2008). Behaviour Change Models:
Theory and Application for Social Marketing. UK: Edward Elgar Publishing.
29 Donovan, R. (2011). ‘Theoretical models of behaviour change’, ch. 1 In G. Hastings, K. Angus, & C.
Bryant (eds), The SAGE Handbook of Social Marketing. London: Sage Publications Ltd.

Bibliography
Darnton, A., & Martin, K. (2011), Finding Frames: New ways to engage the UK public in global poverty,
London, UK: Bond
French, J., Blair-Stevens, C., McVey, D., and Merritt, R. (2010) Social Marketing and Public Health:
Theory and Practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Hastings, G., Bryant, C., & Angus, K. (eds). (2011). The Sage Handbook of Social Marketing. London:
Sage Publications Ltd. ISBN: 978-1-84920.
Krzysztof, K., Parker, L., Domegan, C., & Brennan, L. (eds). (2023). The Routledge Companion to
Marketing for Social Impact. UK: Routledge.
 Chapter
4
Strategic planning
The social marketer’s roadmap

Implementing any worthwhile change intervention needs careful thought and preparation – a
clear idea of where we want to get to, how we will get there and the indicators that will help us
determine when we have arrived. We need a plan. This chapter explains the importance of strate-
gic thinking in social marketing, the key elements of a strong plan and how we can construct one
and guide its implementation. It provides us with our roadmap.

Learning outcomes
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

✓✓ Explain how planning guides strategic and tactical decision-making, taking account of social
context.

✓✓ Undertake a stakeholder analysis.

✓✓ Discuss why segmentation and targeting are important, and how to do them.

✓✓ Outline the importance of setting measurable and realistic objectives.

✓✓ Evaluate why our offerings should be acceptable, appealing, affordable and accessible.

✓✓ Demonstrate the practical application of positioning in social marketing.

Keywords
Strategic planning – situation analysis – stakeholder analysis – marketing research – objectives–
segmentation – targeting – acceptable, appealing, affordable and accessible – positioning –
implementation – evaluation

DOI: 10.4324/9781003200086-4
54 STRATEGIC PLANNING

It all starts with a vision

We have already met Martin Luther King; he was a renowned leader in the US civil liberties move-
ment and can teach us much about how to manage and plan social change. Critical Thinking
Task 4.1 presents one of his most famous speeches, which he gave to a rapturous crowd in
Washington in 1965. Read his words, or better still follow the link and hear him deliver the entire
speech and think through what he tells us about effective planning.

CRITICAL THINKING 4.1: THE IMPORTANCE OF VISION

Martin Luther King Jr, August 28, 1963

I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out the true
meaning of its creed: “We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all
men are created equal.” I have a dream that one day on the red hills of
Georgia the sons of former slaves and the sons of former slave owners
will be able to sit down together at the table of brotherhood.
I have a dream that one day even the state of Mississippi, a state swelter-
ing with the heat of injustice, sweltering with the heat of oppression, will
be transformed into an oasis of freedom and justice. I have a dream that
my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be
judged by the colour of their skin but by the content of their character.
I have a dream today. I have a dream that one day, down in Alabama,
with its vicious racists, with its governor having his lips dripping with the
words of interposition and nullification; one day right there in Alabama,
little black boys and black girls will be able to join hands with little white
boys and white girls as sisters and brothers. I have a dream today.
Watch him here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KHNG_u48PnM
What does Dr King’s speech tell us about effective planning?

King reminds us that any enterprise needs a vision statement; a clear declaration of what its
authors seek to achieve. He uses the word dream rather than a vision, perhaps reflecting the mas-
sive challenges that stood in the way of racial harmony at that point in US history, but spelling
out his destination – however distant – in this way was a key initial step towards success. First, it
put all his followers and colleagues on the same page: they could agree, argue or even leave the
movement – but they knew where they stood. Second, it expressed the vision in a deeply engag-
ing way: a perfect example of the creative orientation we discussed in Chapter 2. King connected
with his listeners’ hearts as well as their minds. Third, and most importantly, he laid the basis for
action. Having identified the destination, the route could now be planned.

In this chapter, we take up his cue. Like him, we need a vision; like him, we must remember that
our efforts depend on voluntary cooperation and consensus; like him, we need to think long term.
Tactics have to be embedded in strategy; transactions built into relationships. A social marketer
starts by appraising the situation, defining the problem, and assessing the competing forces (for
King these were all too clear – he was assassinated less than four years after this speech). This
avoids the danger of making assumptions about the challenges at hand or how we should consider
 STRATEGIC PLANNING 55

addressing them. It also helps answer the three crucial strategic questions at the heart of any social
marketing endeavour: who we would like to do what, and how we can best empower them to do it?

King’s speech suggests there were many possible answers to these questions for the Civil Rights
movement in 1963. The who includes the ancestors of both sides of the slave trade; state and
federal political leaders and the next generation. The what is, respectively, to come together in
mutual understanding; to pass enlightened race relations policies and to carry on the struggle.
The third strand, empowerment, comes from his inspirational presentation. The social marketer
has to assess these alternatives and chart them against the current situation to decide which show
most promise and how they can best be implemented.

More specifically, for us social marketers, the who question leads us to “segmentation and target-
ing,” which helps improve our understanding of our clients and lays the groundwork for help-
ing to meet their needs more effectively. Similarly, the what question makes us think about our
objectives – the milestones en route to our vision – a crucial first step in identifying our direction
of travel and then checking our progress.

These preparations bring us to the crux of the matter: how do we devise an offering that will encour-
age the priority group to engage in an exchange with us not just once but repeatedly? What is our
equivalent of Martin Luther King’s inspiration? And how do we ensure that this offering is as accept-
able (meets the client’s needs) appealing (our clients know about it, and like what they know),
affordable (it is worth the effort of getting involved) and accessible (both literally and emotionally)?

Finally, to cement in the strategic progress being made, marketers pull this thinking together with
the idea of positioning. Where do we want to sit in our client’s mind? How do we want our offering
to be framed? Are we killjoys or the bringers of opportunities? Do we patronise or empathise? Are
we one-hit wonders or in it for the long haul? King made sure his followers understood the full
power and potential of his offer – nothing short of a new dawn. We social marketers need to be
equally far-sighted and ambitious, especially with challenges like equality and climate. We also
need stamina. Sixty years after King’s speech there are still appalling racial inequalities in the US,
as witnessed by the George Floyd protests which started in the USA in 2020 when a 46-year-old
African American man was murdered during his arrest by a Minneapolis police officer.1 Progress
has been made but there is still much to do, and; so it is with many social marketing problems.

The social marketing strategic plan

Constructing a successful programme to change behaviour is like climbing a Himalayan peak.
You need to acquire or devise a map, take careful compass bearings, check your equipment and
ensure you have the skills and resources to reach the top. Social marketing therefore puts great
emphasis on planning and any social marketing enterprise worthy of the name begins with a plan;
Figure 4.1 presents a typical schema for one.

As can be seen, it comprises a number of standard steps that guide the marketer through accepted
best practice from problem definition through to outcome evaluation. Before discussing the detail
of these steps, two general points should be noted. First, the plan summarises everything we are
trying to achieve; it is our equivalent of Martin Luther King’s dream. It puts the whole team on the
same page, clarifies the goal and sets the scene for detailed action.
56 STRATEGIC PLANNING

Figure 4.1 The social marketing strategic plan

Second the plan provides a systematic means of learning about the issue being addressed and its cli-
ent group(s). For example, with a cycling proficiency intervention for schoolchildren, it will enable
social marketers to improve their understanding of the children’s cycling behaviour, knowledge
and preferences, and thereby enhance their intervention. Do they lack road safety know-how, for
example, or is the problem attitudinal (e.g. do they like taking risks)? Or structural (e.g. a lack of cycle
lanes)? This learning also takes place between interventions. The social marketer will be able to use
the lessons learned from her first intervention to inform subsequent cycling proficiency campaigns.
Thus the process is not just progressive, it is also cyclical; hence, the “return arrow” in Figure 4.1.

Furthermore, the development of understanding is not restricted to repeated cycling proficiency

interventions; social marketing efforts in quite different areas, such as pedestrian safety or sexual
health, may well provide useful insights. The link between cycling and sex may seem tenuous,
but both are social behaviours that are heavily influenced by perceptions and imagery. Both also
have to address the competing interests of safety and social acceptability. Condoms and cycling
helmets, in fact, have at least one key thing in common: adolescent behaviour.

In this way, when social marketing planning is seen in the whole and as an ongoing process, it
can maximise the chance of success both for a particular intervention and, more importantly in
the longer term, for health, safety and the environment in general. Thus, as well as providing the
tactical support through various social marketing tools, planning also guides strategic thinking.
This idea of progressive and continuous learning is absolutely fundamental to social marketing.
 STRATEGIC PLANNING 57

Problem definition
The first strategic planning task is to gain a thorough understanding of the problem being tackled.
What is the vision for a better, healthier, more sustainable future? What is the desired behaviour
change and how will it contribute to this vision? What are the chances of success? Are there better
alternative initiatives that could be pursued? Take a look at all the Case Studies and you will see
each one begins with a discussion of the problem and how it fits into the broader context.

This initial analysis can also help you to answer important ethical questions. As we noted in
Chapter 1, social marketing is powerful, and we need to make sure it is genuinely being used to
bring about responsible change. You would, for example, be right to have concerns about working
on an intervention which sought to discourage certain groups – poor people, people of colour –
from voting, as some Republican-controlled states have been accused of doing in the US.2 Or a pro-
ject that is tackling a worthwhile issue – say teen smoking – but doing so in a way that is likely to
do more harm than good as with the Philip Morris Unsmoke campaign which has been heavily
criticised by the World Health Organisation (WHO) for being misleading and potentially encour-
aging smoking.3 You also need to be comfortable with the funding organisation: whatever their
proposed change programme, you would be right to have doubts about working with a tobacco,
fossil fuel or any other organisation with an obvious conflict of interest.

The situation analysis

The second step in strategic planning is to conduct a “situation analysis” (the second box in
Figure 4.1), that is to examine the broader context – the Macro Environment – in which your
intervention has to operate (See Figure 4.2). This can be divided into six key types of influence:

Figure 4.2 The social marketing environment

58 STRATEGIC PLANNING

Political; Economic; Social; Technological; Environmental; and Legal factors. These are easily
recalled in the acronym PESTEL.

Think back to Critical Thinking 2.1 and consider how each of these factors might influence your
response to the Government’s Call for Tenders on Carbon Neutrality. Some may make things more
difficult: Political forces might, for example, include the presence of strong climate-denial groups;
Economic concerns may exist about the loss of jobs in fossil fuel industries and Legal obstacles
might be expected in defence of these jobs. On the other hand, Social support may be building
up for radical change through organisations like Extinction Rebellion or 350.org; Technology and
innovations, such as wave energy, could help ease the pain of transition and regular alarms about
the state of the Environment keep government motivated to act.

Thus, your PESTEL analysis will reveal a range of potential threats or barriers and opportunities or
enablers. These are typically beyond your – the social marketer’s – control, so your decisions need
to focus on how best to minimise the threats and barriers while making the most of the oppor-
tunities and enablers. These decisions are guided by mapping the strengths and weaknesses of
your social marketing organisation against these opportunities and threats. This is often referred
to as a SWOT analysis (the Strengths and Weaknesses of the organisations are laid alongside the
Opportunities and Threats of the environment). In this way, your thinking is guided not just by
what is out there, but also by your capacity to respond.

In the case of the climate tender, the social marketing team needs to think about their capac-
ity to overcome the climate deniers and the economic and legal power of fossil fuel interests.
This capability may be considerable, and an upstream approach (refer back to Figure 2.3) can be
contemplated. Alternatively, you may conclude that your power in this domain is actually very
limited and the best thing, at least in the short term, is to focus on downstream efforts targeting
individuals.

Have a look at Case Study #12 (O’Shea et al) on gender inequality and you will read about the
influence of Political, Economic, Social, Technological, Environmental and Legal factors which
explain, in part, the underrepresentation of Australian women and girls in all facets of sport,
including coaching and sports journalism.

So a good situation analysis helps you make strategic decisions about how to proceed. But, you
might say, many social marketers are faced with a “done deal;” you respond to a tender for a
much more specific task than achieving carbon neutrality. You are asked to reduce binge drinking
among teens, for example, or some other behaviour in a particular group. The approach is already
defined – perhaps specifying a public education or school-based intervention – and the budget
limited to its delivery. What then is the point of strategic analysis, of the PESTEL and the SWOT?

Even in these circumstances, it is still useful. At the very least, it will give you a realistic idea of
the task you face, and useful insights into any shortfalls. For example, if your strategic analysis
shows that teen binging is being driven by uncontrolled alcohol industry marketing you will at
least appreciate the limitations of an educational intervention. It will also enable you to engage
constructively with the funder and help them to think more carefully in the future. Gradually, the
result will be a very desirable increase in the strategic emphasis of all our work.
 STRATEGIC PLANNING 59

Stakeholder analysis
The planning process next focuses on your particular field of operations (or “the microenvi-
ronment” in Figure 4.2). Specifically, we need to identify the key stakeholders – “all of those
groups and individuals that can affect, or are affected by our change proposal”4 and find out
what they are doing or might do to help or hinder the project. Many of the change challenges
we face – the racial disharmony King addressed, inequality and poverty and, most especially,
planetary and climate breakdown – “are complex, society-wide issues which encompass and
affect numerous people, groups and organisations…no one is fully in charge…instead many
individuals, groups and organisations are involved or affected or have some partial responsi-
bility to act.”5

In Case Study #8 (Duane et al) you’ll see a stakeholder analysis conducted to understand all the
entities - individuals, organisations, institutions, communities and so on - who affect and are
affected by the quality of recreational waters. You’ll also see that secondary sources of data and
stakeholder interviews are used to deepen the understanding of the relevant stakeholders (we
discuss research in detail in the next chapter). Note that as well as including those who self-
declare an interest in the problem, it is important to include those stakeholders who may appear
not to be interested in the problem but affect or are affected by the issue.

This information will help determine a given stakeholder’s propensity to help or hinder
your plans. Stakeholders may control assets, information, communications, networks and
policy, so their support or opposition can have a big impact on any change that may or may
not happen. The essential choice is between cooperation and competition. In the case of
the climate tender, for example, stakeholders such as schools and environmental activist
groups are likely to be helpful in changing behaviours and can become supportive allies with
the opportunity for the coordination and integration of efforts. Such cooperative strategies
are possible when there are many stakeholders with dispersed power and mutual benefits
are available for all.

Other stakeholders, such as oil companies or motorist organisations, may be less inclined to
come onside, and see the climate issue as a threat to their current business model. Even here
collaboration may be possible. For example, the Scottish Government recently sold off licenses
for new oceanic wind farms in the North Sea, and some were bought by oil companies whose
experience of drilling for oil in the same region will be invaluable. But caution is needed: the oil
companies may use their assistance as a bargaining counter to get support for their oil explo-
ration activities or as part of a subsequent “greenwashing” campaign (refer forward to Critical
Thinking Task 5.3).

In such cases, or where stakeholders are completely opposed to your efforts your only option will
be a competitive strategy. For example, if our fight to save the planet takes the form of a drive to
reduce consumption, many corporations would be unreliable and dangerous partners. Here the
social marketing norm of looking for mutually beneficial exchange or win-wins is replaced by con-
frontation. The WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (FCTC)6 is one of the world’s
most successful international treaties provides an excellent example of how even very powerful
opponents like multinational tobacco corporations can be taken on and defeated. The FCTC has,
60 STRATEGIC PLANNING

for example, led the movement to ban tobacco advertising and smoking in public places in mul-
tiple countries, which are both immensely successful public health measures. Article 5.3 of the
treaty explicitly prohibits any involvement of tobacco companies in public health policy making.

This cooperative/competitive analysis can change overtime and needs continual updating.

Have a go at Critical Thinking Task 4.2

CRITICAL THINKING TASK 4.2:  CONDUCTING A

STAKEHOLDER ANALYSIS

Stakeholder analysis involves three broad steps:

1. Identify, map and prioritise stakeholders

2. Establish stakeholder propensity to be helpful or harmful

3. Choose your stakeholder strategy: collaborate or compete

Apply these steps to a behaviour change option of your choice. When you have
done this, take a look at Case Study#8 (Duane et al) and Case Study#10 (Lopez
Cordova et al) to reassess your work.

In Case Study #10 Lopez Cordova et al., are concerned with the problem of leaves entering the
storm water system increasing nutrient loads and sediment runoff and the growth of blue-green
algae, which affects the quality of lake water and the health of the communities around it. As part
of their stakeholder analysis, a total of 46 organisations and community members were identified
including water quality scientists, community groups/schools and householders. The stakehold-
ers played a vital role, helping co-design a change programme with 11 key priorities laid down in
formal Partnerships Agreements.

The rest of the planning process

Once these macro and microenvironments have been examined and factored in, social marketing
planning focuses down on the nitty-gritty of who needs to do what, and how they can be encouraged
to do it. Or more formally: segmentation and targeting, setting objectives and devising an offering.

Segmentation and targeting

Marketers recognise that we are all unique: we all have different make-ups and experiences and
live in varied circumstances. This means we will also have diverse needs, and, because social
marketing is all about meeting these needs as well as possible (client orientation), the ideal
would be to make a unique offer for each and every one of us. This is clearly impractical in most
instances, so we compromise by dividing the population into reasonably homogenous segments
and then choosing particular segments or “priority groups” to approach with an offering that bet-
ter matches their needs than would one designed for the population as a whole.
 STRATEGIC PLANNING 61

1. Personal characteristics: demographic, psychographic (psychological qualities like

attitudes and aspirations) and geo-demographic (related to location) variables can
all link to behaviour.

2. Past behaviour: how we have behaved in the past is a good guide to what we will do
in the future.

3. Benefits sought and Barriers to overcome: why people do as they do at present – and
how these motives vary – can be a sensible way of subdividing the population as can
their reluctance to engage in a particular behaviour.

Figure 4.3 Commonly used segmentation criteria in social marketing

There are a number of criteria which we can use to segment the population (see Figure 4.3).
Personal characteristics – typically subdivided into demographic, psychographic and geo-
demographic variables – present an obvious option.

Case Study #15 illustrates how segmentation and targeting works in practice. In it Rowena Merritt
and Nanna Skau focus on healthy breakfasts for children 8–18-year-olds in Armenia. They adopted
a very broad perspective on nutrition taking in the cultural, social, and behavioural dynamics which
influenced food preferences and habits. They found Armenians love and praise their children very
much but are reluctant to say no to unhealthy foods (personal characteristics, past behaviours and
barriers). Armenians are often very traditional and conservative – traditions are kept alive through
their practices, eating habits, festivals and celebrations (past behaviours and benefits sought). They
have a sense of humour (benefits). The research also found that children had enormous influence
and control over what they ate and were often allowed to snack on unhealthy foods (barriers and
past behaviours). These insights helped greatly with segmentation and targeting.

A potential problem with segmentation and targeting may have already occurred to you. Have a
go at Critical Thinking Task 4.3

CRITICAL THINKING TASK 4.3:  IS SEGMENTATION AND

TARGETING UNFAIR?

Social marketers address serious issues, such as cervical screening services, clean
water or needle exchanges, which have a profound impact on people’s wellbeing.
They are quite literally matters of life and death. It seems wrong therefore to be
dividing people up in order to decide which of them will or will not get life-saving
services. Surely all those in need should be included, regardless of factors like where
they live or their past behaviour. Isn’t segmentation and targeting just a form of
rationing, and profoundly unfair as a result?

How would you respond to this concern? Jot down your ideas before you continue;
thinking about inequalities might help.
62 STRATEGIC PLANNING

Segmentation and targeting can seem unfair, but further consideration shows otherwise.
Remember what we agreed above, that we are all different – our bodies, experiences and needs
all vary. This means we will respond differently to a generalised offer. As Lefebvre et al. put it “the
reality… is that – depending on how the health message is executed and distributed – certain
groups will always be reached and others will not.”7 Segmentation and targeting, they point out,
is an inevitable product of human diversity; “the only issue” they continue “is whether the target-
ing is done based on research and strategic analysis or by happenstance and default.” Lefebvre
et al are discussing communication campaigns, but the same points apply to any type of social
marketing intervention.

Their view dovetails with the inequalities literature. This shows that health behaviours and out-
comes are strongly linked to relative wealth. In the United Kingdom, for instance, these differen-
tials have emerged and remained despite decades of population-wide health promotion and a
universally available free health service. In Ireland, health inequalities are reinforced by spatial
and geographical inequalities.8 The most highly resourced, educated and motivated sections of
society – and the least in need – are best able to avail themselves of standardised provision. Thus,
it seems that an egalitarian, level playing field might make the provider feel morally satisfied but
does relatively little for the most in need. The inequalities experience also suggest that past efforts
have, albeit inadvertently, actually been of most benefit to the better-off, and thereby increased
social divisions. Well-devised segmentation and targeting strategies can help undo these harms.

Choosing the priority group

Having chosen the segmentation variables and divided the population into groups, the next task
is to decide which to target. Three principles guide this decision. First, the chosen group should
be big enough to have the potential to make an impact on the problem being tackled – it should
be viable. This will be determined by the size of the group and their level of need. Picking up
the example of disadvantaged groups, these are likely to score highly on this criterion. Second,
it must be accessible. Usable channels of communication and service delivery must exist. Again,
low-income groups are likely to meet this condition – as noted above, they are frequently geo-
graphically clustered, and if we focused down further to women or teenagers then community
groups and schools offer good access.

Third, the priority group should have needs that the social marketer can successfully meet. It
should be, at least potentially, responsive. Think carefully about this. As we have just noted, expe-
rience suggests that low-income groups are typically unresponsive to behaviour change interven-
tions. But, since their need is great this is likely to be explained by inadequacies in the offerings
rather than inflexibility in the priority group. As one seasoned public health doctor put it: “There
is no such thing as a hard-to-reach group, there are just hard-to-access interventions.” This just
reinforces the importance of designing an offering that genuinely meets the needs of the priority
group.

Have a look at Case Study #7, The Humble Egg, from Malawi. It tackles malnutrition, a major con-
tributor to preventable child deaths, by targeting children aged between 6 months to 5 years as
well as pregnant and breastfeeding women. It does this based on an understanding of their aspi-
rations, concerns, and their idea of what a healthy child looks like and eats. The case study also
reminds us that segmentation and targeting are just as important with stakeholders as with the
 STRATEGIC PLANNING 63

final client. Backyard farmers are segmented into small groups to enable the project to support
them “in setting up a medium scale poultry farm (720–1200 bird size farm), complete with cages
and bio-security clothing.” Without the resulting improvement in egg supply, it would simply not
have been possible to boost the consumption of eggs in the target population.

Objectives: Measurability and achievability

Once the target(s) has (have) been determined, the next step is to clarify exactly what we would
like them to do: to set our change objectives. This typically comprises an overarching aim (e.g.
a specific behavioural change) supported by secondary objectives which break the primary aim
into more manageable tasks. This thinking is informed by the strategic planning process.

Look again at Case Study #7 for a good example of behaviour change objectives. Recognising
behaviour change takes place over time (revisit Stages of Change Theory in Chapter 3) you’ll see
the primary aim was to increase the consumption of eggs in the target group. Secondary objec-
tives related to changes in knowledge, attitudes, and perception of benefits in relation to eggs and
the recall of key campaign messages and campaign branding visuals. The secondary objectives
provide interim outcomes to help check that the target audience is moving in the right direction
for positive change.

In Case Study #2, Trust the Meat Thermometer by Marisha Anand and Aileen McGloin, the behav-
iour change objectives are based on the COM-B model of Capability, Opportunity and Motivation.
Meat thermometers enhance the taste and food safety of the prepared meat (increases motiva-
tion); meat thermometers are accessible and socially acceptable (increased Opportunity) and
correct insertion of a meat thermometer supports reaching the temperature of 75°C (increased
Capacities). The Case also illustrates how theory (Chapter 3) can inform objective setting.

Setting clear objectives brings two important benefits (see Figure 4.4). First, they ensure consen-
sus about the intent of the intervention by all those involved. This includes people both within the
organisation and outside it. For example, if an advertising agency is being used, well-defined and

Clear objectives bring two benefits:

1. Improved collaboration between the stakeholders in the intervention. Everyone

knows what they are trying to do.

2. Enhanced evaluation: if you know exactly where you are trying to reach, it is much
easier to confirm whether or not you have arrived.

To provide these benefits, objectives need two qualities:

1. Measurability: there must be an agreed way of calibrating whether or not they have
been achieved – or at least a suitable proxy.

2. Achievability: you need a realistic hope of success.

Figure 4.4 Setting objectives

64 STRATEGIC PLANNING

agreed objectives can ensure that they are absolutely clear about what their advertising has to
achieve from the outset. Similarly, good objectives facilitate communication with superiors and
controlling bodies. This can be particularly important in social marketing where funding agencies
or politicians may have to be convinced of the value of an intervention.

Second, objectives provide an excellent measurement tool. They give a clear focus to intervention
design and make it possible to monitor progress and ultimately assess effectiveness.

It follows, therefore, that good objectives are measurable. It may be very desirable, for instance,
to run an intervention with the objective of making people happier, as Richard Layard9 sug-
gested, but actually calibrating this will present great challenges. Measurability is also a function
of resources. As we will discuss in Chapter 6, determining whether a particular programme has
brought about a change in a population demands a complex and expensive research design that
would probably swamp the budget of most small interventions. This raises the challenging ques-
tion of whether or not we should set objectives – however desirable – that cannot be measured.
One solution is to do so, but only if you can agree reasonable proxy measures to mark progress.
Have a try at Critical Thinking Task 4.4.

CRITICAL THINKING 4.4: PROMOTING SAFER SEX

You have been awarded a contract to improve the sexual health of Brownton’s teen-
agers. You have six months, a modest budget and a large supply of free condoms.

What objectives might you set for the programme?

Direct, attributable measures of changes in the sexual health of Brownton’s teen sexual health
is going to be beyond your means; so setting this as an objective will not be very helpful. Indeed,
measuring any change in the population is going to be very challenging, unless there just happen
to be existing surveys in field on which you can piggyback. Assuming not, it makes much more
sense to set more modest but measurable objectives – such as encouraging a specified minimum
proportion of Brownton’s teenagers to access the free condoms and do so in a way that they find
empowering and acceptable.

The need for measurability leads naturally to the second key attribute of good objectives: that
they are achievable. That is, they should be within the capability of the organisation and the pro-
gramme budget. Again, the strategic planning process helps here, especially the process of match-
ing external threats and opportunities with internal strengths and weaknesses. The temptation in
social marketing is to be overambitious, perhaps because the jobs we are trying to do are so obvi-
ously desirable and worthy. Giving people the support they need to quit tobacco or get their baby
immunised are quite literally matters of life and death; and the rewards for success are immense.

However, as we noted in Chapter 3 when discussing theories of human behaviour, changes are
usually hard won. This is particularly true of the sort of engrained lifestyle behaviours we tend to
focus on, which often have an element of addiction thrown in for good measure. So, it behoves us
to cut our cloth accordingly. In time, this may also help, as we noted in our discussion of strategic
 STRATEGIC PLANNING 65

planning, to educate funders and policymakers about the long-term and systemic work that is
usually needed to generate real improvements in health and environmental status.

Formulating the offer

So we come to the crux of any social marketing effort: the development of an offer that will
encourage the priority group to engage with us and in the process of change. How do we get the
teenager to start thinking about healthy eating or the politician about regulating junk food mar-
keting? Always remembering that social marketing deals in consensual and voluntary change, the
starting point has to be the client. We need to understand why they are currently behaving as they
are, the perceived attractiveness of behaving differently and how the latter might be enhanced.
We need an acceptable but effective (i.e. capable of delivering change) offering.

Research with these client groups will help provide this information, but it will need to be skilfully
executed and is unlikely to reveal the full story. Teenagers will not know all the factors that influ-
ence their diet – they are not social scientists. A politician might be unwilling to admit that the soft
drinks plant in her constituency makes her reluctant to take on the junk food industry. So, yes, the
offering is designed around the needs of the client, but the task of divining these is complex as we
will see in Chapter 5 when we discuss research.

In Case Study #10 from Lopez Cordova et al in Australia, we can see client-centred thinking in action.
The Case addresses the problem of Eucalypt leaves in stormwater drains, and their co-designed
change process involved 8 teams from the community who identified 308 strategies and ideas
that could be included in a 6-week pilot programme. Key ideas uncovered included a competition
to get community groups involved in picking up leaves, adopt a tree or drain, incentives such as
free leaf bags and composting discounts to support residents to pick up leaves and information
about gardening and composting. These were further refined into Tell Me; Show Me; Share the
Collection and Regular Promotion.

For another excellent example of offerings designed around the client’s needs, read Case Study
#5 (Donnar et al) which explores masculinity using participatory co-design to define and sup-
port healthier perceptions. The complexity of this issue required an offering capable of addressing
interconnected relationships and involving the target group throughout the co-design process
to gain a deeper understanding of the target market. Participants reported that this was the first
time they had agency to tackle some of the problems of harmful or “toxic” masculinities, thereby
increasing their sense of self-empowerment and situational control; shifting their perspectives
and consequently increasing their ability to communicate across diversity.

As well as making the core offer acceptable, we need to think about how we can maximise the
chances of it being adopted. Specifically, we need to ensure that our client group(s) find it:

1. Appealing: they need to know about it, and like what they know. This involves communica-
tion, which we will discuss in Chapter 6. At this point, we will just note that communication is
a two-way process, and like the rest of the social marketing effort is built around the concept
of mutually beneficial exchange.

2. Affordable: all change takes some effort, some investment from the changer – giving up smok-
ing, improving your diet, taking on the vested interests. This effort can take many forms – it
66 STRATEGIC PLANNING

may be emotional (e.g. resisting the teasing of our friends), financial (e.g. buying nicotine
patches, giving up the financial support from vested interests) or physical (e.g. taking up exer-
cise). In each case, we social marketers must ensure that our clients feel it is worth the effort
of getting involved.

3. Accessible: we can think of this in literal terms – are the smoking cessation services easy to
get to, or the leaflets on healthy eating readily available. However, it also has a strong psy-
cho-social dimension: does the client group feel the intervention is for people like them; is it
located in a sympathetic environment; will there be other people like them involved?

In Case Study #4 (Raciti et al) which concerns the cultural safety of Australian universities for First
Nations Peoples, we see and hear about a host of accessibility issues. For example, First Nations
people do not have access to course content in which they can “see themselves”, nor it is clear
how they use what they learn to better their communities. It would help if First Nations students
were able to interact more with First Nations academics but, as the authors explain, “there are
very few First Nations academics in Australian universities and they are typically overloaded with
other university-focused cultural duties on top of their academic roles, which is known as ‘cul-
tural taxation’.”

Positioning
During this chapter we have gradually focused down to very specific tools. The idea of position-
ing helps us to keep the big picture in mind; to ensure that tactics don’t drown out strategy. It
describes how our clients see or “frame” our offerings relative to the alternatives, the competition.
“Frames are the mental structures that allow human beings to understand reality – and some-
times to create what we take to be reality …They structure our ideas and concepts, they shape how
we reason, and they even impact how we perceive and how we act. For the most part, our use of
frames is unconscious and automatic – we use them without realising it.”10 Have a go at Critical
Thinking Task 4.5.

CRITICAL THINKING TASK 4.5:  POSITIONING AND

FRAMING 11

Take a few minutes out to watch Harrison Ford and David Attenborough talk about
our Oceans and Planet here:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rM6txLtoaoc
And here:

https://www.youtube.com/embed/auSo1MyWf8g?rel=0

How does each speaker frame the issue? Which one is an example of Strict Parenting
framing? Which one is an example of Nurturing Parent framing?

No doubt you’ll have picked up on tone of voice, mood, colours, music and compelling con-
tent which position the first clip as the “strict parent” and the second as the “nurturing parent.”
In Case Study #6, “Standing Strong Together,” Donovan et al illustrate how Aboriginal people’s
 STRATEGIC PLANNING 67

focus on family, community, and the social care of others overlaps with Act-Belong-Commit’s
positioning on social connectedness and a sense of belonging; connection to land, culture, spir-
ituality, and ancestry; living on or near traditional lands; and passing on of cultural practices.

Monitoring and evaluation

The final stage in the Social Marketing Strategic Plan (Figure 4.1) is monitoring and evaluation.
This is a complex topic and is discussed fully in the next chapter, which focuses on research.

For the moment let us just note that it is vitally important and takes place throughout the plan-
ning process. To ensure the social marketing plan is on track, we need to pause, reflect and take
stock of what works well and what does not. It is important to assess what change is happening
and adapt the offering along the way to the desired change, if needed. Typically, awareness levels,
interest, attitudes, beliefs, motivation, and actual behaviours are monitored as are tactical issues
such as communication materials, delivery mechanisms and partnerships. The monitoring and
evaluation research in Case Study #7 showed that despite a boost in egg supply, egg consumption
did not increase in the target audience, it went up among visitors to the household! At the same
time, the evaluation provided key insights, such as the importance and value of word of mouth for
rural communities with low literacy rates.

Wrap-up
This chapter began by evoking one of the twentieth century’s greatest exponents of social change,
Martin Luther King. From his lead, we have examined how a clear vision enables us to put together
an effective strategic plan. We then examined how environmental and competitive analysis set
the context for the deployment of three key marketing functions: segmentation and targeting
help us to get a better fix on whose behaviour we want to change; objective setting helps us pin
down precisely what we want them to do; and how we ensure that our offer will encourage people
to engage with the idea of empowered change. Specifically, we want to make it as acceptable,
appealing, affordable, and accessible as possible. This tactical activity is guided by the strategic
idea of positioning, monitoring and evaluation.

We will continue this practical theme in the next chapter when we discuss research in social
marketing.

Reflective questions
1. What is strategic planning? What are the key steps in strategic social marketing planning?

2. Define a situation analysis. Explain its role and function in strategic social marketing planning.

3. A stakeholder analysis is about those who affect and are affected by a problem and/or behav-
iour change. Elaborate.

4. What should a social marketer consider when setting objectives?

5. ‘Positioning is guided by two things: how the clients see the product and how it measures up
to the competition. Detail with examples.
68 STRATEGIC PLANNING

Reflective assignments
1. Partnerships, both operational and strategic, are a part of the social marketing planning pro-
cess; UN SDG #17 is about partnerships. Visit https://sdgs.un.org/goals/goal17 and based on
available reports, videos and materials, present a critical analysis of partnerships for a com-
plex problem of your choice.

2. Locate and review a strategic social marketing plan.

3. A renowned university in the top 100 has approached you to use your behaviour change skills
in tackling campus student binge drinking which is now considered out of control. How might
you use a strategic focus and the social marketing planning process?

4. Devise a strategic plan for a local community who wish to increase the number of community
members who harvest rainwater.

5. Consult the Journal of Social Marketing and/or Social Marketing Quarterly and read a classic
or contemporary article(s) on the social marketing planning process to advance your under-
standing of the theory and practice in this area.

Notes
1 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Floyd_protests
2 https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2021/jul/27/gerrymandering-republicans-electoral-
maps-political-heist
3 https://landing.ggtc.world/dmdocuments/Dangers%20of%20Unsmoke%20Campaign_Final%20
Version.pdf
4 Freeman, R.E. (1984). Strategic Management: A Stakeholder Approach. Boston: Pitman.
5 Bryson, J.M. (2004). ‘What to do when stakeholders matter?’, Public Management Review, 6(1),
21–53.
6 https://fctc.who.int
7 Lefebvre, R.C., Doner, L., Johnston, C., Loughrey, K., Balch, G.I., & Sutton, S.M. (1995). ‘Use of data-
base marketing and consumer-based health communication in message design: An example from
the office of cancer communications’ “5 A Day for Better Health” program’, in E. Maibach and
R.L. Parrott (eds), Designing Health Messages: Approaches from Communication Theory and Public
Health Practice. Thousand Oaks, CA.
8 Domegan, C., Kindermann, G., Ó Brolcháin, N., Britton, E., Carlin, C., Osagie, E., O’Loughlin,
M., Cormican, M., Donovan, F., Mulcahy, M., Sice, A., Yanta, C., & O’Donovan, D. (2021). Our
Environment, Our Health, Our Wellbeing: Access to Blue/Green Spaces in Ireland, EPA Research
Report, Dublin, Ireland.
9 Layard, R. (2005). Happiness: Lessons from a New Science. London: Allen Lane.
10 Darnton, A., & Kirk, M. (2011). Finding Frames: New ways to engage the UK public in global pov-
erty, Bond, London, UK.
11 McHugh, P., Domegan, C., Devaney, M., & Hastings, G. (2015). A Set of Sea Change Guiding
Principles and Protocols. EU Sea Change Project, Whitaker Institute, NUI Galway, Ireland.

Bibliography
Hastings, G. (2003). ‘Relational paradigms in social marketing’, Journal of Macromarketing, 23(1): 6–15.
 Chapter
5
Research
The social marketer’s satnav

This chapter examines the role of research in social marketing. It explains how it helps us to
answer the key questions thrown up by the strategic planning process we have just discussed. In
other words, it enables us to decide whether and how to intervene and determine if our interven-
tions are working. In the process, we will be discussing philosophy, methodology, storytelling and
digital innovation, as well as uncovering some potential pitfalls.

Learning outcomes
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

✓✓ Discuss the importance of research in social marketing.

✓✓ Outline the research decisions social marketers have to make.

✓✓ Model the research steps and methodologies that can help guide them.

✓✓ Understand what is meant by participatory research.

✓✓ Discuss the role of the story in social marketing research.

✓✓ Outline the dangers of over-reliance on research, which, paradoxically, can hinder decision making.

Keywords
Action research – primary and secondary data – qualitative – quantitative – individual/group
interviews – social media – digital marketing – participatory research – data – stories and storytelling.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003200086-5
70 RESEARCH

Action research
Research serves a very practical purpose in social marketing. It helps us make decisions about our
interventions – what problems to tackle, for example, or which priority groups to select and work with –
which are based on sound evidence. The strategic plan we have just been discussing is essentially a
series of questions, which research helps us to answer. Have a go at Critical Thinking Task 5.1.

CRITICAL THINKING TASK 5.1 : THE SOCIAL MARKETING

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

You want to submit a bid to the Government Tender on Carbon Neutrality (Critical
Thinking Task 2.1). Using the schema for a social marketing plan (Figure 4.1) jot
down all the questions you will need to answer before bidding and, should you be
successful, throughout the intervention.

Your questions divide broadly into three groups:

I) First, there are Preparatory Questions that need to be answered before the detailed work of
devising an intervention can begin. These focus on whether you should proceed with a given
intervention. They begin with problem definition and a go/no go question: “is this an ethically
sound and potentially helpful intervention being funded by a trustworthy organisation?” If
the answer to all three is yes, you will progress to the situation analysis and start to answer
questions about the macro and microenvironments. Again, the emphasis is on whether to
proceed – for example, are there opportunities out there that your organisation has the skills
and resources to exploit.

II) When the answers to these initial questions are encouraging, you can move on to questions
about how to intervene: to Intervention-Building Questions. You now need to establish who
you want to do what, and how to make them an offer which is acceptable, appealing, afford-
able and accessible.

III) Finally you need to answer Evaluation Questions: did your efforts produce the desired results?
This will not only determine your success, but as we noted in Chapter 3, help you to think
about future interventions.

The research methods you choose will vary with the different sorts of questions. In this chapter we
will discuss these methods and examine their pros and cons.

This focus on practical decision-making can be traced back to the work of Kurt Lewin1 who coined
the term “action research” to emphasise the need for empirical research to go beyond the produc-
tion of books and articles and help us to take action and make decisions on social phenomena.
Lewin underlined the importance of incremental learning using a range of methodologies and
expressed this in a cyclical research process (Figure 5.1).

This cycle of research feeds into a plan of action that defines ultimate goals/objectives as well as
immediate and intermediate steps, all of which are honed and adapted as the plan is implemented.
 RESEARCH 71

Figure 5.1 Action research

At the same time, however, the sequential model should not be applied too rigidly; because social
phenomena are complex and subtle, the researcher has to be both flexible and sensitive.

All these lessons transfer neatly into social marketing thinking (Figure 5.2), which sees research
as a process that provides progressive learning, not just about whether and how we should inter-
vene, but about the people with whom we want to work and build relationships.

Figure 5.2 Social marketing research – cyclical and action oriented

72 RESEARCH

Secondary research: uses libraries and other resources to answer questions from exist-
ing data.

Primary research: collects original data to answer questions. This is essential when there
are no existing studies that can be used – e.g. in gauging reactions to a new poster or
intervention idea.

Primary research can be:

•• Qualitative: typically involving small samples of individuals who are studied in depth
to cover a wide range of knowledge, attitudes, emotions and behaviours.

•• Quantitative: typically involving larger samples of individuals who are more system-
atically selected than qualitative samples and are asked standardised questions.

Digital tools have added a new dimension to these methods.

Figure 5.3 The basic types of research method

We will now go through the principal stages of this research process – Preparatory, Intervention-
Building and Evaluation Questions – and consider the methods that are most appropriate for
each. Figure 5.3 provides a brief typology of these methods, all of which, in the pragmatic spirit of
Kurt Lewin, are used by social marketers.

Preparatory research questions

As we have noted both in this chapter and in Chapter 4 when we discussed planning, these are the
questions we need to consider before we even decide to proceed with a particular intervention.
For the most part, they can be answered using existing data, so our principal methodology is sec-
ondary research. This data is available in libraries, especially, although not exclusively, university
and other academic libraries, and also increasingly online. Google Scholar is, for example, an
excellent resource.

Searching secondary sources can be done with great rigour and precision using “systematic
review”:

“A review of a clearly formulated question that uses systematic and explicit methods
to identify, select, and critically appraise relevant research, and to collect and ana-
lyse data from the studies that are included in the review. Statistical methods (meta-
analysis) may or may not be used to analyse and summarise the results of the
included studies.”2

This thoroughness and transparency ensures that all possible studies are included and the reader
can revisit the methodology and question the findings if desired. It is invaluable when we need to
resolve specific issues of cause and effect (e.g. does tobacco advertising encourage teen smoking,
or do speed cameras reduce speeding?), which are likely to be hotly contested – and can even
 RESEARCH 73

finish up in the courtroom. The same qualities are also useful when testing whether a particular
behaviour change approach produces results, like the studies cited in Chapter 1 showing that
social marketing works. Have a go at Critical Thinking Task 5.2.

CRITICAL THINKING TASK 5.2: SYSTEMATIC REVIEW

Select one of the studies cited in Figure 1.2: Systemic Reviews of Social Marketing
Effectiveness (Chapter 1) and examine the search methodology used. You will see
how it ensures a wide coverage of the literature whilst controlling for the relevance
and quality of all included studies.

Systematic reviews, however, are a time consuming and expensive procedure, and when strict
cause and effect do not need to be established, a simpler narrative review will suffice. This does
not demand the same level of coverage and transparency – it is more of a dip into the evidence
base rather than a comprehensive appraisal. Narrative reviews will suffice for most of social mar-
keting’s Preparatory Questions. Critical Thinking Task 5.3 illustrates how it can help you to make
the first decision on any project: whether or not to go ahead (Go/No Go in Critical Thinking Task 5.3).

CRITICAL THINKING TASK 5.3: A GO/NO GO DECISION

ABOUT FOSSIL FUEL FUNDING

You work for an independent social marketing agency and have been approached
by a major oil company, which wants to commission you to help them run a cam-
paign to encourage cycling among teenagers as part of its “Greener Future” cor-
porate social responsibility (CSR) campaign. You are concerned that there may be
a conflict of interest here and have heard that the oil industry is untrustworthy.
Conduct a brief narrative review of the literature to see if your concerns are justified.

Your search should quickly reveal that the oil industry is a dubious source of funding which has
for long time hindered action on climate. We will discuss this problem, and the other harms
caused by overpowerful corporations putting their own financial interests before all other con-
cerns in Chapter 7, when we address critical marketing. At this point, we need simply note that
there is a massive conflict of interest at play here. The oil industry makes billions of dollars every
year out of selling fossil fuels so its interest in a “Greener Future” is very questionable. Indeed,
there is every chance that this CSR campaign is no more than “greenwashing” – a phoney attempt
to look good whilst continuing to do harm – and so will actually be counterproductive. You should
have nothing to do with it.

Secondary research can also enable you to get up to speed on a particular issue. You may, for
example, be responding to a government tender on illicit drug use among young people. It can
tell you about the prevalence of this problem and how this compares with other social issues like
74 RESEARCH

Cycling is a sustainable mode of transport which is closely linked to all the complexities of
modern life - urbanism, town planning, energy provision, healthcare - and involves a wide
range of stakeholders. The analysis of these stakeholders made extensive use of second-
ary research. The literature included (a) policy papers, reports, press releases, official
plans and guidelines, from national / local governments and NGOs, often in collabora-
tion with business entities and experts; (b) academic and non-academic publications;
(c) citizen submissions (mainly cyclists); (d) media coverage; (e) websites of cycling- and
transport-related organisations, clubs and associations; and (f) other sources. In total, 105
highly relevant published documents were catalogued and analysed. Identified stake-
holders were categorised into three groups: Incumbents who dominate and favour the
status quo; Challengers who seek change; and Regulators who are responsible for run-
ning the system.

The literature review was enhanced by content analysis (which reduces data to a set of
categories) using Leximancer software. This produced heat-colour-coded maps repre-
senting the main concepts within the text and how they were related (themes). Keywords
helped to analyse the literature too. The results of this literature review then informed the
primary research. You can read more about this work here.3

Figure 5.4 Secondary research and systems thinking

poverty or unemployment. Secondary sources can also reveal how previous campaigns and inter-
ventions have fared, providing valuable clues about the best way forward. Note we are not now
talking simply about whether previous interventions worked, but answering the broader ques-
tions about how they were received and why. This will help you to start thinking about how you
are going to proceed.

Secondary data can also help with more complex tasks. Figure 5.4 describes a social marketing
study about cycling, which used literature review to build up a system-wide picture of all the
forces working for and against this ecological way of getting around.

Thus, secondary research is a useful tool in these early stages of a social marketing project. Note
though, whilst narrative reviews are less exacting than systematic reviews, there is still a need for
rigour. Searches should be conducted with due care and sources carefully vetted. In particular,
online searching can be hazardous if we don’t take careful note of both who funded and con-
ducted the study, and where it is published. For example, following the points made in Critical
Thinking Task 5.3, a study on youth smoking funded and conducted by a tobacco company – or
any other organisation with an obvious conflict of interest – is of doubtful worth, while research
published in a respected, peer-reviewed journal will be much more reliable and trustworthy.

Intervention building questions

Once you start to think about how you intend to intervene, primary research – reaching out
directly to your clients and stakeholders – rapidly becomes necessary. As we have already noted,
it divides broadly into two types: qualitative and quantitative. Have a go at Critical Thinking
Task 5.4 to familiarise yourself with the basic characteristics of each.
 RESEARCH 75

CRITICAL THINKING TASK 5.4: PRIMARY RESEARCH METHODS

Qualitative Quantitative
Qualitative interviewing is typically done Quantitative methods seek descriptive,
in-depth with small, non-randomly selected numeric data e.g. 45% of men smoke or 83%
samples. Rather than detailed questionnaires, of nurses are Covid-19 vaccinated. Collecting
interviews are guided by a schedule of “points this reliably depends upon two key factors:
to be covered” or a loose “script.” Sample selection: Samples have to be
The main advantage is the depth of the data representative of a given population. Ideally,
obtained. Researchers can approach topics in an random selection is used, which ensures
open-ended way, starting from the perspective that each potential respondent has an equal
of the respondent, using their language and chance of inclusion. But, as Harris4 explains,
ideas to develop the discussion and letting their this assumes we have an accurate “sampling
experiences illustrate it. Thus, in contrast to frame” or list of the population in question,
questionnaire-based research, no assumptions which is often not there for vulnerable (e.g.
are made about what the important issues are, young children, older people), under-
how to label these, or the type of responses that represented groups (e.g. ethnic minorities),
might be expected. or sensitive issues (e.g. teenage pregnancy
Qualitative interviewing procedures also or drug usage). It also makes sample
allow a range of responses to be examined. replenishment difficult in longitudinal
For example, when checking reactions to an research. Quota sampling methods sidestep
intervention idea, fairly straightforward matters these problems by identifying the key
such as knowledge can be assessed, as well as variables (e.g. gender or ethnicity) and
more complex issues, such as likes and dislikes ensuring these are fairly represented in the
and emotional responses. The subtlety and final sample. As a result, they provide a
flexibility of qualitative methods also help when pragmatic solution but lack a certain degree
researching sensitive issues such as sexual of statistical rigour. Whether random or
health or life-threatening illness. quota, quantitative research requires large
samples – hundreds or thousands compared
Qual research can be done with individuals, pairs
to a few dozen in a typical qualitative study.
or small groups. Individual in-depth interviews
provide a clear and longitudinal view of each Questioning procedures: quantitative
person’s perspective; avoid the problems of peer studies use standardised questions. It is vital
and group pressure and permit the discussion of that each respondent is asked exactly the
extremely intimate issues. same things in the same order and, as far as
possible, the same way. Hence, we move
The strengths of focus groups, on the
from the free-flowing interview sequences of
other hand, stem from the interaction that
focus groups and depth interviews collecting
takes place between respondents. In a well
unique data, to carefully constructed and
moderated group, the respondents are
piloted questionnaires, combined with detailed
essentially interviewing each other. It is this
interviewer instructions, collecting common
dynamic process that contributes to the
data. This is necessary because answers will be
“gestalt” of group discussions – the tendency
summed. If we want to know how many people
for the whole to amount to more than the sum
use a particular service, or how pleased they
of the parts. Benefits include the generation
are with it, we must be able to add up their
of new data, a more comfortable atmosphere
answers. The questions and answers therefore
for respondents and the chance to examine
have to mean the same thing – otherwise, we
differences in opinion and peer interaction.
are adding up apples and oranges.
You have been asked to build an intervention on sustainability with inner-city teens; are
qualitative or quantitative methods going to be most useful? Give your reasons.
76 RESEARCH

As you can see, both methods have strengths and weaknesses. Qualitative methods are well
suited to in-depth study, particularly of sensitive issues. Quantitative methods lend themselves to
enumeration and statistical analysis – and both are valuable research attributes. It is not a matter
of one being better than the other, but simply that they are suited to answering different types of
questions. As the proverb has it, it’s a matter of horses for courses.

The Intervention-Building stage of the social marketing process tends to lean most heavily on
qualitative methods. Your key questions are who do you want to do what, and how to make them
an offer which is acceptable, appealing, affordable and accessible. Answering these will need the
flexibility and depth of qualitative methods. In asking who, for instance, you want to know in
detail what the people you are going to work with are like. Not just their demographics, such as
age and gender, but their priorities and concerns, their hopes and dreams. As we said in Chapter 2, we
need to understand their view of the world, to “walk a mile in their shoes.” In particular, we need
to gain a thorough understanding of how they stand in relation to the topic our social marketing
intervention aims to address – to define the problem from their perspective, whether it be Covid-19
vaccines or planetary breakdown. Qualitative research, whether with individuals or groups, can
then examine what role, if any, a particular intervention might perform. Assuming it has a role,
the what question can now be addressed: campaign objectives can be clarified, and a precise brief
given to the production and delivery teams.

Working out how to bring about change, and design offers that meet the social marketing ideal
of being acceptable, appealing, affordable and accessible require the same depth of insight. A
dynamic process of formative and pretesting research can gradually perfect solutions.

If we add to this ideas about relationship building and turning our clients (and stakeholders) into
partners who can become actively involved in the co-creation of value rather than mere targets,
research takes on a more complex and sophisticated form. The term that is used for this deeper
approach is “participatory research” and it involves a process of learning and reflection, followed
by action, and then by more learning and reflection, and so on. Crucially, research is carried out
with people rather than on them; potential “subjects” of research are given the power to help
define the research problem, collect and analyse the data, interpret its meaning and communi-
cate it to others. They – not the research team or the funder – own the findings and the goal is to
take action, rather than simply to create knowledge.5

The Case Studies illustrate the power of this type of research. In Case Study #17 (Jones et al),
ground-breaking research into lived experiences empowered the autism community to express
their desire for the public to have an increased awareness of five common challenges: difficulties
in social situations, anxiety about unexpected changes, needing extra time to process informa-
tion, sensory sensitivities and meltdowns. In Case Study #15, Merritt and Skau, in their efforts to
make children’s breakfasts in Armenia healthier, ran co-design workshops with 30 children and
their parents to create the campaign messages, logo and materials. Similarly in Case Studies #5
(Donnar et al) and #10 (Lopez Cordova et al), participatory research, co-designing and co-creat-
ing insights into the problem and ways forward were key to progress on both gender and ecology.

Participatory research connects to the importance of stories and storytelling. In his book Sapiens,
Yuval Harari explains how vital these are to human development. They enable us to develop and
express a shared understanding of the world, and to pool our collective imaginations. “Churches,”
 RESEARCH 77

he explains, “are rooted in common religious myths … states are rooted in common national
myths … judicial systems are rooted in common legal myths … Yet none of these things exist
outside the stories that people invent and tell each other. There are no gods in the universe, no
nations, no money, no human rights, no law and no justice outside the common imagination of
human beings.”6

Stories and storytelling, he points out, have made it possible for us to cooperate with each other
in much greater numbers than would otherwise be possible. They explain the development of
human society beyond small tribes – to cities, nation states, international and global institutions.
This ability to work together is going to be vital in the effort to combat the complex, multifaceted
problems – inequalities and the climate crisis – we now face, and we will discuss the power of the
story to provide solutions to these in subsequent chapters. But here our interest is in research:
listening to our client’s stories, enabling them to tell them and so explain their view of the world,
which provides invaluable social marketing insights.

Critical Thinking Task 5.5 concerns breastfeeding (See Case Study #14, The Baby Killer Revisited,
for a discussion of the benefits of breast feeding over bottle feeding.). You are a social marketer
charged with the task of promoting breast feeding in Kate’s community. What does her story tell
you about how you would set about the task? Think about this using the client, collective, com-
petitive and creative orientations we discussed in Chapter 2.

CRITICAL THINKING TASK 5.5: KATE’S STORY

Well I just live up the road really. Eh . . . I’ve already got two kids, this is ma third.
Em I’ve got a brother, a sister, and a mum . . . em never really knew ma dad. Eh . . .
basically a bottle-fed em . . . the two before and I’m not dead against breastfeed-
ing, I just . . . I can’t really be doing wi’ people like pushing stuff on me so I . . . like
breastfeeding’s something that . . . it’s not really a done thing to do around here . . .
I’m not . . . like ma friends just . . . I know none of ma friends do it and a don’t really
wanna be like gettin’, you know, ma boobs out in public an’ that, like, I don’t wanna
have the physical changes and . . . but the main thing is that I just really can’t be
doing wi’ people talking down to me.

I didn’t really do well at school, I left school when I was 14, so I really couldn’t have,
like, a tolerance for people in authority, so you know, an’, I’ve decided that it’s just
easier if a try make ma mind up myself but you know . . . and speak to midwives and
stuff like that . . . they just forcing it an’ it’s making me like a bit apprehensive and a
little bit anxious an’ a just can’t be doing wi’ it to be honest . . . so it’s something that
I’m a little bit like indecisive about. Eh, Bradley’s 4 and Louise is 18 months now. A
don’t know whether she’s doing her job properly or not to be honest because all the
information she gives me I just dun’t even listen to her because it’s the way she says
it, it’s the . . . she’s not asking . . . well she’s not advising me, she’s like telling me and
it’s more of a . . . she’s saying stuff that . . . what’s on her form what she needs to fill
out and a don’t . . . I just don’t like the attitude, so it’s probably my own fault really
(continued)
78 RESEARCH

(continued)

for switching off, but I automatically do cos I don’t like somebody talking down to
me about something that I feel that is totally my decision an’ it makes me a little
bit . . . well, not bothered really, so a can’t even be bothered. So if, you know, like a
say I’m not even against breastfeeding, a just don’t like everything that comes with
it an’ the pressure of being told that breastfeeding is best an’ a know that it’s best,
but you know it’s a big responsibility an’ . . . bottles just ten times easier and I have
got a big social life . . . an’ you know, midwives like, ‘yeah well you can express and
stuff’, but I’ve heard that hurts so . . . she talks down to me a little bit, a just don’t
like her attitude so I tend to switch off.

Kate’s dislike of authority, having stuff pushed on her, being talked down to and being told what
to do all seriously detract from any sense of agency and empowerment she might have around
breastfeeding – which as she says is “totally my decision”. Kate is telling you there is currently
no client orientation happening. She is ‘switched off’ and not open to behaviour change. The
collective picture reinforces this unease about breastfeeding which is not the ‘done thing’
where she lives or among her friends. Meanwhile the competition – infant formula – is doing
well: expressing milk is associated with pain, while bottle-feeding is easier, more acceptable
and fits with her social life. Finally, creativity is clearly in short supply; Kate feels she is simply
being hectored.

Thus Kate’s story tells you a great deal about the challenges in promoting breastfeeding among
her and her friends. It is going to need something much more profound than some clever commu-
nications or a catchy slogan. The problems are structural: Kate is marginalised and her circum-
stances are deeply unsupportive of breastfeeding. Any intervention needs to address this social
context as well as her as an individual. In Lawrence Wallack’s terminology, there is a need to
move upstream (refer back to Figure 2.2): to address inequalities, to improve the culture of social
services and regulate the marketing of infant formula. We will return to this broader approach in
Chapter 10.

But telling her story is, as educator and philosopher Paulo Freire argues, a vital first step: “the
silenced are not just incidental to the curiosity of the researcher but are the masters of inquiry
into the underlying causes of the events in their world.”7 This illustrates the core principle of par-
ticipatory research: that people who wouldn’t usually have a great deal of power or influence are
empowered, through research, to change things for themselves and their communities. So, the
participatory researcher becomes a catalyst and facilitator of the process, rather than the sole
seeker, interpreter and owner of knowledge. As the liberation theologist Víctor Codina argues: “it
is not about giving them a fish; it is not even about teaching them to fish – it is about recognising
their stewardship of the river.”8 We in social marketing need to remember that, when it comes to
their own lives, our clients – our partners – are always stewards of the river.

Furthermore, as we noted in Chapter 1, the right to be involved in the process of progressive

change, to be the authors of our own fate, is now recognised in international law. We will return
to this participatory theme when we discuss ethical issues in Chapter 9.
 RESEARCH 79

Online research
As in secondary research, digital research tools can help with intervention-building questions.
Increasingly there is both a dynamic and synergistic relationship between our behaviours on and
offline, and research methods which respond to this can capture our experiences and reactions in
great detail and as they happen.9 Jones et al.,10 for example, found that

“social media use was frequently, and often spontaneously, discussed when talking
about drinking behaviours, illustrating the extent to which alcohol and social media
use have become conjoined in young adults’ lives, and suggesting efforts to reduce
alcohol-related harms in this age group will need to appreciate and accommodate
the relationship between these two pastimes.”

Social networking sites (Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, Snapchat, LinkedIn), along with apps
and online games, contain massive quantities of data about their users on a vast range of top-
ics. Researchers can engage with this in a number of ways. Social media monitoring involves the
collection of data on metrics such as the number of topic mentions and engagement rates. Go to
Case Study #16 (Earl and Kennedy) on the fashion sector to see the metrics that were monitored
among consumers, industry and policy makers.

Social Listening is another possibility. It again involves tracking social media platforms for mentions
and conversations associated with particular topics or activities (Newberry, 2021), but the aim is to
go a step further and uncover the language being used and stories being told. There are many paid
and free platforms available (e.g. Hootsuite, Hubspot, Social Mentions) that will carry out the data
collection aspect of social listening. The crucial point is to have the appropriate key terms identified
and have a full understanding of what the different platforms can offer you. Once you have collected
your data you need to put it all together and analyse it. Some useful procedures include:

•• Sentiment analysis, which captures emotional responses in text, rating buttons and emoti-
cons. These might be categorised into positive, negative or neutral.11

•• Content analysis, which examines topics, words, phrases or other units of content and distils
them into meaningful categories.12

•• Narrative analysis: “in which stories are used to describe human action.”13

To see the application and outcomes of Social Listening research, consult Case Study #18 (Domegan
et al) which examines the relationships we all have with the natural world – a vital issue for the planet.

Digital place analysis, mapping how people navigate between their virtual and real lives, is
another research option. Tools such as Google’s Campaign planner, Google Trends and Keyword
Planners can help identify client segments, partners, key online influencers and channels and
understand the client’s journeys.

The pros and cons of digital research

Online research has some practical advantages over analogue research. The data is collected auto-
matically without need for pre-planned interviews or detailed questionnaires, which minimises
data recording errors and avoids the artificiality of formal interviews. Because it is essentially a
80 RESEARCH

form of eavesdropping (the speaker doesn’t know you are listening), the data is not prone to the
interviewer bias that can result from direct questions. For example, a teenager’s comments about
his drinking may be edited to please an adult interviewer but not when posting on social media.
(On the other hand, this doesn’t mean he is telling the truth!)

Digital channels also make it possible to study issues that might raise problems if raised directly
with certain populations. For example, discussing attitudes and behaviour around alcohol with
young teens in a focus group may unintentionally normalise drinking behaviour (Jones et al,
2017); the passivity of social listening avoids this danger.

But online research also has significant pitfalls. It can undermine inclusivity; not everyone is
online, and internet access is skewed towards advantaged populations. You have to be able to
buy and run a smart phone or live in a country with good broadband reach to be included in
studies. Digital methods will be of much less use, for example, if you are working with refugees,
low-income groups or people living in the Global South. There are also serious ethical concerns,
particularly regarding privacy. Even with protective regulation such as the European Union’s
General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), much online research remains a form of eavesdrop-
ping – which is another name for spying.

Finally, exploiting the full power of digital research also requires extensive financial and tech-
nological resources, which are beyond the reach of most social marketers. You need access to
powerful data harvesting tools, sophisticated algorithms, and the capacity to harness artificial
intelligence. Indeed, the most impressive (or alarming) examples of big data manipulation need
the active collaboration of the tech giants, who control access to so much online data. The com-
pany Cambridge Analytica became notorious when it used digital tools to influence voting behav-
iour. We will discuss the case in detail in Chapter 7 where we examine Critical Marketing (see,
for example, Critical Thinking Task 7.6); at this point though we can simply note that Cambridge
Analytica needed Facebook’s help to do what it did.

Evaluation questions
The third phase of the social marketing research cycle focuses on outcomes: what progress has
been made as a result of the intervention? There are two ways of thinking about this:

1. Process Evaluation: was your intervention delivered as intended?

2. Outcome Evaluation: did your intervention have the intended effect; did it fulfil its objectives?

In both cases, the focus turns more to quantitative methods. Qualitative methods can play a use-
ful role in explaining why an intervention did or didn’t work for example, but the emphasis is on
the “descriptive, numeric data” examined in Critical Thinking Task 5.4.

Process Evaluation focuses on whether your intervention is delivered as intended (how many
training courses were run, or leaflets handed out and so on).

Figure 5.5 gives the example of a complex drug education programme where there was a
need to check how faithfully and consistently materials were delivered. It also shows how the
 RESEARCH 81

Think, for example, about a drug education package designed to be taught by classroom
teachers in 20 different schools, by 50 different teachers. Even if teachers are supplied
with exactly the same package, the same written instructions on how to use it and the
same training in its methods, how they teach the package is likely to vary widely depend-
ing on how confident they feel about drug education, whether they agree philosophically
with the approach taken in the package, whether they volunteered to teach the package
or are doing it unwillingly, whether their classroom space is suitable for the activities,
whether their head teacher values drug education and makes them feel it is worthwhile,
whether parents support or oppose teaching their children about drugs, and many other
factors.

Process evaluation of programme implementation is an essential part of any social mar-

keting research study, not only because it yields valuable learning in itself (for example,
about the challenges of doing drug education in schools) but also because it can help
explain the final results of a research study. Supposing our drug education research study
finds that the package does not seem to have produced any changes in pupils’ attitudes
towards drugs: without process evaluation, we cannot know whether this is because the
package was a bad package or whether it was just poorly implemented.

Figure 5.5 The Benefits Process Evaluation14

monitoring of implementation fits in with other stages of research, reminding us that social mar-
keting research fits into an ongoing cyclical process as depicted in Figure 5.2. In Case Study #15
(Merritt and Skau), on childhood nutrition in Armenia, process evaluation showed how egg con-
sumption had increased among visitors to households.

The starting point for outcome evaluation must be our objectives, as the social marketing plan-
ning process teaches us (Chapter 4). It is not possible to measure achievements without clear
original intentions. This reinforces the importance of well-defined objectives in any project.

There are essentially two kinds of objectives. First, there are those concerned with the target’s reac-
tions to an intervention – whether they are aware of it, have participated in it, understood it and so
on. Second, there are objectives concerned with changes in the priority population – whether, for
example, there are fewer accidents as a result of a safe driving intervention, or whether, following
a seatbelt promotion campaign, the priority population has become more aware of the value of
seatbelts, more in favour of them or more likely to use them. These two types of objectives require
different evaluation procedures, but both are essentially quantitative.

Measuring reactions to an intervention is fairly straightforward. Once the intervention is com-

plete, the audience simply has to be asked about it (e.g. have they seen the relevant advertising,
or used the service?). Provided that the research methodology is sound, reliable data will result.
However, it may be argued that objectives and evaluations that are restricted purely to response
are too limited. Social marketing aims to bring about social change, so change is what should be
measured when evaluating its effectiveness.

Thinking again about Case Study #15, outcome evaluation measured healthy breakfast consump-
tion in both parents and children pre and post their respective interventions. This showed an
82 RESEARCH

Thalidomide was developed in the 1950s by the West German pharmaceutical company
Chemie Grünenthal GmbH to expand the company’s product range beyond antibiotics.
It was an anticonvulsive drug, but instead it made users sleepy and relaxed. It seemed a
perfect example of newly fashionable tranquilisers. ... Animal tests did not include tests
looking at the effects of the drug during pregnancy. The apparently harmless thalido-
mide was licensed in July 1956 for prescription-free over-the-counter sale in Germany
and most European countries. The drug also reduced morning sickness, so it became
popular with pregnant women. . . .

There was an increase in births of thalidomide-impaired children in Germany and else-

where. However, no link with thalidomide was made until 1961. The drug was only taken
off the market after the German Widukind Lenz and the Australian William McBride inde-
pendently suggested the link. Over 10,000 children were born with thalidomide-related
disabilities worldwide.

There was a long criminal trial in Germany and a British newspaper campaign. They forced
Grünenthal and its British licensee, the Distillers Company, to give financial support to
victims of the drug. Thalidomide led to tougher testing and drug approval procedures in
many countries, including the United States and the United Kingdom.

Figure 5.6 The thalidomide scandal15

increase in the number of parents and children eating a healthy breakfast across all groups receiv-
ing the interventions, with the greatest increase seen in the school where the full programme was
implemented. Furthermore, a “control” school, a school with no intervention, showed a decrease.
This research design – pre and post intervention measures with a control group – is an excellent
example of robust evaluation.

However, measuring change in a population and attributing it to a particular intervention

or policy change is a complex process. It requires a rigorous experimental and longitudinal
design, randomly ascribing subjects to either an experimental or a matched control group. The
first group is exposed to the intervention, and both are monitored before and after the trial.
Inferential statistics are then used to determine whether (or not) the intervention had any
effect. The overriding aim is to separate out the effects of the intervention from any other pos-
sible change agents – most notably there is a need to discount the impact of the characteristics
and volition of the different populations. The methods were perfected to test new medicines,
and the importance of doing this with great thoroughness is illustrated by the thalidomide
scandal (see Figure 5.6).

As we discussed with systematic review above, these methods can also be useful in assessing
major policy changes – such as control on tobacco or fastfood advertising – which are adversarial,
and measures can be challenged. Hard and fast proof of effectiveness can also ensure the devel-
opment of an evidence base, which will be helpful in other jurisdictions. For example, a carefully
constructed analysis of the effects of alcohol advertising on young people’s drinking in the UK,
using control groups, and longitudinal design (the study took 4 years to complete) provides a
helpful basis for controls on alcohol advertising in other countries.16
 RESEARCH 83

However, these methods can be less useful for assessing the complex social and behavioural
interventions typical in social marketing. It is not that we can be less cautious about our
offerings than a surgeon or the policy maker. A badly conceived drug prevention programme
that hectors and patronises might actually increase the attractiveness of illicit substances. In
addition, the programme will typically use public money, so it is important to know this is
being well spent. Furthermore, as we will discuss in Chapter 9, there are serious ethical issues
to consider in behaviour change. All of this demands that we treat our offerings with great
care. On the other hand, the Hippocratic principle, advising us first and foremost to do no
harm, can be too limiting a guide when inactivity is also dangerous. Think of the UN SDGs or
any of our Case Studies: doing nothing allows the harmful behavioural and structural forces
at work to perpetuate the problem, or worse accelerate the negative trajectory already locked
into the system.

Focusing on testing the intervention before we proceed also underrates the importance of the
client in the change process. Think again about our discussions of relationship building in
Chapter 2 and the idea that satisfaction, trust and commitment are key outcomes. How peo-
ple feel about what we are doing will help determine what behaviour change results. Add to
this the idea that our clients are not just recipients, but co-designers of improved health or
community safety with whom we conduct participatory research. From these perspectives,
limiting our studies to the isolated influence of the intervention seems overly narrow. Or, as
Stead et al.17 put it, “the traditional biomedical approach to evaluation, with the randomised
controlled trial as its gold standard, has limited relevance for the analysis of complex health
promotion interventions.”

The danger with the “intervention testing mentality” is that the people we want to reach, to build
relationships and work with, become marginalised. Their volition, their agency is seen as a dis-
traction to be factored out, rather than a resource to be built on. This both limits our effectiveness
and risks alienating our clients. As the songwriter Jez Lowe expresses it:

So you people in power and position I tell you beware, I tell you beware
Of your facts and your figures to tell you what, when and where
‘Cos your facts and your figures are the likes of me
And don’t try and tell me how me life should be
– or you won’t make old bones18

Getting overconcerned with measuring directly attributable change also undermines the idea
of the progressive, cyclical research process in social marketing (Figure 4.2). The evaluation of
effectiveness is only part of the research function that takes place throughout the development
and implementation of a given programme of change. As we have already discussed, relation-
ships and value co-creation take time – time to be established, time to be built and time to be
maintained. Nothing stands still. This process needs constant monitoring more than expensive
and time-consuming ad hoc attempts to determine if it worked. Patricia McHugh et al and the EU
Sea for Society team capture the notion of monitoring this constant change through continuous
mindful evaluation in Figure 5.7. This is exactly the sort of long-term thinking you need if you are
going to tackle the challenges in Government Tender on Carbon Neutrality in Critical Thinking
Task 2.1.
84 RESEARCH

Reflective question
Preparatory Co-discovery – Your intervention is in development.

What’s happening? • Partners are assembling the core elements of their offerings
and interventions, developing action plans and exploring
different strategies and activities.
• There is a degree of uncertainty as to what will work and how.
• New questions, challenges, and opportunities are emerging.
Reflective question What needs to happen?
Intervention building Co-design – Your intervention is evolving and being refined.
What’s happening? • The core elements of your intervention are in place and
partners are implementing agreed strategies and activities.
• Outcomes are becoming more predictable.
• The context of your intervention is increasingly
well-understood.
Reflective Question How well is your intervention working?
Evaluation Co-delivery – Your intervention is stable and established.
What’s happening? • Your intervention is well-established.
• Implementers have significant experience and increasing
certainty about “what works.”
• Your intervention is ready for a determination of impact,
merit, value, or significance.
Reflective question What differences did your intervention make?

Figure 5.7 Reflective evaluation research19

Don’t overdo it
This chapter has shown how research is vital to the social marketing process. It guides our progress
through the strategic plan, and beyond, helping not just to produce more effective interventions,
but understand our clients, stakeholders and the whole change process more thoroughly. It is
our satnav, and if applied adroitly will light the way to long-term progress. This strategic vision is
essential with profound and complex problems like climate breakdown.

But like any other satnav, if followed too slavishly, research can get us into trouble, like the driver
who followed the in-car GPS into a lake!20 It is perhaps surprising to end a chapter about social
marketing research with a warning against becoming too dependent on it, but there are such dan-
gers. They stem from misunderstanding about how research and decision-making fit together,
and the importance of strategic purpose.

As we have seen, a mix of research methodologies is used to guide decision making and inter-
vention strategies in social marketing. However, it is important to recognise that research does
not make decisions for us; it is not a matter of delegating the tough choices to a focus group or a
survey. The client group’s expertise is in responding, not social marketing or intervention design.
 RESEARCH 85

For example, fear campaigns are sometimes justified on the grounds that priority groups ask for
them, opting for some variant on the blackened, cancerous lung or bloody car smash – the gorier
the better. This misses the point of pre-testing. Smokers and drivers have a great deal to tell us
about what it is like to be on the receiving end of different interventions, but they do not know
which ones are most effective. They are clients, not consultants or social scientists.

In other closely related spheres, we readily accept this argument. We recognise, for instance, that
most people are not experts in human behaviour, not even their own. So we would not simply
ask smokers why they smoke, and take their answers at face value. Indeed, in the 1980s, when
the tobacco industry did precisely this to try to show that advertising had no effect on children’s
smoking (Jenkins 198821), their research was rightly dismissed.

There are also times when decisions have to be made without any research. Social marketers have
to cope when there are no data available and leave space for imagination, lateral thinking and
educated guesses. For the truth is, all research can do is lessen the risk that we get things wrong.
It can reduce uncertainty; it cannot produce certainty.

Malcolm Gladwell, in his book Blink (200522), reminds us of the power of intuition. He tells the
story of a Kuoros, an ancient Cretan statue that was offered to the John Paul Getty Museum in
California. The museum subjected the potential exhibit to 14 months of very careful and high-
powered scientific analysis to try to ascertain whether it was genuine. Their research provided
reassurance, and they were on the verge of buying the Kuoros when a visiting expert looked at
it and immediately warned against the purchase. He had done no research, no science, but just
felt the statue was dubious. Other experts then responded in a similar negative way, again on the
basis of intuition.

The statue was a fake.

Gladwell does not conclude that we should therefore abandon science and go back to guess work.
Indeed, he points out that gut feel can be just as misleading, and in any case the experts will
have educated their instincts with years of scientific rigour. He simply argues that we should leave
space for intuition in our decision making. Social marketers agree.

Wrap-up
We started this chapter with the strategic plan and went on to show how social marketing research
helps answer all the questions it throws up. Like the plan, social marketing research is a cyclical,
dynamic process which adopts a strategic perspective combining long-term planning with empa-
thy for our partners. It is our satnav guiding us to progressive social change.

The Swiss response to the challenge of HIV/AIDS provides a good example of the value of this
type of integrative, strategic research model. In 1987, they were faced with an urgent problem of
having the highest prevalence of HIV/AIDS in Europe. A wide-ranging prevention programme
was instigated, and, after an initial assessment of the first wave of publicity, a comprehensive and
ongoing evaluation approach was adopted. They describe this as a “comprehensive, utilisation-
focused evaluation” that “seeks to produce results of immediate value to the development of the
prevention strategy and includes a continual process of questioning and feedback between the
86 RESEARCH

strategy makers and other potential users of the findings and the evaluators.”23 They conclude that
this approach to research “allows for a ‘real world’ verification of strategic choices that in turn can
guide further resource allocation and, last but not least, can help to maintain a high level of com-
mitment of the different stakeholders.”24

Social marketing suggests that this thinking can be applied not just to HIV/AIDS prevention pro-
grammes as in Switzerland, but to social and behavioural change more generally. Indeed, given
the scale of the climate crisis we now face, it is the only sensible way to proceed. It is now
three years since the UN gave us ten years to save the planet; we can’t afford to spend another
four years finding an effective intervention – like the Swiss, we just need to get on with it.

Reflective questions
1. What is the purpose of research in social marketing?

2. Secondary research lends itself to systematic or narrative reviews. Explain.

3. Critique the two types of primary research: qualitative and quantitative and discuss when
they might be used in social marketing.

4. Discuss the navigational and empathetic benefits of research in social marketing.

5. Quantitative research is concerned with sampling and questioning in a way qualitative

research is not. Discuss with brief examples.

Reflective assignments
1. Choose a health and an environmental UN SDG and devise a research plan for positive
behaviour change.

2. Find a large-scale social marketing survey and develop three success stories around the data.2

3. You are a team comprising of (a) social marketing consultants, (b) a local city council and
(c) a PR agency. You have been charged with developing and running an intervention to
encourage rainwater collection. How will you use research to help you to develop and evalu-
ate your intervention? What research methods would you use?

4. Evaluate how your answers to question 2 might change if you were just using online research?

5. Go to the Journal of Social Marketing or Social Marketing Quarterly, download and read an
article on qualitative or quantitative research to challenge your thinking on this topic.

Notes
1 Lewin, K. (1951). Field Theory in Social Science: Selected Theoretical Papers. Cartwright D. (ed). New
York: Harper & Row.
2 https://www.healthknowledge.org.uk/public-health-textbook/research-methods/
1a-epidemiology/systematic-reviews-methods-combining-data
3 Brychkov, D., Domegan, C., & McHugh, P. (2022). “Coming and going in loops: Participatory mod-
elling of a system with all its complexity’, Journal of Macromarketing, 42(1), 12–29. https://doi.org/
10.1177/02761467211062504
 RESEARCH 87

4 Harris, F. (2011). ‘Measurement in quantitative methods’, ch. 15 In G. Hastings, K. Angus, & C.

Bryant (eds), The SAGE Handbook of Social Marketing. London: Sage Publications Ltd.
5 Dietrich, T., Rundle-Thiele, S., Schuster, L., & Connor, J. (2016). ‘Co-designing social marketing
programs’, Journal of Social Marketing, 6 (1), 41–61, doi: 10.1108/JSOCM-01-2015-0004
6 Harari, Y. (2011). Sapiens a Brief History of Humankind. Vintage, pp. 30–31.
7 Freire, P. (1982). ‘Creating alternative research methods. Learning to do it by doing it’. In B. Hall, A.
Gillette, & R. Tandon (eds), Creating Knowledge: A Monopoly. New Delhi: Society for Participatory
Research in Asia, pp. 30–31.
8 Codina, V. (1985). ‘Teología de la liberación y teología oriental: una aproximación’, Revista lati-
noamericana de teología 2(5): 147–170.
9 Suzan Burton Paul Nesbit. (2015). Capturing experiences as they happen: Diary data collection for
social marketing’, Journal of Social Marketing, 5(4), 307–323, doi: 10.1108/JSOCM-09-2014-0061.
10 Jones, S., Pettigrew, S., Biagioni, N., Daube, M., Chikritzhs, T., Stafford, J., & Tran, J. (2017). ‘Young
adults, alcohol and Facebook: A synergistic relationship’, Journal of Social Marketing, 7(2) pp 172-87.
11 Newberry, C. (2021). ‘What is social listening, why it matters, and 10 tools to make it easier’,
Available at: https://blog.hootsuite.com/social-listening-business/#:~:text=Social%20listening%
20is%20tracking%20social,to%20discover%20opportunities%20to%20act (Accessed 17 May 2022).
12 Neuendorf, K.A. (2002). Defining Content Analysis: Content Analysis Guidebook. Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage Publications.
13 Polkinghorne, D.E. (1995). ‘Narrative configuration in qualitative analysis’, International Journal of
Qualitative Studies in Education, 8(1), 5–23.
14 Stead, M., Hastings, G., & Eadie, D. (2002). ‘The challenge of evaluating complex interventions: A
framework for evaluating media advocacy’, Health Education Research Theory and Practice, 17(3):
351–364.
15 www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/broughttolife/themes/controversies/thalidomide.aspx
16 Casswell, S., Meier, P., MacKintosh, A.M., Brown, A., Hastings, G., Thamarangsi, T., Chaiyasong, S.,
Chun, S., Huckle, T., Wall, M., & You, R.Q. (2012). ‘The international alcohol control (IAC) study—
evaluating the impact of alcohol policies. Alcoholism: clinical and experimental research’, 36(8):
1462–1467.
17 Stead et al. (2002) op cit p. 354.
18 Lowe, J. (1985). Old Bones Lowe Life Music https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S71vvfWVtTk
19 McHugh, P. & Domegan, C. (2017). ‘Evaluate development! Develop evaluation! Answering the call
for a reflexive turn in social marketing’, Journal of Social Marketing, 7(2): 135–155.
20 https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/05/14/woman-following-sat-nav-drives-car-straight-
into-lake/
21 Jenkins, J. (1988) ‘Tobacco advertising and children: Some Canadian findings’, International
Journal of Advertising, 7(4): 357–357.
22 Gladwell, M. (2005) Blink: The Power of Thinking Without Thinking. London: Allen Lane.
23 Dubois-Arber et al. (1999), p. 2573.
24 ibid., 2580.

Bibliography
Dietrich, T., Rundle-Thiele, S., Schuster, L., & Connor, J. (2016). ‘Co-designing social marketing pro-
grams’, Journal of Social Marketing, 6(1): 41–61, doi: 10.1108/JSOCM-01-2015-0004
Harari, Y. (2011). Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind. Vintage.
 Chapter
6
How social marketers
communicate
The search for compelling content

This chapter looks in detail at communications: how they work and the crucial role they can play
in our efforts to bring about progressive change. We say “can play” because the media is a tool
that needs to be selected with care, honed with research, used with sensitivity and combined with
other social marketing techniques. In addition, social marketing communications need to speak
to our hearts as well as our heads and recognise the profound role of stories for us humans. Once
again, this emphasises the need for strategic thinking.

Like all powerful tools, we also need to treat the media with caution: in unscrupulous hands, it
can and does do great harm.

Learning outcomes
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

✓✓ Explain that social marketers recognise that the message sent is not necessarily the same as
the message received – and that it is the latter that matters,

✓✓ Recognise that this underpins the need for careful developmental, process and outcome
research to guide and monitor campaigns,

✓✓ Justify the potential of positive emotion and branding in social marketing,

✓✓ Discuss the role of digital marketing in social marketing and

✓✓ Explain that communications are only part of the social marketing process.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003200086-6
 HOW SOCIAL MARKETERS COMMUNICATE 89

Keywords
Communication – active audiences – opinion leaders – participatory communication – projective
techniques – source effects – branding – stories and storytelling – Mitakuya Oyasin – caution.

Lessons from Gettysburg

As we have already noted, communication lies at the heart of any collective human project. Our ability
to exchange ideas with each other – to talk, to listen, to share and to explain – enables collaboration. Our
stories take this to a grander scale and help us construct shared purpose and meaning. International
trade, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, our response to climate breakdown, all depend
on our ability to reach out to one another. Inevitably then, communication also plays a crucial role in
social marketing. Furthermore, both human communication and social marketing have in common
the vital insight that success depends as much on the recipient – the audience for the communication
or the client in a social marketing programme – as the message sender or the social marketer.

Abraham Lincoln understood this very well when he gave his famous speech in the Gettysburg
military cemetery at the end of the American Civil War. He can also teach us some other impor-
tant lessons about effective communication and – although he would certainly not have heard of
it – social marketing. Try and work out what they are in Critical Thinking Task 6.1.

CRITICAL THINKING TASK 6.1:  LINCOLN’S LESSONS ON

COMMUNICATION

Read Lincoln’s speech (this is the whole of it) and think through why it proved so
powerful and memorable.

“Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this con-
tinent a new nation, conceived in liberty, and dedicated to the proposi-
tion that all men are created equal. Now we are engaged in a great civil
war, testing whether that nation, or any nation, so conceived and so
dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great battlefield of that
war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that field, as a final resting
place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live.
It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this.
But, in a larger sense, we cannot dedicate, we cannot consecrate, we can-
not hallow this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled
here, have consecrated it, far above our poor power to add or detract.
The world will little note, nor long remember what we say here, but it
can never forget what they did here.
It is for us the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished work
which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather
for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us – that
from these honoured dead we take increased devotion to that cause for
which they gave the last full measure of devotion – that we here highly
90 HOW SOCIAL MARKETERS COMMUNICATE

resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain – that this nation, under
God, shall have a new birth of freedom – and that government of the
people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.”
Abraham Lincoln, Gettysburg, 18631

First, Lincoln clearly understood his audience. Speaking as he was on the remnants of a battle-
field, with half the dead still unburied, he was careful to invoke the heroism of the soldier, and he
used this powerful symbolism to reframe the war as a historic struggle for freedom and emanci-
pation. In the century and a half since Gettysburg, our understanding of how mass communication
works has been honed through decades of academic and applied research – and this understanding
shows how astute Lincoln was. In particular, it is now clear that every audience is actively involved
in the communication process: what we understand from and how we react to a particular message
is as much a function of us and our experiences as it is of the content. It is therefore crucial for social
marketers to use careful audience research to guide the development and monitor the impact of
their communications. We will discuss these research challenges in this chapter.

Lincoln also made very effective use of emotion. He understood that our intentions and behaviour are
led by our hearts as well as our heads. Our feelings matter. Much public health and social change activity
adopts a positivist perspective, assuming that, if we are told that behaviour A has negative consequences,
we will respond by changing to behaviour B; that we will logically weigh up the pros and cons and do the
sensible, healthy and safe thing. In reality, life is more complex than this; I will continue to eat chocolate
and drink beer despite the health risks because they make me feel good – and for me, feeling good is an
important part of being healthy. Similarly, my friend has bought himself a gas-guzzling SUV despite the
damage he knows it is doing to the planet because it makes him feel successful and rugged, and he will
speed in it on his way to work because, even though this will not get him there much faster (all the other
SUVs on the road will see to that), it gives him the reassuring illusion of being in control. Life is imperfect
and emotion plays a big part in the strategies we deploy to cope with it. Attempts to encourage us to
change our behaviour for the better must take this into account, as we will discuss below.

Thirdly, Lincoln told a story. As we discussed in the last chapter, we human beings love stories:
they give our lives purpose, help us cope with uncertainties and above all enable us to hope. He
presented the vision of an enlightened and responsive political system – government of the people,
by the people, for the people. He was putting them in charge, and this at a time when democracy
barely existed anywhere else in the world. The power of his story is demonstrated by its longevity.
You may be surprised to learn that Lincoln was not the main speaker at Gettysburg; that honour
went to Edward Everett, another eminent politician. Everett spoke for over two hours, but few now
remember him or what he said. He recognised Lincoln’s accomplishment: “I should be glad if I
could flatter myself that I came as near to the central idea of the occasion, in two hours, as you did in
two minutes.”2 That is the power of the story, which we will explore further in this chapter.

Before we start, though, we must thank Abraham Lincoln for a final great lesson. His speech
reminds us that communication – however well crafted, however appealing – is but a small
part of what is needed to bring about social change. Remember, as well as making a great ora-
tion, he also had to get re-elected, win a war and abolish slavery! So it is with social marketing.
Communications can form an important part of our work, but they are only one element of our
offering – which, in turn, is but one step in the strategic planning process.
 HOW SOCIAL MARKETERS COMMUNICATE 91

“RADIO LISTENERS IN PANIC, TAKING RADIO WAR DRAMA AS FACT”

“RADIO PLAY TERRIFIES NATION”

“RADIO FAKE SCARES NATION”

“RADIO STATION’S ATTACK BY MARS PANICS THOUSANDS”

“FAKE RADIO ‘WAR’ SPREADS TERROR THROUGH US”

“WELLS’ FANTASY CAUSES FEAR IN THE US”

Figure 6.1 Headlines after Wells’ broadcast5

How communication works

In 1938, Orson Welles broadcast a new dramatisation of the science fiction story War of the Worlds by
H G Wells. Listen to it here.3 The programme caused a great deal of public panic, as the headlines of the
time show (Figure 6.1). You can also read a review of the broadcast which reinforces the point here.4

The effect was dramatic. Around a million Americans actually believed that the science fiction
story was true, and little green men from Mars were invading Earth and about to march on to New
York. The result was extensive public panic, with people actually getting killed in the ensuing rush
to avoid the invaders – and the US rules of public broadcasting being changed forever.

From our perspective, the events also had a more subtle impact: they engrained a perception that
the mass media are extremely powerful, and that all that is needed to get people to do as you want
is to design a suitably clever message. The contemporaneous rise of the Nazi party in Germany,
and the central role played by Goebbels’ infamous Ministry of Propaganda, served to reinforce
this omnipotent reputation.

However, decades of research done since these events shows that this picture is misleading.
Early models in communication theory did characterise the process as a one-way phenomenon,
involving an active message sender and a completely passive recipient. Analogies are often drawn
between this model and a hypodermic syringe: just as the doctor injects the drug into the patient,
so the communicator injects the message into the audience. In both cases, the effects are both
predictable and easily measured.

The reality is more complex, and more sophisticated models were needed. These duly emerged. They
included the multi-step models initially proposed by Katz and Lazarsfeld,6 involving opinion leaders
and other key influencers in the process of communication; the use and gratification approaches,7,8
which depict the listener or viewer as deliberately using the media rather than vice versa, and cultural
effects models, which place the media in a cultural context and see its effects as indirect and long
term.9 We can add to this postmodernism and what it tells us about the importance of symbolism and
cultural meaning to consumption, whether of products or messages.10 Deep waters indeed.

Interestingly, thinking in communication theory is replicated in advertising. Early models of

advertising conceptualised the process as a hierarchy of effects on consumers – typically cog-
nitive (e.g. product awareness), affective (e.g. product liking) and then conative (e.g. product
purchase). However, these “linear sequential models” have also been heavily criticised.11 As with
92 HOW SOCIAL MARKETERS COMMUNICATE

early communication theory, they assume a passive audience, ignore the effects of significant
others and present an overly tidy picture of how communication actually works. Indeed, it has
become increasingly apparent that it is at least as relevant to ask “What do people do to advertis-
ing?” as “What does advertising do to people?”12

The realisation that communication is a two-way street and that the audience is an active par-
ticipant in message design rather than just a passive recipient, fits well with social marketing
thinking. The concepts we have discussed in previous chapters – client orientation, relationship
building and the co-creation of value – fit well with the notion of change being achieved by doing
things with rather than to people. The idea that our clients’ views, concerns and priorities have
to guide the communication process is not a revelation or a problem, but a natural way forward.

Which brings us back to Mr Welles. He was undoubtedly a very talented communicator and his
production was immensely innovative. He tried to imagine how the media would cover a real
alien invasion, and then painstakingly set about creating this effect. Although a radio theatre slot,
the production began as a concert which was then interrupted with increasingly alarming news
flashes building up the story from Mars. Senior astronomers, scientists and military figures were
interviewed as if an alien invasion was actually happening. If you scroll down to the posts under
the YouTube recording, you can read people’s actual experiences:

“My dad was 6 years old and living in Philadelphia, when he and my grandparents
listened to this, on the radio. My dad said, that he remembered how the neighbours
were all coming out of their houses, and looking up at the sky, to see if it was all real”

“I was 12 years old listening to this with my Mother and Father and 2 brothers from
Morristown New Jersey we were all scared to death except my Dad who kept saying
screw those damn Martians.”

It was brilliantly original; no one had done such a thing before.

But the real power came from the audience. In 1930s’ America, the radio was a new and highly
respected source of information; its speed of dissemination meant it had displaced the press as the
primary channel of urgent news. At the same time, the stock market crash and resulting depression
had shaken belief in capitalism and the American Dream. Fascism was also on the rise in Europe
and Asia, and there was genuine concern of an invasion of the west coast by Japan (Pearl Harbour
was only three years away). So the US population was both trusting and vulnerable. More specifi-
cally, those who tuned in late, and so missed the announcement that this was a piece of theatre,
thought they were listening to a real concert and were much more likely to be taken in by the phoney
news flashes. They then rang friends, advising them to tune in – adding people to the audience, who
were already convinced they were listening to a news broadcast. These two groups drove the panic.

The lesson for social marketers, then, is not that the media is in and of itself all powerful, but that
if you get to know your audience well enough – their hang-ups and vulnerabilities, their aspira-
tions and disappointments, the times in which they live, who they listen to and believe – you can
use mass media to connect with them very effectively. Welles’ genius lay in his ability to see his
production through the eyes of his audience. He understood their trust in the radio, their sus-
ceptibility to word of mouth, their insecurity caused by the depression and the rise of fascism in
 HOW SOCIAL MARKETERS COMMUNICATE 93

Europe and especially Japan. We social marketers, for the most part, do not have Welles’ artistic
sensibilities or skills, so we compensate with research.

Digital confirmation
The advent of digital communications technology has reinforced these lessons. It enables active
participation in the communication process with features like user-generated content, the oppor-
tunity to reject or subvert messages and the ability to influence who sees what. We now know that
audiences, especially young ones, are extremely sophisticated consumers of digital and social
media and that meaning and content must be negotiated, not imposed.13 Technology, it seems,
has caught up with communication theory, and at first glance it feels liberating.

However, care is needed here. Genuine liberation depends on equality – of access to information;
of understanding about how the technology works and of resources to use it effectively. As we
discussed Chapter 5, this is far from being the case with the tech giants. Nonetheless, the advent
of digital does confirm that communication is a two-way street and the audience an active partici-
pant in the process. Think back to what we said about participatory research in Chapter 5; exactly
the same thinking applies to communication and the idea of the story is equally relevant.

Participatory communications
Before continuing, have a go at Critical Thinking Task 6.2 and jot down some notes. We will return
to this later in the chapter.

CRITICAL THINKING TASK 6.2:  COMMUNICATION AND

CLIMATE BREAKDOWN

Your social marketing team is responding to the Government Call for Tenders on
carbon neutrality (Critical Thinking Task 2.1). You have been asked to think through
what, if any, role mass media communications will have in your bid. What research
would you do to answer this question? Assuming the answer is yes, it does have a
role, what subsequent research would you do to guide its deployment?

The conclusions we have drawn about the two-way nature of communication demonstrate that
the only certain way of knowing what is being communicated by a particular media effort is, in the
words of the quiz show, to ask the audience. The more obvious manifestations of this con-
clusion are unlikely to be disputed. Thus, the need to check that an audience understands the
language in a leaflet or that the images on a website are decipherable needs little justification.
However, the implications are more fundamental than this. An active, engaged and participating
audience means more than testing the understanding of particular words or passing verdicts on
completed posters. It implies a need to design communications, from inception to dissemination
and beyond, with the intended audience’s needs and perspectives clearly in mind. To do this,
social marketers must maintain continuous contact with their clients – ideally through formal
consumer research – as Safefood does in Case Study #2. This contact – qualitative and quantitative –
will provide invaluable insights at every stage and on all aspects of a campaign.
94 HOW SOCIAL MARKETERS COMMUNICATE

Starting at the beginning

At the very beginning of a project, research with the client group can help define the nature of
the problem to be tackled, determine what role, if any, media has to play and, if it has a role to
play, what objectives it might fulfil. Let’s assume that, like Raciti et al in Case Study #4, we want to
develop a culturally safe environment that supports and empowers First Nations university stu-
dents in Australia. As a first step, research could examine “connection to place,” which concerns
the perceptions and experiences of body, mind and spirit, shared across generations. It is known
as “country” to First Nation people and is profoundly important. Their findings show that univer-
sity campuses are “third” places for First Nation students away from home and work, but that they
feel disempowered as they cannot see themselves in the course materials – all suggesting that a
culturally safe campaign needs to focus on academics providing appropriate courses rather than
simply communicating the benefits of attending University or securing a degree.

Arguably, in the process, it suggests that this is not principally a communication problem and,
hence, a media campaign is not the right solution. In fact, something more engaging and better
able to develop a suitable and safe cultural interface is needed – a combination of university-
curriculum development, relational work and greater inclusion of First Nation academics, among
other possibilities.

Shared creativity
Assuming initial contact with the client does define a role for the mass or digital media, further
research can help determine the relative merits of different creative ideas or approaches on which
to base a campaign. For instance, in Case Study #10, households could have been instructed to
remove leaves from stormwater drains around their houses and local community as part of a water
quality improvement campaign. Based on a conventional educational emphasis, this approach
would stress the drawbacks of not practising leaf collection – the increasing nutrient loads and
sediment runoff, resulting in the growth of blue green algae, decreasing lake water quality and
non-usage of the lake for recreational purposes. Alternatively, as Lopez Cordova et al illustrate so
well in their Case Study, the communities can co-design a more positive plan involving a com-
petition between two community groups, leaf drop-off events and a communication campaign
“to motivate behavioural change” and specifically “the collection and sustainable management
of native leaf litter (leaves, twigs, bark, flowers, and nuts).”

Research with the client can also provide invaluable feedback on all aspects of a communications
campaign, including the choice of medium, content and language and images. This content and
language must be compelling and understandable to the intended audience. Reading-age tests
can help in this respect, but the only certain check is to expose the material to your audience and
ask for their reactions. This assesses not only comprehension, but also equally important issues
such as acceptability and emotional connections.

In the Leaf Collective Case Study, issues considered in both traditional and digital communi-
cation included: frequency, engagement, creative fit, budgetary constraints and target market
preferences focused on awareness (education and offers), consideration (website traffic), conver-
sions (offer downloads), behaviour (collecting and recording leaf litter), and ended with loyalty
 HOW SOCIAL MARKETERS COMMUNICATE 95

(sharing with others and supporting programme delivery through local drop-off events). Content
marketing, social media advertising and promotions, influencer and referral marketing, public
relations and media advertising were integrated across online and offline media channels to tar-
get two segments which were named “Environmental Stewards” and “Lake Lovers.”

In Case Study #15 (Merritt and Skau), about encouraging healthy breakfasts for children in
Armenia, you’ll see how a bold and humorous campaign was developed based on research with
children and parents. It challenged unhelpful social norms by presenting breakfasts as a way of
showing love to family members and helping them achieve more. You can also read about their
campaign’s personality, tone, messaging, materials, channels, PR and digital operation and how
these contributed to an increase in healthy breakfast eating.

Emotion and empathy

Compelling communications are often built on emotions; change depends on the heart as well as
the head. As French author Antoine de Saint-Exupéry expressed this: “If you want to build a ship,
don’t start by gathering wood, cutting planks and organising a workforce. Instead awaken in peo-
ple’s hearts a yearning for the vast and endless ocean.”14 What he is reminding us of is that progress
isn’t just driven by facts and figures; we also need to engage emotions and values. If things are
going to change, we need to get angry about the current situation, trust others to work with us and
have hope about the future. Figure 6.2 shows how anger was harnessed to the cause in the fight
against slavery. It is the text of a leaflet quoting a parliamentary enquiry into the horrors of slavery
and was used to get ordinary people engaged in the fight.

We have just seen the power of emotion in Case Study #15, where healthy breakfasts were equated
with love. Case Study #17 (Jones et al), on the other hand, shows the power of negative emotions.
It shows how more than half of autistic Australians have feelings of social isolation and experience
negative day-to-day interactions, with 81% receiving stares and 61% being subjected to “tutting”
and “headshaking” from community members when in public.

Measuring emotions – positive and negative – can be challenging. Direct questions don’t always
get at our feelings because we like to present a very rational face to the world. A teenager might
not want to admit that he smokes to look big, and a middle-aged man may be reluctant to tell you
that he bought his new motorbike to help him cling on to his disappearing youth. Nevertheless,
we need to try and understand these issues if we are to build lasting and productive relationships

A woman was one day brought to us to be sold; she came with a child in her arms. The
captain refused to purchase her on that account, not wishing to be plagued with a child
on board; in consequence of that she was taken back to the shore. On the following
morning, however, she was again brought to us, but without the child, and she was
apparently in great sorrow. The black trader who brought her on board said that the child
had been killed in the night to accommodate us in the sale.15

Figure 6.2 An anti-slavery campaign leaflet from 1783

96 HOW SOCIAL MARKETERS COMMUNICATE

with our clients. Projective techniques, where the answer is projected away from the respondent
to a third party, can help here. To learn more, do Critical Thinking Task 6.3.

CRITICAL THINKING TASK 6.3:  FIVE USEFUL PROJECTIVE

TECHNIQUES

1. Personification: e.g. if the product (image/slogan) were a person, how would

you describe him or her/what kind of life would they lead/how would they be
different from each other, etc. (adaptable and easy to use).

2. Choice ordering: e.g. place these products (images/slogans) in order from the
one you like best to the one you like least (provides a way of understanding the
factors that differentiate subjects or items – straightforward to use).

3. Mapping: e.g. position each product (image/slogan) on the two-dimensional

grid to indicate how much you like each one and how popular each is (a more
sophisticated version of choice ordering, allows you to explore the relationship
between different attributes – more difficult to administer).

4. Clustering: e.g. position the products (images/slogans) according to how closely

related they are to each other (useful way of understanding the dimensions peo-
ple use to judge products – can be difficult to administer).

5. Completion: e.g. so . . .? /what springs to mind . . .? /what about that one . . .? (useful
way of understanding the factors that shape a person’s view about a subject (product/
image/slogan) – naturalistic form of enquiry, simple and extremely adaptable).

Try them on a fellow student using the theme of climate. Note how they can help
people to express subtle ideas and feelings.

Building trust: Source effect and branding

Of all emotions, trust is perhaps the most important in social marketing. In Chapter 2 we dis-
cussed its vital role in building sustained relationships and in Chapter 3 we saw trust as an
essential ingredient to exchanges; it is equally important in communications. If we don’t trust
the messages we get, we will not act on them. More precisely, we need to trust the source of the
message. We have already touched on this in our discussion of quality control when reviewing
secondary research sources (Chapter 4): as we noted, high-quality, peer-reviewed journal articles
are, for example, worthy of our trust whereas a post on Facebook is much more questionable.

Once we leave the library however, trust can be more elusive. Try Critical Thinking Task 6.4.

Your first step might be to suggest some research with anti-vaxxers to understand their point of
view. This might reveal that some have lost trust in the mainstream sources of scientific evidence –
university researchers, the public health community and medical leaders – who they feel have “a
hidden agenda” to control their lives. Instead they favour alternative sources – “free-thinking” health
professionals, socially-aware celebrities, populist politicians – who they feel are “on their side.”
 HOW SOCIAL MARKETERS COMMUNICATE 97

CRITICAL THINKING TASK 6.4:  WINNING OVER THE

ANTI-VAXXERS

You have been approached by the Health Ministry who are seeking your help
to combat the anti-vaxxing movement. It is having a damaging impact on public
health: around 20% of the population are refusing to get vaccinated and this is put-
ting many vulnerable people at particular risk.

How would you respond?

They have no scientific training, do not understand clinical research methodology and have
never even heard of peer review. They do not trust “experts,” but do trust Donald Trump and
Novak Djokovic.

Your research might also reveal other sceptics who have a more nuanced position. They may feel
that medicine needs to be more holistic – treating the person, not the symptom. By the same
token, they see Covid-19 itself as a symptom of what is wrong with our excessively materialistic
economic system. In their view, what is needed is a fundamental rethink, not a medicinal fix to
keep the show on the road. The Ministry of Health has betrayed their trust by placing economic
drivers before public health.

Your advice to the Health Ministry might be that there is a need to repair this broken trust and that
this is unlikely to be done with facts and figures, statistical analysis or scientific method. Nor will
denigrating or even prosecuting the anti-vaxxers help. It is a matter of rebuilding relationships.
To do this, public health, you might argue, needs more than data, it needs an identity, a presence
that people can connect with and feel good about if it is to regain its role as a source they can trust.

The private sector was faced with similar concerns about trust a hundred years ago when the first
modern business corporations emerged. These rapidly grew into massive, impersonal conglomer-
ates and the worry was that people would not be able to relate to them. Joel Bakan16 explains how
one such corporation, General Electric, responded by developing a more friendly and personable
identity. It did this by representing the company with attractive photos of the workers – linemen,
factory staff, delivery drivers – in an advertising campaign. The idea worked extremely well and
has developed into our modern understanding of the brand. Your response to the Health Ministry
might conclude by recommending that they follow General Electric’s lead and start building a
brand that the public in general and antivaxxers in particular can trust.

The truth campaign is a social marketing campaign that has done exactly this. It began in Florida,
where, just over 20 years ago, funds for fighting youth smoking – released by litigation against the
tobacco industry – were used to do some in-depth research with teenagers. The researchers talked
to smokers and non-smokers to gauge knowledge, attitudes and behaviour regarding tobacco.
This revealed that they knew full-well about the health consequences of smoking, but didn’t give
them much importance. At their age they had little grasp of their own mortality and even less
inclination to think about the risk of heart disease or cancers that might strike decades hence. It
was soon clear to the research team that traditional public health messages about the dangers of
smoking would have little traction.
98 HOW SOCIAL MARKETERS COMMUNICATE

By contrast, the deceit and duplicity of the tobacco industry did strike a chord. We noted in
Chapter 2 Irish poet W B Yeats’ insight that education is not a matter of filling buckets but lighting
fires, and teaching the young Floridians about Big Tobacco’s crimes started a blaze. They were
already critical of the adult world, and when they had the long list of industry sins explained to
them – the lies, the denial, the manipulation of nicotine, the deliberate targeting of kids like them –
this added fuel to their inclination to rebel. The truth brand was born.

The research also confirmed that this was far from being a passive group who needed adults –
however well meaning – telling them what to do. Little would be achieved by a public health
equivalent of the Marlboro cowboy ads. What was needed was something more active: not just
a communications campaign but, as with fighting slavery, a social movement. At the same time
however, it needed to attract attention if it were to make a difference – so mass media could play
an important role.

The result was a series of youth-driven events to point up the hypocrisy and ruthlessness of Big
Tobacco, which were filmed and turned into television commercials. “For example, one well-
known “truth” commercial, known as “Body Bags,” features youths piling body bags outside of a
tobacco company’s headquarters and broadcasting loudly via megaphones that these represent
the 1200 people killed daily by tobacco.”17 The campaign organisers explain that the truth brand
builds a positive, tobacco-free identity through hard-hitting advertisements that feature youths
confronting the tobacco industry. This rebellious rejection of tobacco and tobacco advertising
channels youths’ need to assert their independence and individuality, while countering tobacco
marketing efforts.

The campaign was immensely successful. It reached three-quarters of American teenagers and
succeeded in alerting them to the unscrupulous practices and deceptive marketing of the tobacco
industry. It also hit the gold standard for such efforts: it successfully reduced youths’ smoking
prevalence.18 And the story continues: The campaign is still running today and the truth brand
continues to be a powerful public health force.19 Do Critical Thinking Task 6.5.

CRITICAL THINKING TASK 6.5: THE TRUTH CAMPAIGN

Log on to the campaign website https://www.thetruth.com and scroll through it to

see how the campaign uses the techniques we have been discussing:

• Active audience and partnership working: “This isn’t an About Us. IT’S ABOUT
YOU. Because ultimately, we exist to give you the facts and tools to make
change. From exposing Big Tobacco’s lies and manipulation, to battling the
Vaping and Opioid epidemics, we stand with you to fight against addiction and
forces that fuel it.”

• Emotional values: “Social Justice: Truth Over Money”, “Mental Health: It’s
Messing With Our Heads”

• Branding: Truth is a byword for trust and respect

 HOW SOCIAL MARKETERS COMMUNICATE 99

The power of the story

Putting together the points we have made so far in this chapter – the active role of the audience in com-
munication; the need for continuous dialogue between communicator and audience; the renewed
emphasis of relational/partnership working and the power of emotions and branding leads us directly
back to the story. The truth campaign is, at base, telling a compelling story. In the last chapter we dis-
cussed the story’s role as a research tool; we will now consider its role as an intervention tool.

Critical Thinking Task 6.6 explores how Nelson Mandela used the story to connect with young
African men.

CRITICAL THINKING TASK 6.6:  A STORY FROM NELSON

MANDELA

When Nelson Mandela was serving his sentence in the prison on Robben Island,
he took on the task of briefing each new intake of prisoners. These were young
men whose lives had been turned upside down; a few weeks previously they had
been fighting the hated Apartheid regime with Molotov cocktails and stones, now
they were prisoners of this same brutal system. They were angry and frustrated.
Mandela’s talk was designed to help them adjust and survive in what were very dif-
ficult circumstances.

Perhaps surprisingly, he found time to touch on tobacco. However, he was far too
wise to wag the finger or invoke horror stories about premature death. Instead,
he simply remarked that he had noticed some of the new prisoners were smok-
ing, and reminded them that tobacco is dependence-inducing. He also noted that
the guards were well aware of this and would on occasion supply prisoners with
tobacco. In return, of course they would ask favours of the prisoners. Sometimes,
he continued, the inmate’s need for tobacco would be small, and the favours small;
but sometimes the need would be big and the favour would grow accordingly . . .

That is all Mandela said; he left his audience to complete the story.

Put yourself in the shoes of one of these the young men. How would you react? How
would it make you feel about your smoking? What would you do? Now think about
how you would have reacted if Mandela had taken a more traditional approach,
telling you that smoking causes lung cancer – and anyway was prohibited by the
prison’s new smoke-free ordinances.

Mandela used the power of the story to connect with these angry young prisoners and provided
them with a constructive way forward. He knew they were united by a hatred of the Apartheid
regime, and he aligned tobacco use with this regime – an indictment that easily surpasses its car-
cinogenic properties. He then presented the rejection of tobacco as an act of rebellion against
the regime, as a means of undermining the guards. Thus, tobacco became a part of their political
struggle, of their fight for justice, freedom and status, and of their story – and quitting smoking a
means of becoming heroes in this story.
100 HOW SOCIAL MARKETERS COMMUNICATE

Case Study #13 (Pérez-Escamilla) shows how a compelling political story and strong alliances
uniting civil society enabled the implementation of a crucial public health policy – a tax on sugary
drinks or sodas – despite powerful and unscrupulous opposition from the soda producers. “This
was a Mammoth challenge given that industry invested heavily in a strong anti-tax alliance with
food retailers and sugar producers; lobbied congress and policy makers claiming (the tax) would
lead to strong discontent among the population and the closure of factories and the loss of jobs.”
They also labelled it the “Bloomberg tax,” thereby “injecting a xenophobic sentiment” into the
mix and could afford “a strong presence in mainstream media channels that did not give space to
the civil society organizations’ efforts to reach to the public to counteract many of its unfounded
claims.” Nonetheless, the social marketers won the day, and their success has had a “ripple effect”
both within Mexico where other public health measures have been implemented and in neigh-
bouring countries where the Mexican success has been contagious.

Stories and climate

The power of stories and storytelling in tackling the climate crisis is now being recognised. A
recent review by Mithra Moezzi notes how a range of disciplines addressing a variety of climate
challenges use as a research tool as we explored in Chapter 5 and also “as a way of understanding,
communicating, and influencing others” which “invites something new and different results.”20

The review also reminds us that a story is an extremely rich resource to exploit. Because we humans
have always told stories to help us make sense of the world, it provides a rich library of wisdom on
which to draw. In particular, in the case of climate, indigenous wisdom – the stories of cultures
that have proved themselves to be more sustainable than our own – can, as Zahraa Saiyeda and
Paul Irwin explain, help us “to better understand the fragile nature of humans’ relationship to the
earth and its provisions and its application to sustainable design paradigms today.”21

As an example, they look at Native American storytelling which introduces us to the term
“Mitakuya Oyasin,” a Lakota phrase meaning “We are all related” and argue that “the oral tradi-
tions of Native Americans retain a critical and compelling attitude of humans’ relationship to
the earth, one that realises the importance of teaching this obligation to earth and preserving
ecologies for future generations.”22 Specifically, they draw our attention to the idea of “Seventh
Generation Stewardship,” an Iroquois concept that “urges the current generation of humans to
live and work for the benefit of the seventh generation into the future. This amounts to approxi-
mately 140–175 years into the future, considering a familial generation to be 20–25 years. It looks
to ensure that decisions made today would benefit children of the future, and it is a concept that
has been frequently coupled with sustainability yet remains much broader in context.”23

How might “Mitakuya Oyasin” and seventh generation stewardship influence your thinking
about Critical Thinking Task 6.2?

Critical awareness and the big picture

Stories and storytellers are very powerful. As we have seen, this makes them a very useful vehicle
for studying and encouraging social change. However, it also means we need to be careful. As
Moezzi et al warn us, stories “are not benign or neutral” – anti-vaxxers, populist politicians and
 HOW SOCIAL MARKETERS COMMUNICATE 101

conmen can all tell powerful stories. “So,” they continue, “a critical stance is needed.” Once again,
we need to think critically, check our sources and only put our trust in those that measure up. Do
Critical Thinking Task 6.7.

CRITICAL THINKING TASK 6.7: A DECEPTIVE STORY

The Crying Indian is still a very powerful ad, despite being over 50 years old. Watch
it here. It was produced by the US Ad Council, and its website explains: “The Ad
Council partnered with Keep America Beautiful to create a powerful visual image
that dramatised how litter and other forms of pollution were hurting the environ-
ment, and how every individual has the responsibility to help protect it. The ad,
which featured actor Iron Eyes Cody, The Crying Indian, first aired on Earth Day in
1971. Created by ad agency Marstellar, Inc., the campaign used the line, ‘People
Start Pollution. People can stop it’." It goes on to proclaim that “the ad became
one of the most memorable and successful campaigns in advertising history and
was named one of the top 100 advertising campaigns of the 20th Century by Ad
Age Magazine.”

What’s not to like?

Actually there is a lot not to like about the Crying Indian, as subsequent analysis reveals.24
Keep America Beautiful was a consortium which included private companies as well as pub-
lic organisations, and these included the soft drinks industry. The environmental movement
was becoming more active – 1971 was the first Earth Day25 – and was very much targeting
industrial polluters. A number of states were considering legislation to mandate refillable
bottles and cans and prohibit disposable drinks containers which were just being developed.
This threatened the strategic business plans of companies like Coca-Cola, as it would require
small local bottling plants rather than must bigger centralised facilities. The point of the ad
was to shift the focus to the individual: ‘People Start Pollution. People can stop it’ putting the
onus on us to pick up litter rather than on industry to use less wasteful business practices.
On top of all this, the Crying Indian wasn’t even an Indian – “Iron Eyes Cody” was of Italian
extraction.

The Simpsons pinpoints the irony here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zvJ4_sa4gno

The limits of communication

There is one final point to note. In this chapter, we have focused on communications. Before we
finish, we should recall Abraham Lincoln’s final lesson and remember that media, traditional
or digital, is most likely to work if it is used in conjunction with other intervention tools. It is
just one of the devices social marketers use to ensure their offerings are acceptable, appeal-
ing, affordable and accessible. In this way, communication research dovetails with the rest of
the social marketing research effort which we discussed in Chapter 5. And it too guides stra-
tegic thinking by not just helping to improve individual media efforts but, because it ensures
102 HOW SOCIAL MARKETERS COMMUNICATE

continuous contact between everyone involved, our understanding of our clients. It is another
relationship-building tool.

Wrap-up
We began this chapter with some resounding historical communications – first from Abraham
Lincoln, then Orson Welles – but both connect directly to our digital era. They show how impor-
tant the audience is to the crafting and deployment of effective messages. This sits comfortably
with the wider social marketing principle of client orientation, and confirms that, once again,
careful research is needed to guide decision making. We also learned how important emotions
can be in connecting with people, and that, despite their complexity, they are also susceptible to
study using projective techniques.

With sustained effort, these communications can build trust, which as we noted in Chapter 2, is
the key prerequisite to developing relationships with our clients. Branding can help make this
trust visible and recognisable. This led us back into the story and storytelling, which we have now
seen is not just a valuable research tool, but also a great way of intervening.

Finally, we noted the need to heed a couple of warnings. First, keep your critical faculties tuned in:
communications, brands and stories are very powerful and can do harm as well as good. Just as
the truth campaign has been a powerful force against the death and disease of nicotine addiction,
so the Marlboro brand has told a very different story to do the opposite.

Second, powerful though well-developed communications can be, they are only a small part of
the social marketing playbook. They are just one of the tools that can be used to make our offer-
ings more acceptable, appealing, affordable and accessible (Chapter 3).

Reflective questions
1. What is meant by the two-way communication process? Why is it important to the social
marketer?

2. Explain the function of research in social marketing communications.

3. How can you study something as elusive as emotion?

4. How can social marketers use branding? Discuss with examples.

5. Give an example of a good social marketing story and explain its strengths.

Reflective assignments
1. Locate and critique a social marketing communication example that harnesses emotions.

2. Locate and review UN SDG examples of good and poor branding.

3. Locate and document social marketing examples of Twitter, Facebook, Instagram, Snapchat
and LinkedIn.
 HOW SOCIAL MARKETERS COMMUNICATE 103

4. How might stories and storytelling help social marketers to tackle the climate crisis?

5. Identify and discuss a social marketing campaign that does not use mass media.

Notes
1 https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/gettysburg-address
2 Ibid.
3 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xs0K4ApWl4g
4 https://www.theguardian.com/news/1938/nov/01/mainsection.fromthearchive
5 https://www.bing.com/images/search?q=newspaper+headlines+after+orson+Wells%e2%80%99+
war+of+worlds+Broadcast&form=HDRSC2&first=1&tsc=ImageHoverTitle
6 Katz, E. & Lazarsfeld, P. (1955). Personal Influence. New York: The Free Press.
7 McQuail, D., Blumer, J.G., & Brown, J.R. (1972). The television audience, a revised perspective. In
D. McQuail (ed), Sociology of Mass Communications. Harmondsworth: Penguin.
8 Rosengren, K.E. & Windahl, S. (1972). Mass media consumption as a functional alternative. In D.
McQuail (ed), Sociology of Mass Communications. Harmondsworth: Penguin, pp. 166–194.
9 Tudor, A. (1997). On alcohol and the mystique of media effects. In T. O’Sullivan, & Y. Jewkes (eds),
The Media Studies Reader. London: Edward Arnold, pp. 174–180.
10 Elliot, R. & Wattanasuwan, K. (1998). ‘Brands as symbolic resources for the construction of iden-
tity’, International Journal of Advertising, 17(2): 131–144.
11 Barry, T.E. & Howard, D.J. (1990). ‘Review and critique of the hierarchy of effects in advertising’,
International Journal of Advertising, 9(2): 121–135.
12 Hedges, A. (1982). Testing to Destruction: A Fresh and Critical Look at the Uses of Research in
Advertising. London: Institute of Practitioners in Advertising.
13 Stephan, D., Lynne, E., & David, L. (2015). ‘Integrated marketing communications and social mar-
keting: Together for the common good?’, Journal of Social Marketing, 5(3): 226–240, doi: 10.1108/
JSOCM-07-2012-0031.
14 https://www.goodreads.com/quotes/384067-if-you-want-to-build-a-ship-don-t-drum-up
15 Smith, R. (2012). ‘Learning from the abolitionists, the first social movement’, BMJ, 345: e830.
16 Bakan, J. (2004). The Corporation: The Pathological Pursuit of Profit and Power. Toronto: The
Penguin Group (Canada).
17 Farrelly, M.C., Healton, C.G., Davis, K.C., Messeri, P., Hersey, J.C., & Haviland, M.L. (2002). ‘Getting
to the truth: Evaluating national tobacco countermarketing campaigns’, American Journal of Public
Health, 92(6): 901.
18 Farrelly, M.C. (2005). ‘Evidence of a dose–response relationship between “truth” antismoking ads
and youth smoking prevalence,’ American Journal of Public Health, 95(3): 425–431.
19 https://www.thetruth.com
20 Moezzi, M., Janda, K.B., & Rotmann, S. (2017). ‘Using stories, narratives, and storytelling in energy
and climate change’, Research Energy Research & Social Science, 31: 1–10, p. 1 http://dx.doi.
org/10.1016/j.erss.2017.06.034
21 Saiyed, Z. & Irwin, P.D. (2017). ‘Native American storytelling toward symbiosis and sustainable
design’, Energy Research & Social Science, 31: 249.
22 Ibid p. 251.
23 Ibid.
24 https://www.chicagotribune.com/opinion/commentary/ct-perspec-indian-crying-environment-
ads-pollution-1123-20171113-story.html
25 https://www.earthday.org/history/
104 HOW SOCIAL MARKETERS COMMUNICATE

Bibliography
Bakan, J. (2004). The Corporation: The Pathological Pursuit of Profit and Power. Toronto: The Penguin
Group (Canada).
Farrelly, M.C. (2005). ‘Evidence of a dose–response relationship between “truth” antismoking ads and
youth smoking prevalence’, American Journal of Public Health, 95(3): 425–431.
Moezzi, M., Janda, K.B., & Rotmann, S. (2017). ‘Using stories, narratives, and storytelling in energy
and climate change’, Research Energy Research & Social Science, 31: 1–10, p. 1, http://dx.doi.
org/10.1016/j.erss.2017.06.034
 Chapter
7
Critical marketing
Addressing the commercial
determinants of ill-health and
planetary harm

This chapter looks critically at commercial marketing and the harms it is causing. It shows how
such concerns are nothing new; they have preoccupied social scientists for at least a century. This
critical analysis also fits with our discussions of theory in Chapter 3 which showed the need to
address the wider determinants of our health and ecological behaviour.

We will examine the workings of the modern business corporation: its focus on profits to the exclusion
of all else; the power and ubiquity of its marketing and the harm the resulting hyperconsumption is
having on human and planetary wellbeing. It will conclude that critical analysis of these forces enables
us social marketers to better address the problems we now face and improve our own interventions.

Learning outcomes
By the end of the chapter, you will be able to think critically about corporate marketing and:

✓✓ Define and explain the fiduciary imperative and the dangers of corporate power.

✓✓ See why a leading psychiatrist diagnosed the corporation with psychopathy.

✓✓ Explain some of the individual, collective and planetary harms that can be done by corporate
marketing, and how these come about.

✓✓ Critically discuss the commercialisation of hyperspace.

✓✓ Explain why these critical insights are so important to social marketing.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003200086-7
106 CRITICAL MARKETING

Keywords
Critical thought – fiduciary imperative – inequalities – consumption – materialism – competitive
analysis – individual, collective and planetary harm – ice cream.

Why it is critical to be critical

In the WHO European region, 88% of us now die from non-communicable diseases such as diabetes,
cancer and heart disease.1 We often refer to these as “lifestyle illnesses,” which makes them sound
normal, an inescapable part of our daily lives. But when we look more closely, a different picture
emerges. These deaths are premature, and driven, not by inevitable or natural factors, but very spe-
cific and carefully curated consumption decisions: the predominant disease vectors are tobacco,
alcohol, sugary drinks and ultra-processed food. The markets for these commodities are controlled
by multinational corporations, which have grown so large in recent decades that they now dwarf
many countries. They use extremely well-resourced and increasingly powerful marketing techniques
to encourage consumers to buy their products and policy makers to support their business plans.
The result has been a spate of “industrial epidemics”: diseases caused by corporate marketing.

The methods used by corporate marketers are also raising questions and have been doing so for
at least a century. Is it right, for example, to target children who do not fully understand what an
advertisement is or to produce and promote trivial products and services when so many in the
world are living in poverty?

The impact of our dysfunctional consumption patterns has spread inexorably beyond a limited
number of hazardous commodities. Massive overconsumption of all sorts of products and ser-
vices is now jeopardising the planet and ushering in climate breakdown. Covid-19 is just one
symptom of this unsustainable system and provides a much-needed teachable moment. Do
Critical Thinking Task 7.1.

CRITICAL THINKING TASK 7.1: LEARNING FROM COVID

“COVID-19 is bringing hardship and tragedy. Health workers are having to take
appalling risks; loved ones are being lost; lockdown is causing great distress. And,
as always in testing times, the disadvantaged are being hit worst. As we emerge
from the shadows, the call from the vested interests, from the system’s current win-
ners, will be for a rapid return to business as usual. We must resist this; business as
usual got us into this mess. COVID-19 is trying to tell us something; we health edu-
cators and social marketers must listen, think and, above all, take action.”

This is the abstract to a recent article called COVID-19: Our Last Teachable
Moment, which you can access here2. Read it and consider whether or not you
agree with the points being made. You don’t need to agree – the important thing is
to think about them. We will return to this issue at the end of the chapter.

This chapter argues that we need to study, critique and control these commercial determinants of ill
health and planetary harm. It will start by showing that concern about corporate marketing is noth-
ing new; people have been critiquing the discipline since its arrival on the scene. It then shows how
 CRITICAL MARKETING 107

Wider social issues have always been a concern of marketing thought, as Wilkie and
Moore’s summary of the broader questions early marketers were addressing shows:
• Are there too many middlemen? Does distribution cost too much?
• Does advertising raise or lower prices?
• What control, if any, should be exerted over new combinations in distribution?
• Of the total costs paid by consumers, which elements are desirable? Indispensable?
• What about “non-essential” services such as credit availability; should these be
eliminated?

Wilkie & Moore (2003)4

Figure 7.1 Marketing concerns in the early twentieth century

behaviour change theory confirms the need for critical marketing. We will then turn to practicalities
and show how critical thinking justifies and guides the regulation of commercial marketing as well
as the production of corrective social marketing. Digital technology has greatly increased the power
of the corporate marketer and so increased the urgency of this work. A final section will then examine
the planetary harms being caused by consumer capitalism and the lessons that emerge from Covid.

A century of critical marketing

The idea of addressing the social consequences of business is far from being a new issue for
marketing. It takes us back to the origins, not just of social marketing thought, but of marketing
thought. An extensive review of the field, published in the Journal of Public Policy and Marketing,
points out that what the authors call “marketing and society” has been a concern of social scientists
since the turn of the twentieth century. They go on to note that well before the Second World War
marketers were not limiting themselves to studying managerial issues, but addressing much wider
social questions (see Figure 7.1), such as whether advertising is desirable, easy credit dangerous,
or some conglomerates (or “new combinations”) too big. They were interested in how the relation-
ship between consumers, marketers and Government could “facilitate the maximal operations of
the system for the benefit of the host society.”3 This is an equally important concern today.

Their review went on to conclude that this interest in the social impact of marketing needs to
continue and indeed strengthen, a call reinforced by the Journal of Marketing in its millennium
edition. Social marketing has a crucial role to play in this work.

Theoretical roots
Behaviour change theory also supports the idea of thinking critically about corporate market-
ing. Think back to Chapter 3 and our discussion of Social Cognitive Theory which explains how
the social and economic circumstances in which we live have a big influence on our knowledge,
attitudes and behaviour. Corporate marketing is a big part of this wider environment. We noted,
for example, how 24/7 corporate marketing encourages us to think that our heavy consumption
is perfectly normal, whereas indigenous peoples who haven’t been exposed to it find it bizarre.
Figure 7.2 looks again at Social Cognitive Theory and shows how commercial marketing can
influence us at three different levels.
108 CRITICAL MARKETING

Figure 7.2 The commercial determinants of behaviour

If we consider one of our own behaviours, such as driving, it is easy to see how this works. There
is the behaviour of other drivers: we might get frustrated or anxious, for example, if they speed
or drive dangerously. And the roads can affect us. Speed bumps obviously will, but what about
an improved road surface or the extra lanes on the newly extended motorway? And what factors
influence us to drive at all? Can we afford a car? Is it just a matter of free will or does the absence
of public transport make it essential? Do concerns about the environment inhibit our driving? It
is apparent that we are not quite the free agents we might like to think; that our own capabilities
and attitudes only partly explain our driving behaviour.

Commercial marketers – in this case the car industry – are well aware of these wider influences
and actively exploit them. Our new car’s green credentials, however dubious, may overcome our
ecological concerns or help us to feel less guilty about burning fossil fuels. Its technical capabili-
ties and design features may encourage us to speed, and its much publicised safety cage make
us feel safer – and therefore a bit more reckless. The marketers may also target policy makers
with lobbying and corporate social responsibility campaigns to keep fuel taxes low or boost road
building, both of which might encourage our driving. They may also build alliances with other
industries – oil and steel producers, for example – to increase the pressure on government.

The power of corporate marketing

Corporate marketing has therefore become a big part of our lives. We see a constant stream of adver-
tising, packaging, branding, point-of-sale display and sponsorship everyday – and as we will discuss
below, digital technology has made this marketing even more intrusive. We noted in Chapter 1
how extensive the marketing industry has become, employing millions of people and influencing
 CRITICAL MARKETING 109

trillions of dollars of spending. We also noted that corporations have grown very big in the
process – much bigger than many countries. This raises the problem of power. If I buy my groceries
in a street market or at a small local shop, I can pick and choose where to buy, and if a trader behaves
badly I can go elsewhere. On the other hand, if I am dependent on a large supermarket chain which
has bought up all the outlets in the district, my options are much more limited.

In recent decades, these corporations have become narrowly focused on profitability. In

September 1970, the economist Milton Friedman5 published a landmark article in the New York
Times magazine arguing that businesses should concentrate their efforts solely on maximising
profits – in his famous phrase: “the business of business is business.” He was speaking of and to
the corporate sector, the companies that have grown so large. His message of single-minded-
ness went on to define the subsequent era of neoliberalism where large companies concentrated
on growth and expanded across the world. Supply chains globalised, production shifted to the
cheapest locations and costs were minimised to ensure the highest possible levels of profitabil-
ity. Competition ensured that this narrow focus was tirelessly maintained: profits and investor
returns were pursued to the exclusion of all else.

In particular, harms to health or the planet were conveniently ignored. They were simply defined
as “externalities” and kept off the balance sheet. Tobacco companies could and did disregard and
deny lung cancer; the oil industry has done the same with climate (see Critical Thinking Task 7.2).

CRITICAL THINKING TASK 7.2:  CLIMATE DENIAL BY THE

OIL INDUSTRY

Oil companies spent decades denying the link between their products and climate
breakdown, despite their scientists being among the first to know about it. As long ago
as 1959, before the Beatles had recorded a song or Kennedy been assassinated, the US
oil industry was clearly warned by Edward Teller, the guest speaker at their centennial
conference, about the drastic harm carbon fuels were doing to the climate:

Whenever you burn conventional fuel, you create carbon dioxide….

Carbon dioxide has a strange property. It transmits visible light, but it
absorbs the infrared radiation which is emitted from the earth. Its presence
in the atmosphere causes a greenhouse effect …. It has been calculated
that a temperature rise corresponding to a 10 per cent increase in carbon
dioxide will be sufficient to melt the icecap and submerge New York. All
the coastal cities would be covered, and since a considerable percentage
of the human race lives in coastal regions, I think that this chemical contami-
nation is more serious than most people tend to believe.6

Sixty years later, in 2019, an investigation by InfluenceMap shows that the five larg-
est global oil and gas companies spend nearly $200m (£153m) a year lobbying to
delay, control or block policies to tackle climate breakdown, whilst at the same time
parading bogus, “Beyond Petroleum”, green credentials in their advertising.7

Access and read the InfluenceMap report. Write down your reactions.
110 CRITICAL MARKETING

“You must be the generation that succeeds in addressing the planetary

emergency of climate change,” … “Despite mountains of evidence of loom-
ing climate catastrophe, we still see mountains of funding for coal and fos-
sil fuels that are killing our planet. But we know investing in fossil fuels is a
dead end – no amount of greenwashing or spin can change that. So we must
put them on notice: accountability is coming for those who liquidate our
future.”…. “You hold the cards. Your talent is in demand from multinational
companies and big financial institutions. You will have plenty of opportunities
to choose from. My message to you is simple: don’t work for climate wreck-
ers. Use your talents to drive us towards a renewable future.”8

António Guterres, Secretary General of the United Nations (2022)

Figure 7.3 The planet-wrecking fossil fuel industry

António Guterres the Secretary General of the United Nations has very strong feelings about this.
In his 2022 speech to graduates at Seton Hall University in New Jersey he said bluntly “Don’t work
for climate wreckers” of the fossil fuel industry “Use your talents to drive us towards a renewable
future” (see Figure 7.3).

This disregard for consequences is driven by the structure of the corporation, which separates
executive decision making from ownership. CEOs spend other people’s – investors’ – money (they
are typically called “shareholders” or “stockholders” in the US). Because of this, very strict rules
are put in place by government to make sure that shareholders’ interests always come first. In
recent decades, following Friedman’s lead (see above), this interest has been defined in narrow,
financial terms. This “fiduciary imperative” has meant that profit has become the only arbiter of
success. Joel Bakan,9 in his book and film analysing The Corporation, argues that it has become so
dysfunctional as to be psychopathic.

The problem we face then is one of power. Marketing in the hands of a small company can mis-
lead and deceive, but its capacity to do great harm is limited because the perpetrator is relatively
weak. With the multinational, this is not the case. Furthermore, their wealth and power mean
they can afford the best marketing expertise, employ the most persuasive tools and gain near-
ubiquitous reach. Arguably then, marketing only causes real problems when it becomes corpo-
rate marketing.

Branding five-year-olds
Concerns about the power of corporate marketers become even more serious when we think
about children. Have a go at Critical Thinking Task 7.3.

Immediate alarms are raised by the vulnerability of the children. A five-year-old struggles to dis-
tinguish a TV commercial from a programme. They have no idea that the message it contains is
innately deceitful; that it will tell you all the good things about a product but none of the down-
sides. The brand, with its emotional short-circuits, is also beyond their comprehension. Is it fair
for a company with the resources of McDonalds to exploit this naivety? The longterm implications
 CRITICAL MARKETING 111

CRITICAL THINKING TASK 7.3:  BRANDING

FIVE-YEAR-OLDS

A research study in California among 3–5-year-olds shows that children’s food pref-
erences are being moulded by branding even before they have learnt to tie their
shoelaces.10 The children were served food in both branded and unbranded pack-
aging. Items that came in McDonald’s wrappers were thought to taste better, even
if they were foods like carrots, which McDonald’s didn’t sell. On the other hand,
McDonald’s products didn’t taste as good without the liveried packaging. These
effects were apparent across the group, but most marked amongst those who had
been more exposed to McDonald’s and its advertising.

How do you feel about this? Are these small children being treated fairly?

might also give you pause. In the UK, more than six in ten adults are now overweight or obese,
making it the fattest country in Europe. Around 30,000 die each year as a result.11 As Rafael Pérez-
Escamilla explains in Case Study 13, the situation is even worse in Mexico. Does it make sense to
encourage children to follow us adults down this dangerous and unhealthy road?

The baby milk industry’s marketing impacts an even younger section of society. For many
mothers-to-be, the first official recognition of her condition will come, not from a gynaecologist
or a prenatal nurse, but from an infant formula marketer. As Hastings et al show in Case Study
#14, The Baby Killer Revisited, a simple post on Facebook about buying folic acid supplements or
missing a period, can mean your details will probably be captured. Sign up to a manufacturer’s
Baby Club or ring their helpline, and they certainly will be. Then, as a former formula marketer
explains, “you step into a series of emails that are timed to your stage of pregnancy.” What may
seem like an objective source of help (brand names are kept deliberately low key) is straight mar-
keting: companies have “very good evidence to show that if a woman is in the [baby club], if a
woman has called [the telephone advice line], there is a significant correlation with her ultimately
buying [corporation name’s] products.” So “The first key moment [of pregnancy],” “the departure
point,” is “really not addressed by anybody except the brands.” And “first-time mothers are the
holy grail,” the marketer continues, because “how a woman feeds her first baby is how she is likely
to feed her subsequent babies.”12

But formula, as the companies all agree, is markedly inferior to breast milk. Most obviously, as
WHO research demonstrates,13 if all babies who could be were breast fed rather than bottle fed,
over 823,000 infant lives would be saved every year. Infant formula also harms the intellectual
development of the baby to such an extent that it is possible to detect the impact on GDP of a pre-
dominantly bottle-fed population. In addition, there is an increased risk of breast cancer for the
mother, and significant ecological harm: packaging, supply chains and bottle-feeding apparatus
all have a carbon footprint and introduce durable plastics into the environment. The competition,
breast milk, has none of these drawbacks, and comes with natural antibodies that turn it into
“a personalised medicine for infants”; manufactured products cannot begin to replicate these
benefits.14
112 CRITICAL MARKETING

If we think from the baby’s or the planet’s perspective, then, instead of the company’s, the only
justification for using formula is when the real alternative is unavailable. These circumstances
do occur and formula fulfils an important role; it can be a lifesaver – but the industry’s assiduous
marketing from the earliest point in the parent’s journey means it is used way more often than is
necessary or desirable.

Surprisingly, the impact of marketing on our lives starts even earlier than this, as an epigeneticist
at WHO explained to us. His job, he said, is to study the short-term effects of genetic makeup on
our health and wellbeing. Whilst our genetic code changes very slowly, he elaborated, the (epi-
genetic) switches that make it function change more quickly. So a child born to parents who eat a
lot of junk food will enter the world with an established liking for foods high in fat, salt and sugar.
If they are then bottle fed (another ultra-processed food) and move onto a diet like their parents’,
these tastes will be further reinforced. Epigenetic mechanisms hardwire these developments,
pre-programming future weight problems. So he concluded: “by age ten it is game-over.”

It is, then, difficult to see how marketing to children can be justified. There is, however, one argu-
ment that has been proposed, which uses the concept of “consumer socialization.” Try Critical
Thinking Task 7.4.

CRITICAL THINKING TASK 7.4:  CONSUMER

SOCIALISATION

As we have already noted, ours is a society dominated by marketing. It is argued

that each new generation needs to learn about the ways of the commercial world.
They will have to navigate them when they grow up – when they become adults – so
it is better that they start learning early. Academics call this “consumer socialisation”
and define it as the “processes by which young people acquire skills, knowledge,
and attitudes relevant to their functioning as consumers in the marketplace.”15

What do you think? Are you convinced by this idea?

There are two counterarguments to consumer socialisation. The first is a matter of process. That
children need to learn about commerce, capitalism and how markets work is a valid point; that
they should learn about it by being directly and continuously exposed to its risks is much more
questionable. It seems a bit like teaching road safety by letting children play in traffic. So, yes they
should learn about our economic system – including its cons as well as its pros – but shouldn’t
they do so in the home and the classroom?

The second concern is a matter of outcome. The implicit assumption underpinning consumer
socialisation is that we actually want our children to grow up like us, to become excessive shop-
pers and over-enthusiastic consumers. But given the problems with the climate, perhaps this is
not so. UN experts are telling us to cut emissions by half and reach zero carbon by the year 2050,
and that doing so “requires nothing less than a total and rapid reversal of our present direction
as a civilization.” Similarly, as we noted in Chapter 1, climate scientists are telling us we must
consume much less, not just of certain products, but of everything. Perhaps, then, rather than
 CRITICAL MARKETING 113

training the new generation to shop, we should be encouraging them to seek new ideas and dif-
ferent ways of living. What do you think?

The regulation of corporate marketing

Regulating corporate marketing is therefore a priority for both our health and our planet. It
depends first on the development of a strong evidence base. This work is ongoing and sup-
porting it is an important critical marketing task. Case Study #14 shows, for example, how
qualitative interviews with corporate marketers provided important insights about the mar-
keting of infant formula. Marketing’s capacity to encourage consumption has been proven in
multiple studies for tobacco, alcohol, processed food and infant formula.16,17,18,19 So well estab-
lished have these effects become that a new descriptor – the “industrial epidemic”20– has been
coined. It is defined as:

“The concept of an epidemic associated with the commercialisation of a dangerous product was
first developed in the instance of tobacco” then extended “to epidemics related to the con-
sumption of commercial products (e.g. alcohol, illicit drugs, food, cars and guns). We further
modified that concept to cover diseases of consumers, workers and community residents caused
by industrial promotion of consumable products, job conditions and environmental pollution,
respectively, and to endemic as well as epidemic conditions.”21

However, evidence is not always enough on its own. The power and size of these industries
have enabled them to resist attempts at regulation and develop very effective lobbying and cor-
porate affairs functions with which to engage policy makers. So, soda makers can influence
the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,22 oil companies undermine climate science23
and the paint industry exonerates lead,24 and in the process regulation is avoided, delayed or
contained. There is, therefore, a valuable role for social marketers in facilitating enlightened
regulation.

Case Study #13, from Rafael Pérez-Escamilla, describes how social marketing by civil society
helped in “Advancing the Sugar Sweetened Beverages Tax Policy in Mexico,” but had to with-
stand powerful opposition from commercial interests. The taxes were being introduced to com-
bat Mexico’s urgent obesity crisis: “the prevalence of overweight and obesity reached 70 per cent
among adults and 30 per cent among children in 2012” and the spread of “non-communicable
diseases such as type 2 diabetes that were bankrupting Mexico’s health care system.” The case
describes how social mobilisation, a “multi-sectoral participatory process” and “evidence-based
advocacy” helped “to defend and keep the policy in place in spite of the strong opposition from
the powerful food industry.”

Digital marketing – A critical problem

Digital technology has greatly enhanced the power of corporate marketing. As we noted in
Chapter 1, effective marketing depends on a thorough understanding of the customer. To sell us
things successfully, marketers need to know not just our needs and wants, but everything about
us – our hopes, vulnerabilities, aspirations, prejudices…. We have also noted how the same need
to understand our clients applies to social marketing, and in an analogue world this requires a
114 CRITICAL MARKETING

great deal of market research. Both commercial and social marketers regularly conduct surveys,
depth interviews and focus groups. However, this takes time and resources. It also requires our
freely declared collaboration, and the process is protected by a complex system of research ethics
(discussed further in Chapter 9) to ensure this happens and no harm comes to respondents. All
this limits the amount of intelligence that can be collected.

These realities have been changed profoundly by digital technology. We now live in an atten-
tion economy where our personal data can be harvested continually to devise ever more targeted
and powerful marketing campaigns. Our “behavioural surplus,” provided with every keystroke, is
combined with additional data from specialist providers such as Equifax and Experian. This data
is remarkably personal and its sheer scale is daunting: one study uncovered more than 52,000
unique attributes being used by Facebook to classify users.25 Mark Zuckerberg is right when he
says Facebook does not sell its users’ data; it collects it and buys it. It then uses artificial intel-
ligence (AI) to convert it into tools that can, at a price, enable precision targeting by anyone who
wants to influence behaviour. The Cambridge Analytica26 story shows how algorithms, big data
and AI-enabled unscrupulous behaviour change professionals threaten democracy itself. Try
Critical Thinking Task 7.5.

CRITICAL THINKING 7.5: CAMBRIDGE ANALYTICA

In March 2018, Christopher Wylie, “a 28-year-old Canadian and former research

director at Cambridge Analytica, revealed how the company had exploited Facebook
data harvested from millions of people across the world to profile and target them
with political messages and misinformation, without their knowledge or consent.” A
subsequent UK Government enquiry called Facebook “digital gangsters” and said
that Britain’s electoral laws no longer worked. It was a report that drew on hours
of testimony from Cambridge Analytica directors, Facebook executives and dozens
of expert witnesses: 73 in total, of whom MPs had asked 4,350 questions. And its
conclusion? That Silicon Valley’s tech platforms were out of control, none more so
than Facebook, which it said had treated parliament with ‘contempt’.”

The Cambridge Analytica scandal shows how powerful and potentially harmful mar-
keting can be – because, minus the law-breaking data breaches – the company was
just using the commercial marketing techniques that are used to influence our con-
sumption to change our voting behaviour. Christopher Wylie, a whistle blower from
the company, explains that the company was “a full service propaganda machine”
and that “if you want to change politics you have to change culture, because politics
flows from culture. If you want to change culture you have to understand what the
units of culture are. People are the units of culture.”

As with all marketing, it starts with gaining a detailed understanding of the indi-
vidual voter, in this case from tens of million Facebook profiles. “We could build a
psychological profile of each voter. We would know what kinds of messaging you
would be susceptible to, including the framing of it, the topic, the content, the tone,
 CRITICAL MARKETING 115

whether it’s scary or not, that kind of thing. So what you would be susceptible to
and where you would consume that and then how many times we have to touch you
in order to change how you think about it.”

In short, standard corporate marketing. This, he points out, completely undermines

the principles of democracy: “instead of standing in the public square and saying
what you think and then letting people come and listen to you, and have that shared
experience as to what your narrative is, you are whispering into the ear of each and
every voter and maybe whispering one thing to this voter and another to this one.”
In this way “we risk fragmenting society into one where we don’t have any more
shared experiences, we don’t have any more shared understanding.” And, as he
concludes, “if we don’t have any shared understanding how can we be a function-
ing society?”

It is unsurprising that Carole Cadwalladr, the journalist who broke the Cambridge
Analytica story, wrote a reflective article last year, called starkly: “If you’re not ter-
rified about Facebook, you haven’t been paying attention.” You can read it here.27

When you have done so, consider the implications for social marketing.

As we noted in Chapter 1, Shoshana Zuboff has labelled these developments “the Age of
Surveillance Capitalism.”28 Digital capability, she argues is delivering “guaranteed outcomes”
to corporate marketers; she even warns that our right to the future tense is being jeopardised.
French philosopher Bernard Stiegler29 uses the term “computational capitalism” but is equally
disturbed by a system which he argues is undermining our ability to think authentically and criti-
cally. Given what we have already noted about the importance of independent critical thought,
these are grave concerns.

Figure 7.4, which presents testimony from industry insider Tristan Harris to the US Senate, illus-
trates the sinister capabilities digital technology can provide.

Critical analysis of these developments is vital, and can again inform two levels of response. First,
we can seek to constrain digital commercial marketing where it is doing obvious harm. Its use
by the infant formula industry discussed above, for example, to pre-empt health authorities in
reaching out to new mothers, is now being challenged by WHO.31

We can also learn from it to inform our behaviour change campaigns. Arguably, digital tech-
nology, social media, influencers and immensely accurate data sets can greatly enhance our
efforts, always assuming we have the large budgets needed to access them. Cambridge Analytica
did succeed in influencing voting behaviour, the bedrock of democracy; so could not the same
methods shift other vital behaviours which determine our health and welfare – smoking, domes-
tic violence, racism – and thereby do great good? If Mark Zuckerberg lent us his platform and
programmers, would we do our own Cambridge Analytica to fight obesity? When we learn that
“Facebook is using sophisticated algorithms to identity and exploit Australians as young as 14, by
allowing advertisers to target them at their most vulnerable, including when they feel ‘worthless’
116 CRITICAL MARKETING

On June 25, 2019 – Tristan Harris, a tech industry insider, gave evidence to the US Senate
Commerce Committee. In his testimony he said: “the race to the bottom of the brain
stem… starts with techniques like ‘pull to refresh’ so you pull to refresh your newsfeed
that operates like a slot machine, it has the same addictive qualities that keep people in
Las Vegas hooked to the slot machine….…This is what has caused 70% of You Tube's
traffic to be driven by recommendations – not by human choice but by the machines. It’s
a race between Facebook’s voodoo doll and Google’s voodoo doll as to who can bet-
ter predict your behaviour.…..Facebook has something called ‘loyalty prediction’ where
they can actually predict to an advertiser when you are going to become disloyal to a
brand …so they can predict things about us that we don’t know about ourselves…...
Imagine a world in which priests only make their money by selling access to the confes-
sion booth to someone else; except in this case Facebook listens to 2 billion people’s
confessions and has super-computer next to them and is calculating and predicting the
confessions you are going to make before you know you are going to make them.”

You can hear and see him here30.

Figure 7.4 A whistle blower’s testimony on big tech to the US Senate

and ‘insecure’ and so exploit ‘moments when young people need a confidence boost’ in pinpoint
detail” does it disturb us, or help us to choose the best moment to insert our anti-suicide mes-
sage? (In Australia and New Zealand, it’s Wednesday afternoon apparently.) When the Chinese
Government embraces this technology to devise a system of social credit, which guarantees pub-
lic adherence to desirable standards of behaviour,32 do we shudder or think of how this could
improve road safety? Or do we, like Stiegler, set a premium on authentic critical thinking and set
about trying to encourage and bolster it?

These are vital questions, and we will return to them in Chapter 9, but for the moment let us just
be clear that the study, critique and control of surveillance or computational capitalism, as with
other forms of commercial influence, has a vital role to play in social marketing.

Climate breakdown
Climate breakdown in the biggest of all industrial epidemics. It is already killing hundreds of
thousands of people every year, and scientists across the globe are warning us that unless urgent
action is taken, we will soon have destroyed “the Earth’s ability to support complex life.” We will
cease to exist.

There is no sign of humanity responding to this challenge: more than half the CO2 in the atmos-
phere has been put there since the IPCC’s first report was published in 1988.33 A recent study
published in Nature34 notes that in 2020, the amount of stuff we humans produce exceeded the
natural biomass for the first time. In other words, all the cars, plastic containers, asphalt, tech
devices, shopping trollies and other paraphernalia we need to live as hyperconsumers – along
with the associated waste – now weigh more than all the life – plant and animal – on earth. Plastic
alone outweighs animals two to one. The proportion was only 3% in 1900, and, if we continue as
we are, there will be three times as much stuff as life by 2040.
 CRITICAL MARKETING 117

Marketing and its influence on our shopping habits is at the root of the problem, as scientists also
point out: “humanity’s consumption as a fraction of Earth’s regenerative capacity has grown
from ∼ 73% in 1960 to 170% in 2016 with substantially greater per-person consumption in coun-
tries with highest income”35 (note for those living in Europe, North America and Australasia this
last group means us).

By the same token, the IPCC scientists see our consumption behaviour as a source of hope. It is
currently so wasteful that correcting it could bring about great improvements. They give three
reasons for this36:

•• First, we consumers are currently causing more planetary harm than any other part of the
economy: “the final use of energy has long been identified both as the least efficient part of the
global energy system’37 (we fail to insulate our houses, insist on driving a few hundred metres
to the shops and throw away half the food we buy) and consequently ‘as having the largest
improvement potentials.”

•• Second, our downstream behaviour is much easier and quicker to change than upstream
activity: we consumers can switch from cars to bikes overnight, whilst moving from coal to
nuclear power generation takes decades.

•• Finally, meeting our incessant demand for more stuff involves enormous waste: “the conver-
sion efficiency of total primary energy inputs into services delivered is conservatively esti-
mated at 14% on average for the global energy system in 2020. This means that improving
energy efficiency at the service level by 1 unit yields a reduction in primary resource require-
ments by a factor of 7.” In other words, every SUV we buy costs the energy equivalent of seven
SUVs to produce, and not making or consuming it will produce equally impressive savings.

This reinforces the need for those interested in progressive social change to look critically at our
business practices. We began this chapter by discussing Covid-19, itself a product of our unsus-
tainable economic system, and asking what lessons it had taught us. Read Figure 7.5.

“COVID-19 has also delivered up a remarkable experiment: what happens when neo-
liberal capitalism is put on hold? When the factories close, the supply chains fracture,
the shopping stops? A study which would never have been deemed ethical or feasible
heretofore has gone ahead almost unnoticed, and the data is now in. The two-month
economic shutdown in China improved air quality to such an extent that 77,000 lives
were saved, including those of 4,000 under-fives. This is twenty times more than were
taken by the virus. Far from the cure being worse than the disease, it turns out to be far
better than business as usual; switching off capitalism not only protects us from the virus,
it protects us from ourselves.

Le Monde sees compelling evidence of systemic problems with neoliberal global capital-
ism, as does the French President, whose March 12 address to the nation argued that we
need to cross-examine our economic system which has been shown by COVID-19 to be
so conspicuously flawed.”38

Figure 7.5 A key lesson from COVID-19

118 CRITICAL MARKETING

It explains that the forced shutdown of production during lockdown saved many more lives by
improving air quality than by arresting the virus. It shows that business as usual was in fact more
of a danger than Covid-19. Now try Critical Thinking Task 7.6.

CRITICAL THINKING TASK 7.6:  CRITICAL MARKETING AND

CLIMATE BREAKDOWN

Return to Critical Thinking Task 2.1, the Government Tender on Carbon Neutrality,
and think through how our discussions of Critical Marketing in this chapter will influ-
ence your thinking about how to respond.

Competitive analysis
Analysing corporate marketing can serve another valuable social marketing purpose. We can also
use the analysis of their activities to learn from them. The cigarette companies see the tobacco
control movement as a competitor and study it carefully to inform their fightback; we can return
the compliment. This “competitive analysis” is widely used in business: Figure 7.6 illustrates how
a commercial marketer working for McDonalds might use it.

As with so much else in marketing, it starts by looking at the world through the eyes of the cus-
tomer, but instead of asking direct questions about McDonalds, which risks producing only obvi-
ous responses, it does so by asking about their perceptions of the competition (refer back to our

Think for a few moments about what needs a fast-food outlet may be satisfying for a
father and his two small children. As a good marketer you would seek to answer this
question with a bit of market research asking them why they have come to the Golden
Arches. The obvious answer you will get is food; McDonald’s is satisfying their hunger –
but it is likely that this is only part of the picture.

Competitive analysis leads you to examine alternative options, with questions like:

I) Where might you have gone today if not to McDonald’s?

II) What other places do you like going together?

III) How good are these alternative offerings?

The answers may produce predictable responses such as KFC or Burger King (maybe
they have better free toys). More unsettlingly, but still reasonably predictably, the answer
may be new juice bar (because the food in healthier). However, the father and his chil-
dren may also suggest less obvious alternatives, like a picnic in the park (because you can
also feed the ducks and try out the swings) or a trip to the cinema to see the latest Disney
(because it has been trailed on children’s television and all their friends have seen it).

Figure 7.6 What customer needs does McDonald’s meet?

 CRITICAL MARKETING 119

discussion of projective questioning techniques in Chapter 5). Where might you have gone today
if not to McDonald’s? What other places do you like going to together? What do you like about
these alternatives?

This has two benefits for the marketing team: it helps them understand both their rivals and their
customers. With their rivals, the answers in Figure 7.6 will enable McDonald’s executives to see
who they are up against – Burger King, the juice bar or the cinema. They can then think through
how they should respond. Is it straight them or us rivalry or are there also cooperative opportu-
nities? For example, in the case of the juice bar, direct competition is probably needed, perhaps
by adding healthier options to the menu; the picnic option, on the other hand, may suggest that
opening a franchise in the park has potential. Similarly, in the case of the cinema, the best strat-
egy may not be to compete head on, but form an alliance and begin serving McDonald’s meals to
theatre goers.

As far as their customers are concerned, the answers in Figure 7.6 start to give McDonald’s a much
better fix on the precise need they are seeking to meet. It becomes clear, for example that this is
about much more than food and hunger. Fun, entertainment and a child friendly atmosphere are
all also in there. Indeed some people actually patronise McDonald’s despite the food.

Competitive analysis is also a useful social marketing tool. Try Critical Thinking Task 7.7.

CRITICAL THINKING TASK 7.7: COMPETITIVE ANALYSIS

You work for a social marketing agency which has been commissioned by a local
health authority to design a campaign that will combat the rising rates of obesity
in the local teenage population. The authority is particularly concerned about the
amounts of junk food being eaten. How might the sort of competitive analysis dis-
cussed in Figure 7.6 help?

The insights from Figure 7.6 will be just as useful to a nutritionist as the McDonald’s marketing
team. They would help her design interventions and better connect with her overweight clients. In
this way, critical marketing helps us think in a more sophisticated way about the full complexities
of behavioural and social change.

Wrap-up
This chapter has looked at the dark side of marketing, and you might have found this disturbing.
But the purpose is not to shock, it is to reinforce the importance of independent critical thought.
Just as corporations sometimes have a vested interest in behaving badly, so they have a vested
interest in covering this up. It is our responsibility as social marketers – and as people – to look
beneath the surface and ask questions.

The Nazis were possibly the worst example of moral degeneracy in the tewntieth century. Yet
New York Times journalist Charles Higham, in his forensically researched book “Trading with
120 CRITICAL MARKETING

the Enemy,”39 shows that leading corporations like Ford, ITT and the Chase Manhattan Bank
worked with the regime throughout the war. ITT literally helped Hitler’s regime to perfect the
doodlebugs that so devastated London. This extreme example of keeping the focus on the bottom
line was, he explains, hidden behind “an ice cream mountain of public relations.” Our job is to
look behind the ice cream.

Reflective questions
1. What is “fiduciary imperative” and why is it important?

2. The dark side of marketing results from an imbalance of power in the marketplace, giving rise
to individual and environmental harm. Explain in detail.

3. Social marketers should be “concerned with analysis of the social consequence of marketing
policies, decisions and activities.”40 Elaborate with examples.

4. Is marketing driving unsustainable consumption? If yes, what would you do about it?

5. Is Consumer Socialisation going to save the planet? If yes, how; if not, why not?

Reflective assignments
1. Apply critical thinking to one of the following controversies:

•• Social marketing is (not) social media marketing.

•• Social marketing critically examines commercial marketing so as to learn from its suc-
cesses and (not) curb its excesses.

•• Social marketing is (not) about sustainable, ethical and responsible behaviour change.

2. Locate three social marketing case studies or papers that show the dark side of marketing.

3. You are social marketing manager with Jigsaw, a non-profit entity focused on mental health
in young adults in inner cities. You have been tasked with designing a mental health interven-
tion specifically targeting suicide; how could you use critical thinking?

4. How, where and why does critical thought integrate with our discussions of social marketing
in Chapters 1 and 2?

5. Consult the Journal of Social Marketing and/or Social Marketing Quarterly and read a classic
or contemporary article(s) on the critical thinking in social marketing to advance your under-
standing of the theory and practice in this area.

Notes
1 WHO. (2016). http://apps.who.int/gho/data/view.main.CODREG6EURV?lang=en (Accessed 5
April 2017).
2 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9463-8480
3 Wilkie, W.L., & Moore, E.S. (2003). ‘Scholarly research in marketing: Exploring the “Four Eras” of
thought development’, Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, 22(2):118.
 CRITICAL MARKETING 121

4 Ibid.
5 http://ethicalecon.org/Micro/Articles/A%20Friedman%20doctrine.pdf
6 https://www.theguardian.com/environment/climate-consensus-97-per-cent/2018/jan/01/on-
its-hundredth-birthday-in-1959-edward-teller-warned-the-oil-industry-about-global-warming
7 https://influencemap.org/report/How-Big-Oil-Continues-to-Oppose-the-Paris-Agreement-
38212275958aa21196dae3b76220bddc
8 https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/may/24/do-not-work-for-climate-
wreckers-un-head-tells-graduates-antonio-guterres
9 Bakan, J. (2004). The Corporation: The Pathological Pursuit of Profit and Power. Toronto: The
Penguin Group (Canada).
10 Robinson, T.N., Borzekowski, D.L., Matheson, D.M., & Kraemer, H.C. (2007). ‘Effects of fast-food
branding on young children’s taste preferences’, Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine,
161(8): 792–797.
11 https://www.healthexpress.co.uk/obesity/uk-statistics
12 Ibid.
13 Rollins, Bhandari, Hajeebhoy, et al. (2017) op cit.
14 Selling second best.
15 Roedder John, D. (1999). ‘Consumer socialisation of children: A retrospective look at twenty-five
years of research’, Journal of Consumer Research, 26(3): 183–213.
16 National Cancer Institute. (2008). The Role of the Media in Promoting and Reducing Tobacco
Use. Tobacco Control Monograph No. 19. Bethesda, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services, National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute.
17 Jernigan, D., Noel, J., Landon, J., Thornton, N., & Lobstein, T. (2017). ‘Alcohol marketing and youth
alcohol consumption: A systematic review of longitudinal studies published since 2008’, Addiction,
112(Suppl 1): 7–20.
18 Smith, R., Kelly, B., Yeatman, H., & Boyland, E. (2019). ‘Food marketing influences children’s atti-
tudes, preferences and consumption: A systematic critical review’, Nutrients, 11(4): E875.
19 Piwoz, E.G., & Huffman, S.L. (2015). ‘The impact of marketing of breast-milk substitutes on WHO-
recommended breastfeeding practices’, Food Nutrition Bulletin, 36(4): 373–386.
20 Jahiel, R.I., & Babor, T.F. (2007). ‘Industrial epidemics, public health advocacy and the alcohol
industry: Lessons from other fields’, Addiction, 102: 1335–1339.
21 Ibid., p. 102.
22 Hessari, N.M., Ruskin, G., McKee, M., & Stuckler, D. (2019). ‘Public meets private: conversations
between Coca-Cola and the CDC’, Milbank Q, 97(1): 74–90.
23 Supran, G., & Oreskes, N. (2017). ‘Assessing ExxonMobil’s climate change communications (1977–
2014)’, Environmental Research Letters, 12(8): 084019.
24 Kessler, R. (2014). ‘Lead-based decorative paints: Where are they still sold-and why? ’, Environmental
Health Perspectives, 122(4): A96–A103.
25 https://www.propublica.org/article/facebook-doesnt-tell-users-everything-it-really-knows-
about-them
26 https://www.theguardian.com/news/2018/mar/17/cambridge-analytica-facebook-influence-us-
election
27 https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2020/jul/26/with-facebook-we-are-already-
through-the-looking-glass
28 Zuboff, S. (2019). The Age of Surveillance Capitalism Profile. Polity London UK ISBN 13:
9781781256848.
29 Bernard, S. (2019). The Age of Disruption: Technology and Madness in Computational Capitalism,
Polity, London UK.
30 Harris, T. (2019). Testimony to the US Senate. https://youtu.be/WQMuxNiYoz4
31 Lancet 2.
32 Lanchester, J. (2019). Document Number Nine London Review of Books, 10 October.
122 CRITICAL MARKETING

33 Wallace-Wells, D. (2019). The Uninhabitable Earth. Penguin Random House. ISBN 9780525576709.
34 Elhacham, E., Ben-Uri, L., Grozovski, J., Bar-On, Y., & Milo, R. (2020). ‘Global human-made mass
exceeds all living biomass’, Nature, 588: 17. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-3010-5
35 Bradshaw et al. (2021). Underestimating the Challenges of Avoiding a Ghastly Future. Front. Conserv.
Sci. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcosc.2020.615419/full?fbclid=IwAR3JoVRbS5y2
Ogcgahy2D8s6O7I4GUCoQ1ZAaugpa-A-39P9AbFZFGO4kIQ
36 Grubler, A., Wilson, C., Bento, N. et al. (2018b). ‘A low energy demand scenario for meeting the
1.5°C target and sustainable development goals without negative emission technologies’, Nature
Energy, 3(June): 515–527. Supplementary Information P3.
37 Ibid P3.
38 Hastings, G. (2020). COVID-19: Our last teachable moment. Emerald Open Research, 2, Art. No.:
20. https://doi.org/10.35241/emeraldopenres.13603.2
39 Higham, C. (2007). Trading with the Enemy: The Nazi-American Money Plot 1933–1949. Lincoln:
iUniverse, Inc., p.xv.
40 Lazer, W., & Kelley, E. (1973). Social Marketing: Perspectives and Viewpoints. Homewood, IL:
Richard D. Irwin, Inc.

Bibliography
Hastings, G. (2022). Hyperconsumption: Corporate Marketing versus the Planet. Routledge UK. ISBN:
978-1-032-21464-1.
Lanchester, J. (2019). Document Number Nine London Review of Books, 10 October.
Wallace-Wells, D. (2019). The Uninhabitable Earth. Penguin Random House. ISBN 9780525576709.
Zuboff, S. (2019). The Age of Surveillance Capitalism Profile. ISBN 13: 9781781256848.
 Chapter
8
Alternatives
In search of new wisdom

This is the most challenging chapter. It broadens our critical analysis to examine our wider eco-
nomic system: corporate consumer capitalism. It is challenging because it will confront us with
some very difficult truths. It will show how our world of plenty, which has its roots in the empire and
colonialism, is built on the ruthless exploitation of both people and planet. And that this unfairness
continues into the present era. Specifically, it is driving climate breakdown and the related ecologi-
cal harms that are now threatening the survival of our species.
The good news is that there are alternatives, we can choose more sustainable systems. Furthermore,
we have guides and teachers in indigenous societies who have long learned how to live ecologically.
We will hear their voices and see how their insights complement key social marketing concepts.

Learning outcomes
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to think critically about our economic system and:
✓✓ Discuss the benefits and limitations of capitalism.
✓✓ Explain the origins of our consumerist lifestyles in colonialism.
✓✓ Critique the ideas of Edward Bernays and his book Propaganda.
✓✓ Question the importance we give to materialistic solutions.
✓✓ Identify alternative ways of seeing the world.
✓✓ Recognise the value of indigenous philosophies.

Keywords
The Wooded Isle – Global South – Global North – imperialism – colonialism – capitalism –
Propaganda – Indigenous wisdom – Huma Betang – hope.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003200086-8
124 ALTERNATIVES

Global North is a term used to describe the parts of the world with high levels of indus-
trial and economic wealth, especially Western Europe and North America. Confusingly, it
also includes Australia and New Zealand. Only about one in five people live in these privi-
leged countries. The countries of the Global South are sometimes referred to as under-
developed, but, given the enormous inequalities, they are perhaps better described as
overexploited.

Figure 8.1 The Global North

On being a consumer
Ours is a world of plenty. The shops overflow with tempting consumer goods, we are welcomed
when we visit them and offered excellent customer service. We can video call with anyone anywhere
using a device which fits in our pockets; circumnavigate the globe in 48 hours and eat fresh grapes
365 days a year. The internet has further enhanced this spoiling, so now we can satisfy every need,
want and whim at any time of the day or night. We have become the consumers of everything.

At least it is a world of plenty if we are relatively well off and live in one of the rich countries of the
“Global North” (see Figure 8.1). But only about 20% of the world’s population live in these privi-
leged countries; the other 80% are more likely to be making iPhones, or mining the coltan that
they depend on, than using them. Their miserly wages often make them better off than their peers,
who live in even worse circumstances: “most people in the world live in poverty: 85% of the world
live on less than $30 per day, two-thirds live on less than $10 per day, and every tenth person lives
on less than $1.90 per day.”1 Even in the Global North, there is great inequality: witness the rise
of foodbanks in the UK, and the Financial Times2 report that 15% of US citizens go to bed hungry.

Consumerism in the Global North is also driving climate breakdown and the ecological harm
threatening the planet, whilst the Global South is suffering most of the impacts. In particular, our
disregard for the consequences of our actions and wrong-headed assumption that perpetual eco-
nomic growth is possible in a finite world is causing immense harm. Do Critical Thinking Task 8.1.

CRITICAL THINKING TASK 8.1: THE GLOBAL NORTH

“Twenty percent of the world’s population consumes resources at a rate that

robs the poor nations and future generations of what they need to survive…. The
warming caused by huge consumption on the part of some rich countries has
repercussions on the poorest areas of the world, especially Africa, where a rise in
temperature, together with drought, has proved devastating for farming. There is
also the damage caused by the export of solid waste and toxic liquids to develop-
ing countries, and by the pollution produced by companies which operate in less
developed countries in ways they could never do at home, in the countries in which
they raise their capital”.

The quote comes from Laudato Si,3 a formal document or ‘encyclical’ written by
the Vatican. We could have used other sources, but we chose this one to show that
 ALTERNATIVES 125

questions about our economic system – about capitalism – that might once have
appeared radical have now become mainstream.

Download the full document and consult it. You don’t need to read the whole book,
just dip into it. Note down your reactions.

You may or may not agree with all the points made in Laudato Si; this does not matter. The point
is that you should think about them. In the last chapter, we took a critical look at marketing; now
we are following Lawrence Wallack’s advice (refer back to Figure 2.2) and moving upstream to
think critically about higher-level drivers. About the factors that encouraged us to develop into
the business and consumption-dominated society to which Noam Chomsky4 alerted us.

We will start with some history to explain how we arrived at this point. This takes us back to
Christopher Columbus and the European colonial expansion; we will discuss some disturbing
truths about its brutality, particularly towards the indigenous peoples who were encountered as
new empires were built. We will also see how these events link directly to the development of the
modern business corporation, marketing and our current hyperconsumption.

Fortunately, the encounter with indigenous peoples also brings us hope. They have a different, more
sustainable view of life, which can help us find a way out of our ecological predicament. As we noted
in Chapter 2, they are already playing an enormously important role in protecting the natural environ-
ment. We will follow Arundhati Roy’s advice and: “pay close attention to those with another imagina-
tion: an imagination outside of capitalism, as well as communism,” the indigenous peoples “who still
know the secrets of sustainable living” and “are not relics of the past, but the guides to our future.”5 This
will help us, as Laudato Si advises, to address such fundamental questions as: “What is the purpose
of our life in this world? Why are we here? What is the goal of our work and all our efforts?” and even,
reversing the usual consumerist focus on our needs, “What need does the earth have of us?”6

The good side of capitalism

Before we delve into colonial history, we should start by counting our blessings. We began the chapter
with a list of pretty trivial consumer gains, but corporate consumer capitalism has also brought pro-
found benefits to humankind. A lot of wealth has been generated, and despite the glaring inequalities,
this has been shared enough to improve the material well-being of many people on the planet. In
China alone, it has lifted 700 million people out of poverty over the last 30 years.7 Cultural achieve-
ments, from Michelangelo to Banksy, have been immense. Technological progress has also been
extremely impressive: from quill-penned letters to video calls; from sailing ships to space rockets; from
leeches to open heart surgery. We have eliminated smallpox, developed anaesthetic dentistry, trav-
elled to the moon and invented a communication system capable of connecting all eight billion of us.

At the most fundamental level, the last four hundred years have also seen a remarkable increase in
life expectancy. When Columbus set off on his first transatlantic voyage, people across the world
could, on average, expect to live no more than three decades. As economic development and indus-
trialisation gathered pace, life expectancy in rich countries increased steadily and by 1950 had more
than doubled (Norway topped the league, at 72). Poorer countries have made up ground since and,
although unacceptable inequalities persist both between and within states, UN data show that
across the world, most people can now expect to live longer than did the post-war Norwegians.8
126 ALTERNATIVES

These are striking achievements. However, they are side effects of consumer capitalism, not direct
outcomes. The improvements in life expectancy, for instance, have come from public health
interventions – improved sanitation, access to clean water, vaccination against communicable
diseases – not directly from the market or the corporations.

It is true that wealth generation funded the education, science and interventions underpinning
public health. But, as we have seen, this route to prosperity – the single-minded focus on profits
regardless of the externalities (see Chapter 7), led by the multinationals – has also brought much
direct harm to public health. The need for improved sanitation and clean water was driven by the
appallingly unhealthy living and working conditions of the new urban poor as industrialisation
took hold. Similarly, the progress in combatting infectious diseases has to be balanced against the
fact that such diseases are now much more likely because of our rush to exploit the natural world.
Covid-19 is just the latest in a long list of epidemics triggered by our materialism.9 It also has to be
weighed against the growth in non-communicable diseases we discussed in Chapter 7.

Finally, our hyperconsumption is also front and centre of our assault on the planet, which is
now presenting an unprecedented threat to public health, life expectancy and all the cultural
and material progress we have made.10 The biggest externality of all is the harm being done to
a finite planet by economic models which assume perpetual growth. As anthropologist Wade
Davis explains, “our economic models are projections and arrows when they should be circles.
To define perpetual growth on a finite planet as the sole measure of economic wellbeing is to
engage in a form of slow collective suicide. To deny or exclude from the calculus of governance
and economy the costs of violating the biological support systems of life is the logic of delusion.”11

Despite the blessings then, it is clear that something is going badly wrong with our way of life,
and we need to do some rethinking. To do this, it is useful to know a little more about how we got
here; how our consumerism developed out of colonialism and the imperial ambitions of Western
Europe. We will start on a tiny Atlantic island.

The wooded isle

It is 600 years since Portuguese sailors first sighted Madeira a few hundred kilometres off the west
coast of Africa and lit “one of the earliest flares of the modern world.”12 Initial raids to capture slaves
from the indigenous Guanche people were followed by invasion, subjugation and exploitation. “The
Guanches,” historian Clive Ponting tells us, “hold the dubious distinction of being the first people to
be driven to extinction by the Europeans.”13 The principal business was sugar, which was immensely
profitable, provided there was fuel and forced labour for processing (the work was so awful no one
would do it except under compulsion). Both were finite resources and soon depleted. Madeira means
“Wooded Isle,” so named because, as an early slaver remarked: “there was not a foot of ground that
was not entirely covered with great trees.”14 These were cut down even faster than the Guanches.

Columbus also had commercial intent when he sailed further west. The costs of his voyage were
paid by bankers who were seeking returns on their investment. The European imperial ventures
were not motivated by ideas or intellectual endeavour, “still less….some nebulous spirit of discov-
ery. They took place over a long period of time, step by step, as immediate, easy profits could be
seen. Financial considerations were always dominant and only once the potential for profit had
been demonstrated did the monarch come in with support.”15
 ALTERNATIVES 127

When Columbus arrived in America, there wasn’t just one indigenous culture but many. This same
wealth of diversity was present across the globe – as Maria Raciti and colleagues say of Australia
in Case Study #4: “prior to colonisation there were approximately 750 distinct Aboriginal societies
with different languages and dialects, histories and territories.” These cultures were treated with
the same ruthless dispatch as the Guanches. Estimates are difficult to make, but in the Americas
it is likely that around 90% of the indigenous population – some 100 million people – were killed.

This is a uniquely appalling statistic: “death on this scale was the greatest any society had to bear
in human history – and the few who survived faced an immense cultural shock as their whole way
of life disappeared as their communities died around them and what was left was destroyed by
the European invaders.”16 Maria Raciti and colleagues’ project is working to repair some of the
recurrent harms from colonialism. Importantly, in good social marketing tradition, they use part-
nership working, recognising that “First Nations peoples are the experts in their own lives and …
interventions and programs” need to be “co-designed and co-implemented.”

Donovan and colleagues also recognise the immense value of indigenous wisdom and its poten-
tial to help tackle the climate crisis; at the end of Case Study #6 they conclude:

“Further, with respect to issues facing all nations, a major benefit of increasing First
Nations peoples’ wellbeing and sense of agency is that they are then better placed
to pass on their long existing knowledge about the environments they have occu-
pied for thousands of years about how to better look after our planet. For example,
in Australia and elsewhere, people are now realising that passing on lessons about
cultural fire practices not only reduces the risk of bushfires, nurtures the land and
protects wildlife species, but also gives younger First Nations people the opportunity
to practise their culture and learn from their Elders.”

Doing justice to all indigenous cultures that Columbus and his colleagues encountered is the work
of lifetimes. Furthermore, to suggest these cultures were all good would be gross over-simplification.
They were human, and therefore inevitably flawed in many ways. There was war, human sacrifice and
cruelty. Nonetheless, as historian Fabrice Delsahut17 explains, there are certain positive themes that
recurred across the continent. He speaks evocatively of how welcoming the locals were of the first
European arrivals (how does this compare with our present-day treatment of refugees and migrants?).

Two further traits highlighted by Delsahut are particularly relevant to our current predicament: the
indigenous peoples’ relationship to private property on the one hand, and the natural world on
the other. Their views on property were entirely at odds with those espoused by the Europeans and
being seeded in the empires they were constructing. Common goods like land and hunting or fish-
ing grounds were held in joint trust for the benefit of all, with only personal things – clothing, tools,
decorative items – being owned by the individual. Furthermore the accumulation of these personal
goods was discouraged because it contradicted their ideas of happiness, which depended on goods
and possessions being circulated, not accrued. Banks and money make no sense with this world
view, as Chief Maquinn of the Nootka nation explains “We are Indians and we have no such bank;
but when we have plenty of money or blankets, we give them away to other chiefs and people, and
by and by they return them with interest, and our hearts feel good. Our way of giving is our bank.”18

Delsahut points out that children were taught from an early age that greed and accumulation are
weaknesses to be surmounted. Try Critical Thinking Task 8.2.
128 ALTERNATIVES

CRITICAL THINKING TASK 8.2:  CHILDREN AND

MARKETING AGAIN

Charles Eastman, a doctor and ethnologist from the Sioux people, explains:

“Children must early learn the beauty of generosity. They are taught to give what
they prize most, that they may taste the happiness of giving.” “Happiness” he con-
tinues “emerges from a circular economy which, through barter and potlatches,
ensures good things are passed around.”19

Compare and contrast this philosophy with the discussion in Chapter 7 about mar-
keting to children. What do you think Charles Eastman would make of the idea of
consumer socialisation? (Refer back to Critical Thinking task 7.4)

A Cherokee chief was teaching his grandson about life: “A fight is going on inside me,”
he said “it is a terrible fight and it is between two wolves. One is evil - he is anger, envy,
sorrow, regret, greed, arrogance, self-pity, guilt, resentment, inferiority, lies, false pride,
superiority, self-doubt, and ego. The other is good – he is joy, peace, love, hope, seren-
ity, humility, kindness, benevolence, empathy, generosity, truth, compassion, and faith.
This same fight is going on inside you – and inside every other person, too.”

The grandson thought for a minute and then asked “Which wolf will win?” His grandfa-
ther replied: “The one you feed.”20

Figure 8.2 Two wolves – A Cherokee parable

Figure 8.2 provides a Cherokee response.

Arguably, we have developed an economic system that continuously feeds the wrong wolf. Wade
Davis makes the same point in different way: “a child raised to believe that a mountain is the
abode of a protective spirit will be a profoundly different human being from a youth brought up to
believe that a mountain is an inert mass of rock ready to be mined. A Kwakwaka’wakw boy raised
to revere the coastal forests as the realm of the divine will be a different person from a Canadian
child taught that such forests are destined to be logged. The full measure of a culture embraces
both the actions of a people and the quality of their aspirations, the nature of the metaphors that
propel them onward.” By metaphors he means stories (refer back to our discussion of stories in
Chapter 6).

Sharing and the idea of interconnectedness also inform Amerindian attitudes to nature, and lie
at the core of their spiritual lives. For them, human beings are part of the natural world, mutu-
ally dependent on and respectful of it; the planet is Holy Mother Earth and “the trees and all of
nature are witnesses to your thoughts and deeds.”21 “The old Lakota was wise” another chief tells
us, “he knew that man’s heart away from nature becomes hard; he knew that lack of respect for
growing, living things soon led to lack of respect for humans, too.”22 Their ecological thinking
has become familiar in recent years, and is more compelling as the climate statistics worsen. Do
Critical Thinking Task 8.3.
 ALTERNATIVES 129

CRITICAL THINKING TASK 8.3: CANADIAN TAR SANDS

Destruction So Vast and Deep It Challenges the Existence of Land and People

“Oil companies have replaced Indigenous people’s traditional lands

with mines that cover an area bigger than New York City, stripping away
boreal forest and wetlands and rerouting waterways…. And despite the
extreme environmental costs, and the growing need for countries to
shift away from fossil fuels, the mines continue to expand, digging up
nearly 500 Olympic swimming pools-worth of earth every day.”

Look online to find out more about Alberta’s Tar Sands oil extraction industry. Here
is a good place to start.23

What would you expect the local indigenous people to think about the tar sands
development? Jean L’Hommecourt, Environmental Consultant with the Fort McKay
First Nation, gives her answer here.24

But, you might argue, these people had none of the material benefits we enjoy; their philoso-
phy might have been noble, but surely their lives were hard and unhappy. You would be wrong.
Amerindian culture also succeeded in bringing its people contentment. Three centuries after the
arrival of Columbus, when the US had still only been partially conquered, US president Thomas
Jefferson was moved to remark: “I am convinced that those [Indian] societies which live without
government enjoy in their general mass an infinitely greater degree of happiness than those who
live under European governments.”25 There is no better test for a civilisation, not even life expec-
tancy, than the contentment of its people. Jefferson knew this full well – he also coined the phrase
“life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness” which was enshrined in the American Declaration of
Independence, and subsequently the new country’s Constitution.

The birth of hyperconsumption

It is a long way from the Wooded Isle to the Canadian Tar Sands and much has happened in
between. However as far as our consumption behaviour is concerned, two phenomena, which
emerged in the USA and then swiftly globalised, are particularly significant. First, commerce,
which had been dominated by lots of small businesses, began to coalesce into a much smaller
number of much bigger companies.26 The modern business corporation, which as we have already
noted, has now outgrown most of the world’s countries, was born. Hand in glove with this, mass
production methods were developed, which vastly increased the availability of consumer goods.
Cars, washing machines and vacuum cleaners could be produced in unprecedented numbers at
a much reduced cost. The age of plenty was born. Case Study #13 from Rafael Pérez-Escamilla
and #14 from Hastings et al show how this has played out in the infant formula and sugary drinks
markets respectively.

However, this sudden abundance of consumer goods raised a big potential problem. If supply
increased so much that it exceeded demand, then the new corporations’ wealth and power
130 ALTERNATIVES

would quickly seep away. It is relative scarcity that determines value: if there are more things to
sell than needs to satisfy, the buyer becomes more powerful than the seller, and can determine
the price, depress sales and dominate the transaction. This made advertising a vital function, and
it became an important industry in its own right. Edward Bernays, the nephew of Sigmund Freud,
was a leading light of the new venture and spelled this out in his book, “Propaganda,” published
in 1928. Do Critical Thinking Task 8.4.

CRITICAL THINKING TASK 8.4: PROPAGANDA

You can download Bernay’s Propaganda easily from various online locations27.

Do so and consult it. As with Laudato Si, you don’t need to read the whole book,
just dip into it. The opening sentence will tell you a lot. What strikes you about the
contents? Are you surprised by what it says?

For a detailed discussion of the profound impact of Bernays’ ideas, watch the BBC
series ‘The Century of the Self’28 by Adam Curtis.

You might be surprised by the bluntness of Bernays’ words. The book opens with the statement:
“The conscious and intelligent manipulation of the organised habits and opinions of the masses
is an important element in democratic society. Those who manipulate this unseen mechanism
of society constitute an invisible government which is the true ruling power of our country.” It
goes on to state that advertising, “the new propaganda,” would become “the mechanism which
controls the public mind”… “manipulated by the special pleader who seeks to create public
acceptance for a particular idea or commodity.”29 Even the title – “Propaganda” – is disturbing;
Bernays was writing at the time of the Nazi Party’s rise to power, using Dr Goebbels’ Ministry of
Propaganda to manipulate the German population. Figure 8.3 provides an evocative example of
how contemporary practitioners saw advertising as unashamedly manipulative.

You might also be surprised that there was such a deliberate plan to get us to consume more.
Advertising was “waging, on behalf of the producers and sellers of consumer goods, a relent-
less war against saving and in favour of consumption” to induce “changes in fashion, create new
wants, set new standards of status, enforce new norms of propriety.”31

Finally, you might be surprised by how widely accepted his ideas were. Bernays was extremely suc-
cessful, became an establishment figure and was honoured in 1949 by the American Psychological

Rosser Reeves, a leading advertiser in the Bernays era, used to show new recruits to his
ad agency two identical silver dollars and explain:

“Never forget that your job is very simple. It is to make people think the silver dollar in my
left hand is much more desirable than the silver dollar in my right hand.”30

Figure 8.3 Rosser Reeves model of advertising effects

 ALTERNATIVES 131

Society for his work on “Engineering Consent.” In a democracy, shouldn’t consent be negotiated
and agreed, rather than engineered? However, democracy was clearly not a priority for Bernays.
In the 1950s, he joined the United Fruit Company (now Chiquita Brands International) and, on
its behalf, worked with the US Government’s Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to bring down the
legitimately elected government of Guatemala in the 1950s32 because its plan to share out land
more fairly with local people threatened the corporation’s profits.

Enter the marketing perspective

If you recall what we said about communications in Chapter 6, you will already be anticipating
problems for the Bernays approach. We noted then, when analysing events around the drama-
tisation of the War of the Words, that mass communications are not nearly as directly powerful
as was initially thought. If you focus on production and then rely on advertising to keep people
buying, you will hit problems. There are limits to how heavily and insistently you can advertise
without seeming desperate. Furthermore, if people already have all the products on offer, high-
pressure selling is not going to get you very far. You might sell them a second car, but a second
washing machine or a third vacuum cleaner?

By the middle of the century, it was becoming clear that the propaganda model was too crude.
Business, it was argued,33 needed to become more sophisticated, to adopt what was called a “mar-
keting perspective.” This turned existing commercial principles on their head by starting with
the customer rather than the product. Successful companies, it was argued, produce what can
be sold, rather than trying to sell what has already been (mass-)produced. The new discipline of
marketing stressed the importance of market research to provide each business with an under-
standing of their customers’ needs and wants, and track its success in satisfying these. You didn’t
try and sell them a second washing machine, but sought out all sorts of other needs and wants you
could satisfy instead. The watchwords became “customer-defined quality,” “customer satisfac-
tion” and “consumer sovereignty.” Competitive pressures would weed out all those businesses
which didn’t adapt and make the market lean and efficient.

Marketing revolutionised business and did bring genuine benefits, as the concept of “customer-
defined quality” illustrates. Inventing the world’s most effective mouse trap may seem like a guar-
anteed route to business success. However, sales will depend on your customers agreeing that
yours is indeed a great mouse trap, and their opinions on what a good mousetrap is – just as much
as its technical performance – will have a fundamental bearing on this. If, for example, your cus-
tomers can’t condone the idea of killing mice, no amount of technological wizardry will convince
them to buy a lethal trap. The most ineffective humane alternative will be preferable and will be
a better product. Thus, the business school argument continues, the market has been enhanced
and genuinely democratised.

The reality of corporate marketing

There were three counterarguments to this. First, the problems of oversupply – of everybody hav-
ing a car, a washing machine and a vacuum cleaner – were limited to a few wealthy countries;
much of the world still – then, as now – lived in great need. Read Figure 8.4.
132 ALTERNATIVES

There may have been oversupply in the US, but the Global South remained in dire need,
not just of vacuum cleaners but of enough to eat. As the historian Clive Ponting34 points
out, by the second half of the last century, there was enough food for everyone, it was
just being very unfairly shared out, and many in the Global South were suffering from mal-
nutrition. This would have been a good moment at which to rethink the model; to stop
chasing yet more profits and start redistributing global resources more fairly. Instead, the
advertising war on behalf of the producers and sellers continued unabated and by the
end of the century the people of the northern hemisphere were eating their way through
double their share of the earth’s harvest – even their domestic pets were better fed than
the poor of the south. These problems of inequity continue today.

Figure 8.4 What other options were there?

There were also eloquent critics of this direction of travel. The year 1962 saw the publication of
Rachel Carson’s book Silent Spring in which the ecological impact of excessive consumerism
was made clear. But nature was not considered important enough. The economic illiteracy of the
model was highlighted by Fritz Schumacher in “Small is Beautiful,” and the moral bankruptcy of
advertising by Vance Packard in the “Hidden Persuaders,” each to no avail. Do Critical Thinking
Task 8.5.

CRITICAL THINKING TASK 8.5:  WHAT OTHER OPTIONS

WERE THERE?

Look on online to find what you can about the three books just cited:

• Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring.

• Fritz Schumacher’s Small is Beautiful, A Study of Economics as if People Mattered

• Vance Packard’s The Hidden Persuaders

Write down your reactions to each.

Second, if the marketing revolution had really resulted in corporations producing exactly what
people want, rather than manipulating them into buying pre-prepared stuff, you would expect
advertising – Bernays’ mind-controlling propaganda – to reduce in importance. In fact, the
reverse is true. Advertising expenditure has increased continuously for over a century,35 and latest
figures show that more than $550 billion is spent on it every year. And as we also noted in the last
chapter, advertising is only a small part of the marketing sales effort.

Third, the idea of consumer sovereignty is difficult to square with the fiduciary imperative and the
diseases of consumption we also discussed in the last chapter. Can the tobacco industry, which
knowingly addicts children and then kills one in two of them, be said to be delivering “customer-
defined quality”? Can the infant formula multinationals in Case Study #10 from Hastings et al,
really be seen as “consumer oriented”?
 ALTERNATIVES 133

A group of Indigenous islanders from Australia’s Torres Strait has launched a world-first
legal battle in a bid to protect their homes. They argue Australia has breached their rights
to culture and life by failing to address climate change. The low-lying islands, located on
the northern tip of Australia, have seen rising sea levels, coastal erosion and flooding
in recent years. It’s the first time a claim of this kind has been taken to the UN Human
Rights Committee.36 Yessie Mosby from Masig Island points out: “We’ve been free here
for thousands of years.….we didn’t contribute nothing towards the fossil fuels and all the
burnings and hustles and bustles what’s happening around. We didn’t contribute noth-
ing but yet we are on the frontline, and getting the impact of everything. I know it’s not
right. As we are waiting our homes are being eaten away. Something needs to be done
right now.”

Hear him for yourself here37.

Figure 8.5 The Torres Strait 8: Australian Islanders in landmark climate fight

Thinking more widely, how can genuine concern for our wellbeing have led to a situation where
our overconsumption is destroying the environment on which we depend? Where UN scientists
are warning us that our materialism in jeopardising the survival of our species? Where the impact
of these ecological harms is felt most acutely by people in the Global South? Figure 8.5 shows how
consumer capitalism continues to threaten the survival of indigenous peoples, in this case the
Torres Strait islanders off the north coast of Australia who have felt compelled to fight back using
human rights legislation.

Indigenous help
Human rights are a crucial part of the fight for a fairer, more sustainable society, as we will dis-
cuss in the next chapter. For the moment, though, we should just recognise that an opportunity
is being missed here. What would happen if we stopped treating indigenous people as obstacles
and instead welcomed them as potential partners? We urgently need new ideas and alternative
perspectives; in Wade Davis’s words better metaphors and indigenous people like Yessie Mosby
have them. It seems not only unjust that they suffer for our “fossil fuel … burnings and hustles and
bustles,” but foolish to reject their help when we need it so badly. In the words of Laudato Si “it is
essential to show special care for indigenous communities and their cultural traditions. They are
not merely one minority among others, but should be the principal dialogue partners.”38

This is the same lesson that Case Studies #4 (Maria Raciti et al) and #6 (Rob Donovan et al) teach
us, both of which epitomise partnership working. Indigenous people are not passive recipients,
but active partners in the process of change and improvement. Indeed, such is the need for indig-
enous help, this can become burdensome – note what Maria Raciti and colleagues say about “cul-
tural taxation” in the question and answer section of their case study.

Nonetheless, such is the urgency of the climate crisis, there have also been important initia-
tives from indigenous peoples to work with us to contain greed and instil a greater respect for
nature. The Kogi people of the Sierra Nevada, for example, whose way of life dates back to before
Columbus, have used their connections with a BBC journalist to make two films, one in 1990,
134 ALTERNATIVES

called “From the Heart of The World”, and a sequel, “Aluna”, in 2012.39 In them, they explain
that their duty to the planet compels them to warn us, their “younger brothers,” of the harms
our economic system is causing. They express deep unease about the devastation that mining,
power generation and modern living in general are wreaking on the world; they call on us to
change course. Despite a lack of modern technology, they explain sophisticated ecological prin-
ciples, the connectedness of nature and the harms being done to the climate. Science which the
International Panel on Climate Change was only just beginning to grapple with at the time of the
first film. They are also convinced that one day we will start to listen: “The ancestors say that one
day the younger brother will wake up. But only when the violence of nature is on top of him. That’s
when he’ll wake up. What are we going to do? Well, we are not going to fight. We just want to make
people understand. We are speaking calmly so that hopefully the whole world will listen.”40

A similar plea came recently from the Amazon’s Kayapó people: “We call on you to stop what you
are doing, to stop the destruction…. If the land dies – if our Earth dies – then none of us will be
able to live. We will all die.”41 Their chief, Raoni Metuktire, explains that we share the same fears
about the future, we are in the same perilous predicament. That is why a group of the Amazonian
peoples, like the Torres Strait islanders, are currently suing their Government in the Hague to
challenge its exploitation and destruction of the rainforest.42

COP 26 in Glasgow saw yet another call from indigenous people for us to work together in the
fight against climate breakdown. This one was facilitated by the Guardian Newspaper in London
and brought together six young indigenous women from around the world. The accompanying
reportage is critical of the lack of attention being given to indigenous voices at COP 26. Although,
it explains, the previous Paris accord “legally recognised the crucial role of traditional knowledge
and innovations by local communities and indigenous peoples in understanding and tackling
the climate crisis,” in reality, little has changed. As one activist explained: “Indigenous people are
more visible but we’re not taken any more seriously; we’re romanticised and tokenised…They’re
trying to collect and preserve indigenous knowledge while continuing to leave us out of the actual
decision-making and positions of power. It’s the only lever we have to hold states and govern-
ments accountable, but it’s the same paternalistic system as ever. We’re set up to fail, so that’s
where civil society must come in.”

Critical Thinking Task 8.6 presents the words of four of the contributors. Read them through and
consult both the reportage and the video. We would then like you to consider how a social mar-
keter might use these insights to respond to Critical Thinking Task 2.1, the Government Call for
Tenders on carbon neutrality. Think back to what we have learnt about the four social marketing
orientations, strategic planning, research and communications.

CRITICAL THINKING TASK 8.6:  A CONTINUATION OF

COLONIALISM 43

“We have this philosophy in Dayak it’s called “Huma Betang.” It’s a
large house. Our people used to live in long houses that have like 25
families and when a room let’s say gets caught on fire it’s impossible
 ALTERNATIVES 135

for others only to sit and watch. The same way right now the same is
happening. We live in this planet. This planet is our large house; it’s our
Huma Betang and when one crisis happens in one place you can’t just
sit and watch, just cheering them like “keep up the good work” but you
do nothing. You need to stop and take action.”
(Emmanuela Shinta, a Dayak woman from Borneo)

“What gives me hope is connections to other people who believe that

the changes that we’re seeking are absolutely possible. Building a con-
nection with one person leads to connection with others. You can build
a local group, build power, come together with your family and friends.
You know talk about what your vision is for the future, talk about what
the barriers are that are holding you from getting there. What do you
then need to do be able to make the changes to make that possible?”
(Amelia Telford a Bundjalong and Southsea Island woman.)

“The living forest is inherent to our way of life. The living forest is about
recognising all living beings. And this includes humans, it includes ani-
mals, insects, trees, flowers, mountains, lakes and it also includes the
forces of the forest. We understand that everything that we are, eve-
rything that we need comes from the land itself. Food, medicine, even
mental health.”
(Nina Gualinga, a woman from the Kichwa people of Sarayaku in the
Ecuadorian Amazon.)
“When we think of land we don’t think of it as a commodity. The reason
why climate change exists is because you know colonialism and capital-
ism go hand in hand, but when you think of the land as a commodity, as
something that can be bought that isn’t sacred this leads to rising CO2
emissions.”
(Charitie Ropati, a Yup’ik and Samoan woman from Alaska)

What social marketing concepts emerge from these comments?

There are many good ideas here. The philosophy of Huma Betang is a great example of “client
orientation” and could help us respond effectively to recurrent climate-related storms, fires and
floods. Amelia Telford gives a powerful reflection on the benefits of a collective orientation and
relationship building, and Nina Gualinga takes the idea of mutually beneficial exchange to a new
level, suggesting its application across the natural world. This echoes Raciti et al’s discussion of
the importance of “connection to place and connection to each other” being “central to the survi-
vance and thrivance” in Case Study #4.

The indigenous women also remind us how important it is to think critically about our current
economic system. Charitie Ropati draws the link between colonialism and capitalism – echoing
statements in Case Studies #4 and #6, that we discussed in Chapter 7 – and goes on to emphasise
the problems inherent in the “commodification of nature”; of turning it into a product that can
be bought and sold.
136 ALTERNATIVES

But more important than these individual insights is the idea that, even with a problem as com-
plex and daunting as climate, it is possible to work together to find a solution – and social market-
ing ideas can help us do this. Andrade et al express this idea of partnership working beautifully
in Case Study #9, focusing on aspiring communities: “We feel uncomfortable about the language
of intervention. Are we intervening in people’s lives? Or are we part of them? Are we intervening
in their existence to evidence outcomes? Or are we connecting, human to human?” This takes us
back to Chapter 1 and the fundamental strength of responding to our challenges with a combi-
nation of grassroots empowerment and collective action. It also raises questions about what it
means to be human, which we will pick up in Chapter 9.

Wrap-up
In this chapter, we have taken a deeply critical look at our economic system. Whilst acknowledg-
ing its achievements, we have also noted that it is both unfair and unsustainable. It was built on
deeply racist assumptions about cultural superiority: indigenous peoples were seen as inferior
and so could be ignored and swept away. They are still being marginalised and excluded today,
but this is gradually changing. The Kogi have been proved right: the violence of nature is upon us
and we are ready to wake up and recognise that:

“The myriad cultures of the world are not failed attempts at modernity, let alone
failed attempts to be us. They are unique expressions of human imagination and
heart, unique answers to a fundamental question: what does it mean to be human
and alive? When asked this question, the cultures of the world respond in 7000 dif-
ferent voices, and these collectively comprise our human repertoire for dealing with
all the challenges that will confront as a species over the next 2,500 generations, even
as we continue the never-ending journey.”44

We need new ideas and different stories to help us navigate the future, and indigenous philoso-
phies are a rich source. Social marketing ideas of mutual respect, relationship building and col-
lective action can help us make the most of these opportunities.

CRITICAL THINKING TASK 8.7:  INDIGENOUS INSIGHTS ON

THE CLIMATE CRISIS

Return again to Critical Thinking Task 2.1, the Government Call for Tenders on car-
bon neutrality. How will the insights you have gained from this chapter influence
your response?

Reflective questions
1. List some of the benefits and drawbacks of corporate capitalism.

2. How does the European imperial project connect with our modern way of life?

3. How did the native American Indian values contrast with those of Columbus and his followers?
 ALTERNATIVES 137

4. Who was Edward Bernays? Explain his views about advertising.

5. What social marketing lessons can we take from indigenous philosophies?

Reflective assignments
1. Summarise the basic arguments of Laudato Si.

2. Read The Wayfinders: Why Ancient Wisdom Matters in the Modern World by Wade Davies
(see bibliography). What lessons does he suggest we might learn from indigenous people?

3. Watch Aluna45 and summarise its message.

4. Discuss the philosophy of Huma Betang and its implications for our ecological problems.

5. Explain how working with indigenous peoples fits with the social marketing concepts of
grassroots empowerment and collective action.

Notes
1 https://ourworldindata.org/extreme-poverty Note: In each of these statistics price differences
between countries are taken into account to adjust for the purchasing power in each country
2 Shah, R. (2018). Rising obesity in Africa reflects a broken global food system, Financial Times,
September 17, p. 31.
3 Laudato, S. (2015). https://www.vatican.va/content/dam/francesco/pdf/encyclicals/documents/
papa-francesco_20150524_enciclica-laudato-si_en.pdf The quotes are on p71 and 37.
4 Chomsky op cit.
5 Arundhati Roy (2011) guardian.co.uk, Wednesday 30 November.
6 Laudato (2015) op cit p119.
7 http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/business/2016-12/24/content_27763449.htm
8 https://ourworldindata.org/life-expectancy
9 Hastings, G. (2020). COVID-19: Our last teachable moment. Emerald Open Research, 2, Art.
No.: 20. https://doi.org/10.35241/emeraldopenres.13603.2
10 https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/sep/06/more-than-200-health-journals-call-
for-urgent-action-on-climate-crisis?fbclid=IwAR1CH_4E_4L_4SzIVxFwVamQK1q1IQTnjplPxZPz
zXchydZJy6qX55Q-XmA
11 Davies, W. (2007). The Wayfinders, Why Ancient Wisdom Matters in the Modern World. House of
Anansi Press, pp. 120–121, p. 217 Canada
12 Patel, R., & Moore, J. (2017). A History of the World in Seven Cheap Things. UC Press, p. 14.
13 Ponting (2000) Ibid p. 480.
14 Patel and Moore op cit p. 15.
15 Ponting, C. (2000). World History – A New Perspective. Chatto and Windus, p. 479.
16 Ponting (2000) op cit p492
17 Delsahut, F. (2020). Indiens Amerique du Nord : La Sagesse de la Gaieté in Histoire Mondiale du
Bonheur, François Durpaire, Le Cherche Midi
18 Quoted in Delsahut F (2020) ibid p. 285.
19 Delsahut (2020) ibid p. 286.
20 http://www.sapphyr.net/smallgems/index.htm (Accessed 5 April 2017)
21 McCluhan, T.C. (1973). Touch the Earth Winnebago Sphere Books, p. 5.
22 McCluhan (1973) ibid p6
23 https://insideclimatenews.org/news/21112021/tar-sands-canada-oil/
138 ALTERNATIVES

24 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pK8mBzjHuMQ&t=167s
25 https://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/amendI_speechs8.html
26 Foster et al. (2009).
27 http://whale.to/b/bernays.pdf
28 https://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/episodes/p00ghx6g/the-century-of-the-self
29 Bernays, E. (1928). Propaganda. http://whale.to/b/bernays.pdf, https://bookdepository.live/
show/book/493212/propaganda/12064225/4252368f/db7ccf8e9609a74/ p18
30 Foster, J.B., Hannah, H., & McChesney, R. (2009). ‘The sales effort and monopoly capitalism’, Monthly
Review, 6(11). https://monthlyreview.org/2009/04/01/the-sales-effort-and-monopoly-capital/
31 Baran and Sweezy. (1966). Monopoly Capital. New York: Monthly Review Press, p. 121 quoted in
Foster et al
32 Nolan, R. (2021). ‘No Bananas Today’, London Review of Books, 43(23): 23. https://www.lrb.co.uk/
the-paper/v43/n23/rachel-nolan/no-bananas-today
33 See for example Levitt, T. (1960). Marketing Myopia Harvard Business Review, July–August, 45–60.
34 Ponting, C. (2000). World History – A New Perspective. Chatto and Windus, p. 790.
35 Foster et al. (op cit).
36 https://www.bbc.com/news/av/world-australia-56741961
37 https://www.bbc.com/news/av/world-australia-56741961
38 Laudato Si op cit p?
39 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ftFbCwJfs1I&t=4117s
40 Davies, W. (2007). The Wayfinders, Why Ancient Wisdom Matters in the Modern World. House of
Anansi Press, pp. 120–121, p. 147.
41 Metuktire, R. (2019). In the Amazon we are full of fear; soon you will be too. Guardian Journal, 3
September.
42 Aldela, M. (2021). Le président brésilien « a toujours incité a la violence contre nous » Le Monde
January 2021, p. 2.
43 Newspaper article: https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/nov/02/cop26-indigenous-
activists-climate-crisis Video: https://youtu.be/Nm8Ctb2w81Y
44 Davies (2007) op cit p. 19.
45 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ftFbCwJfs1I&t=4117s

Bibliography
Bernays, E. (1928). Propaganda. Ig publishing. http://whale.to/b/bernays.pdf
Davies, W. (2007). The Wayfinders, Why Ancient Wisdom Matters in the Modern World. House of Anansi
Press, pp. 120–121, p. 217. Canada
Laudato, S. (2015). https://www.vatican.va/content/dam/francesco/pdf/encyclicals/documents/
papa-francesco_20150524_enciclica-laudato-si_en.pdf
McCluhan, T.C. (1978). Touch the Earth Winnebago Sphere Books, London.
Patel, R., & Moore, J. (2017). A History of the World in Seven Cheap Things. UC Press, London.
Ponting, C. (2000). World History – A New Perspective. Chatto and Windus, London.
 Chapter
9
Ethics, morality and human
rights in social marketing

This chapter tackles the moral issues that social marketing must address. It starts by reminding us
that we social marketers are continually interfering in people’s lives, so we need to ensure that our
efforts do genuinely bring benefits and achieve these in a morally acceptable way. It also shows
how ethical theory can help us here.

This will lead us into a discussion of what it is to be human. We will see how important moral
agency is, and how this links to collective agency through the ideas of rights, responsibilities and
human potential. Human rights law not only protects us from abuse but enshrines our right to get
involved in the collective process of progressive change. Finally, we recognise that the ecological
crisis has taught us that these rights need to be extended to other species and the natural world. In
this way, maybe we can, as Robert Brockenhurst1 advises, learn to think like an ecosystem.

Learning outcomes
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
✓✓ Identify the sorts of moral hazards social marketing interventions can throw up.
✓✓ Address practical ethical problems.
✓✓ Discuss how ethical theory helps us to tackle these.
✓✓ Explain what we mean by moral agency and how it links to humanity.
✓✓ Discuss the importance of human rights to ethical thinking and social marketing.

Keywords
Ethical risks – moral agency – rights and responsibilities – Deontological Theory – Teleological
Theory – human rights – ecosystems.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003200086-9
140 ETHICS, MORALITY AND HUMAN RIGHTS IN SOCIAL MARKETING

Rights and wrongs

As we noted throughout the book, social marketing takes us in to some deep moral water.
This is because we social marketers are perpetually interfering in other people’s lives; all the
case studies, for instance, do this in one way or another. This might be at an individual level,
as with the use of meat thermometers in Case Study #2 (Anand and McGloin), or at a com-
munity level, as in Case Study #1 addressing sustainable energy in schools (Brychkov et al).
Controlling commercial marketing typically needs national-level interventions, as with sugary
drinks taxes in Mexico (Case Study #13, Pérez-Escamilla) or at international level, as with the
WHA Code on infant formula discussed in Case study #14 (Hastings et al); while tackling the
climate crisis will require interventions at a planetary level. All of them prompt moral as well
as practical questions.

We will look into these dilemmas in this chapter and explore ways of addressing them.

Ethical and philosophical thinking can also provide another level of support for our work. It
can help us understand more about what it is to be human, and for a discipline focused on
human behaviour – understanding and influencing it to bring about desirable change – this is
extremely useful. It helps us understand why we behave as we do, how we cooperate (or fail to
do so), the extent to which we are capable of recognising that our actions have repercussions –
that my SUV driving might make me feel powerful and prosperous but is also harming the
planet; that my cheap fashion is causing pollution and human hardship – and taking responsi-
bility for these negative effects; and to recognise our ability to make choices that are personally
inconvenient – to walk rather than drive; to buy Fairtrade rather than the cut-price bargain –
but collectively beneficial.

This will lead us to the idea of “moral agency”: our ability to judge right from wrong and our pre-
paredness to let this guide our decisions. These individual concerns inevitably lead us to collective
ones. If we all have the responsibility to think of others, so we have the right to expect others to take
our welfare into account. So our responsibilities are balanced by rights – and a range of human
rights that have now been enshrined in international law. We will explore these in this chapter.

These ideas of individual and collective rights and responsibilities take us back to the discussion
in Chapter 1, where we noted that both “the wave and the ocean” work together to “bring about
progressive, consensual behavioural and social change.” So human rights are not just there to
stop bad things happening, they are a means of ensuring good things happen, that we humans
make progress, that we all fulfil our potential. Indeed, they deliberately encourage this process:
one of our human rights is to be actively involved in the process of progressive social change.

The ecological crisis is now making it clear that the idea of mutual respect has to be extended
beyond humankind to all forms of life on earth and indeed to the natural world as a whole. As
indigenous cultures keep reminding us, we are a part of the earth’s ecosystem, so human and
planetary potential are one and the same thing.

Moral agency
Have a go at Critical Thinking Task 9.1.
 ETHICS, MORALITY AND HUMAN RIGHTS IN SOCIAL MARKETING 141

CRITICAL THINKING TASK 9.1: THE LIFEBOAT 2

It was just over an hour since the captain had warned the passengers that their
cruise ship was in difficulty, and half an hour since it had sunk. Jack and Alice, along
with eight other passengers, found themselves, shocked but safe, in one of the
ship’s lifeboats. Their condition was better than might be expected, after all the
lifeboat was warm, dry and obviously seaworthy. Furthermore it was designed for
fourteen, so they had plenty of blankets and supplies to go round. They also had a
compass and radio. Their worst fears began to subside.

Then someone noticed that there were still people in the water and clinging to wreck-
age near where the ship had gone down. It was suggested they row over to try and
pick up survivors. This caused a lively debate. Some were in favour of going to the
rescue. They said it was the right thing to do and would save lives. Others, by con-
trast, pointed out that, whilst this would certainly be a nice thing to do, it would make
things more difficult and could be dangerous. At the moment they were warm and
well-catered for, but if others got into the boat there would be less to go round. They
had no idea how long they would have to survive in the lifeboat. And if there were
a lot of people in the water, panic could result and boat might even get swamped.

After much toing and froing, it was decided not go back for the survivors.

Discuss the pros and cons of the passengers’ decision. Would you have done the
same or behaved differently?

It is a difficult problem, and there is no right or wrong answer. What the exercise confirms, though,
is that we are capable of thinking about such dilemmas – that we have moral agency. This chapter
discusses how we should use it.

Ethical risks in social marketing

Because we social marketers deliberately try to affect other people’s lives, we need to proceed
with great caution. Try Critical Thinking Task 9.2.

CRITICAL THINKING TASK 9.2:  MORAL DILEMMAS IN

SOCIAL MARKETING

Think about all our discussions so far and revisit previous chapters. What ethical or
moral problems have we encountered?

In addition to these specific dilemmas, do you feel there are any other ways in
which ethical thinking might help us social marketers in our work? What about
ideas like rights and responsibilities? Do I have a right to ignore your low-emis-
sions intervention and carry on driving my gas-guzzling SUV; or do I have to take
responsibility for the pollution I am causing and the harm this is doing to others?
142 ETHICS, MORALITY AND HUMAN RIGHTS IN SOCIAL MARKETING

Your recollections might bring to mind any of the following:

•• The risk of ‘victim blaming’ (Chapters 2 and 7) if we ignore the social and commercial deter-
minants of human behaviour.

•• The dangers of accepting funding from conflicted sources, such as ecological interventions
supported by the fossil fuel industry or tobacco control paid for by cigarette companies
(Chapters 5 and 7).

•• The need to ensure that the issue your social marketing intervention is addressing is worth-
while – that it will genuinely benefit all those involved (Chapter 4). Or that our intervention is
not just a blind for more effective measures (Chapter 6).

Indeed the whole strategic planning process which we discussed in Chapter 4 throws up just as
many ethical as managerial issues. Some of these have been added into the Strategic Plan graphic
in Figure 9.1.

This shows how important it is that we take time to consider the morality of our social marketing
activities, and the effects (intended or otherwise) they may have on those who engage with us (or
don’t). In Chapter 5, we noted three sets of questions that need to be addressed in the social mar-
keting planning process; the first two of these, Preparatory Questions about whether to intervene
and Intervention-Building Questions about how to intervene both raise ethical issues.

Figure 9.1 Ethical dilemmas in social marketing

 ETHICS, MORALITY AND HUMAN RIGHTS IN SOCIAL MARKETING 143

Whether to intervene
Social marketers make judgements about what problems to address or what behaviour to influ-
ence. These decisions have clear moral dimensions: should, for example, limited budgets be
spent on encouraging behaviours which improve the health of small numbers of people (e.g.
intensive smoking cessation counselling), or on large campaigns which reach large populations
(e.g. mass media anti-smoking campaigns). Or should religious sensitivities stop us from promot-
ing condoms, or cultural concerns block a gender equalities intervention? Is harm reduction (e.g.
recommending vaping instead of smoking) acceptable, given that it means continued harm?

We cannot assume that we social marketers (“experts”) know best. If we had our way, would eve-
ryone become non-smoking, moderate-drinking, blood-donating, vegetarian, recyclers who live
to become centenarians? And if they did, who says these are the correct life choices? Perhaps
people have the right to take deliberate risks. We social marketers have to avoid the trap of think-
ing that ours are the only legitimate priorities. Try Critical Thinking Task 9.3.

CRITICAL THINKING TASK 9.3: MAKING CHOICES

A move to fluoridate the public water supply in the north of England triggered a
letter from an old soldier expressing these reservations: “…we believe that neither
you nor anyone else has the right to tell us what to consume – would you like us to
tell you what to consume? Of course you wouldn’t! Don’t try to hijack the demo-
cratic system and individual rights in pursuit of ideological goals. Never try to deny
consumers the right of choice in anything, choice also comes with democracy. Those
rights were hard won on the battlefields of Europe, would you condemn those sac-
rifices to oblivion in your pursuit of self-gratification?…….”

How would you respond?

There are no easy answers. The old soldier clearly has some profound and sincerely held reserva-
tions. At the same time, the option of not fluoridating also presents moral dilemmas. Is it right
to deprive a community of known public health benefit, especially one that is proven to be very
effective in reducing inequalities?

Our capacity to intervene effectively also has a moral dimension. Is it acceptable to raise fears
that we can’t resolve, for example? To run an ad campaign with shocking images about the
health consequences of smoking, if we are unable to offer any cessation support? Or promote
multiple vaccinations in Europe, when none are available in Africa? We also noted in Chapter 4
the moral hazard of conflict of interest; we need, for example, to think carefully about our
sources of funding and the motives of those proposing a particular intervention. Revisit the
Crying Indian in Figure 6.7.

How to intervene
Decisions about how to intervene also raise moral issues. We noted in Chapter 4 that targeted
interventions work better than undifferentiated ones, but the decision to target (i.e. help) certain
144 ETHICS, MORALITY AND HUMAN RIGHTS IN SOCIAL MARKETING

social groups to the exclusion of others can be troubling. On the other hand, being part of the
priority group and singled out for special support can lead to stigmatisation.

The nature of the intervention also has an important ethical dimension. Social marketing interven-
tions are built on the principles of exchange and compromise – what we do will be customised to
the needs and perceptions of our client population. But what if this conflicts with the evidence base?
Can an ethical Covid prevention intervention be developed by compromising with anti-vaxxers?
And how can we push our clients to change and yet keep within acceptable ethical bounds? Is it ok
if our fear messages exaggerate a bit for effect? Is compulsory vaccination acceptable?

The role of our clients in the process of change is also a crucial issue. Is uninformed behaviour
change acceptable? Have a go at Critical Thinking Task 9.4.

CRITICAL THINKING TASK 9.4: A NUDGE TOO FAR?

US academics Thaler and Sunstein3 have popularised the idea of “nudging” people
into correct behaviours. They advocate altering the “choice architecture” to make
the desired behaviour – eating vegetables, joining the pension scheme – the norm.
We do them without thinking. Desirable behaviours are designed into our lives, so
we don’t even have to make a decision.

Is this ethical? Do people have a right to know they are being influenced in this way?

If nudging people gets them to do the “right” thing – eat more vegetables, join the pension
scheme – does it matter that they don’t know they are being influenced? In answering the ques-
tion consider where such thinking might lead. Remember what we noted in Chapter 7 about the
power of digital technology, and how Cambridge Analytica nudged people’s voting behaviour.
Remember, from Chapter 8, Edward Bernays’ aim to “engineer consent” and turn advertisers into
“an invisible government,” and how he and his ideas were used by the US Government’s Central
Intelligence Agency (CIA) to bring down the legitimately elected government of Guatemala in the
1950s4 because its land reforms threatened the profits of a major US corporation called the United
Fruit Company.

Nudging, then, whether digitally enhanced or not, takes us in a dangerous direction. Now think
back to Chapter 1 and what we said about the importance of grassroots empowerment: “We all
matter. We all have much to contribute and a right to be properly engaged in our collective jour-
ney… this means that change is best achieved by partnership and collaboration…” Without such
active engagement, social marketing runs a great risk of sliding into manipulative social engineer-
ing. At the very least, all of us have a right to know if our behaviour is being deliberately influ-
enced. Water fluoridation and flour fortification are very effective interventions to tackle dental
health and spina bifida, as we noted in Chapter 2, but they should only be implemented after full
public consultation and agreement.

We also need to consider unintended effects of our work. As we noted in Chapters 4 and 5, it
can be difficult enough to establish whether your intervention has done what was intended with
 ETHICS, MORALITY AND HUMAN RIGHTS IN SOCIAL MARKETING 145

the intended client group. From an ethical perspective though, it is equally important to ask
whether there were any unintended reactions among both the priority and other groups. Did our
hard-hitting message about climate cause undue alarm? Did our pro-breastfeeding intervention
disturb mothers who had previously opted for bottle feeding? Upstream interventions can also
have unforeseen outcomes. Increasing the tax on – and hence the price of – cigarettes has played
an important role in reducing the UK’s smoking prevalence;5 however, it also causes hardship
amongst those who can’t give up.

All these questions are variations on the theme: does the end ever justify the means? The short
answer is no it does not. There are no short cuts in ethical decision making.

Research ethics
In addition to all these issues of whether and how to intervene, doing research in social marketing
also raises ethical concerns. Asking people about the sorts of sensitive, taboo and, at times ille-
gal behaviours that social marketing addresses is fraught, and the research process, particularly
qualitative methods which depend on the intensive involvement of participants, may increase
fear or upset respondents. For example, in Case Study #14 on Infant Formula (Hastings et al),
even marketing practitioners who had worked in the industry for years were taken aback by the
harm being done by formula and expressed regrets about their past actions. As one exec put it:
“everyone ‘drinks the Kool-Aid’ that it’s a good thing” (“drinking the Kool Aid” means the naïve
acceptance of ideas that ought to be questioned6 or not doing the critical thinking).

On the other hand, research is certainly necessary, as we have discussed throughout this
book, and it would present equal if not greater ethical dilemmas if we were to proceed
without conducting it. By the same token, research has to be reliable and rigorous. This
means researchers do have to probe, put respondents under pressure and challenge their
answers.

The most basic requirement for ethically sound research, then, is that respondents make a fully
informed decision about whether to participate or not. As with our interventions, people need to
be able to make an empowered choice as to whether or not they partner with us.

Tackling ethical issues

Let us leave aside complex issues of social marketing for a moment. How would you decide on a
more everyday ethical problem? Try Critical Thinking task 9.5:

CRITICAL THINKING 9.5 A SWEET DILEMMA

You are in your local newsagent when you see an eight year-old child steal some
sweets. Do you intervene? And if so how – by telling the shopkeeper or the parent
or by confronting the child directly?
146 ETHICS, MORALITY AND HUMAN RIGHTS IN SOCIAL MARKETING

You will probably use a combination of two ways of thinking about the dilemma: whether the
action itself is right or wrong and whether the results of the action (intended or not) are desirable
or not. Interestingly, these echo two key strands of ethical theory:

I) Deontological theory

This view of ethical conduct is based on the principle of duty – the actual behaviour is empha-
sised, rather than its consequences. It institutes rules of good behaviour by focusing on
motives rather than outcomes and assumes that a good intention is likely to produce good
results. Kant expressed this in his “categorical imperative”: “I ought never to act except in
such a way that I can also will that my maxim should become a universal law.”7 Similarly Kant
argues that we should act in ways that we hope all others would do.

Deontologists have been criticised for not focusing on the consequences of actions and ignor-
ing the situational context of particular courses of action. For example, most of us would agree
that it is in many instances wrong to lie, but can easily imagine circumstances when such a
transgression would be justified – and many more where, whilst an outright lie is unaccepta-
ble, avoiding telling the whole truth would be.

II) Teleological theory

Teleological theory (or utilitarianism) considers the morality of a particular action according
to its consequences.8 It is ethically correct if it delivers the greatest good to the greatest num-
ber. This perspective rests on the assumption that the role of morality is to promote human
welfare by maximising benefits and minimising harm. To assess the consequences of actions,
it is necessary to conduct a social cost–benefit analysis.

However, this perspective begs the question “who decides what is good?” For example, there
are some who believe that only pleasure and happiness are intrinsically good, while others
believe that there are other “good” values, such as friendship, knowledge, health and beauty.9
Furthermore, the drive to maximise total good may produce morally doubtful consequences,
if, for example, it doesn’t take into account the fair distribution of these benefits.

Neither theory solves our problem, but they do help us to analyse it. Rules can help us cope with
this complexity: it is wrong to steal; do not make accusations without solid evidence. On the other
hand, thinking about consequences helps us prioritise and make judgements about the impor-
tance of these rules. Thus, theory helps to think through moral issues whilst also recognising the
complexities and imperfections of our lives, of the human experience.

On being human
This begs the question as to what it means to be human. Primo Levi, the holocaust survivor,
shows how the Nazi extermination camps inadvertently provided an answer. In his book, If this
is a Man, he explains how the Nazis set about systematically dehumanising their victims so as to
make it easier to mistreat and murder them. Life in the camps was deliberately designed to be
as unbearable as possible so prisoners were pushed to behave selfishly, even brutally – to emu-
late their oppressors and abandon their humanity – in order simply to survive. And they were
utterly defenceless: “slaves, deprived of every right, exposed to every insult, condemned to certain
death…” Never had external stimuli been more destructive or debilitating, yet Levi maintains that
 ETHICS, MORALITY AND HUMAN RIGHTS IN SOCIAL MARKETING 147

The birds of the air were anxious; they felt in urgent need of advice and moral leadership.
So a great conference was organised where they came together to discuss what might
be done.

The Hoopoe spoke up and persuaded the gathering that they needed to go in search
of a spiritual guide or ‘Simurgh’, to provide them with the direction they lacked. After
much debate and multiple attempts by different birds to avoid going on what would be
an arduous journey, the quest got underway. It took many difficult years and involved
crossing the seven valleys - of searching, love, understanding, friendship, unity, amaze-
ment, and death - each presenting its own challenges and lessons. As the pilgrimage
proceeded, many birds abandoned the journey or were overcome by the ordeals they
encountered. Eventually, now depleted to a band of just thirty, they arrived at a marvel-
lous palace, which, the Hoopoe explained, was the home of the Simurgh. At first the
palace guard would not let what had become a raggedy and disreputable looking gang
enter the great mansion; but after a struggle they were admitted. Inside they searched
everywhere for the Simurgh, but the place was empty. All they found was wall after wall
lined with mirrors of every size and shape.

It was in these that they at last caught sight of their spiritual leaders.

Figure 9.2 The conference of the birds11

the prisoners still possessed a vital level of agency: “…but we still possess one power, and we must
defend it with all our strength for it is the last – the power to refuse our consent”10 (Levi 1979).

Levi shows us that moral agency is at the heart of our humanity. He was not the first to realise this.
The Conference of the Birds is an epic poem written by the Sufi scholar Farid ud-Din Attar nearly
a millennium ago. It tells of the hunt for moral guidance in life: read Figure 9.2.

Attar’s metaphor reminds us that we are our own guides; we each have an internal moral com-
pass. As a recent newspaper editorial argued: “We are the only species capable of reflecting on our
impact. We have moral agency. We can foresee the likely consequences of our actions, consider
them, and then make choices.”12 The editorial goes on to show how this ability relates directly to our
quality of life: because “self-interest will only work to the common benefit if it is understood that
we ourselves are mutually dependent creatures who harm ourselves when we harm one another.”

Collective agency and human rights

Interestingly, a focus on the individual does not undermine the importance of the collective; in
fact it reinforces it. Once we start to look critically at our society – to feel uncomfortable about the
Global North exploiting the Global South; to blanche at the foodbanks; to fear climate breakdown –
it pushes us to consider others. If I am unhappy with the effects the system is having on me, at the
same instant I come to recognise that others are also suffering. If my father dies of pneumoconio-
sis I begin to empathise with the fate of other coal miners; or if a car knocks me off my bike the
benefits of cycle paths for all become more apparent. French philosopher Albert Camus pins this
down, arguing that whilst our suffering in the face of a world that is difficult to understand and
148 ETHICS, MORALITY AND HUMAN RIGHTS IN SOCIAL MARKETING

often unsympathetic (as he puts it “absurd”) is individual, once we begin to think critically and act
on our thoughts it immediately becomes collective. The stimulus to mitigate our individual hard-
ship connects us with the humanity of others; the individual harm becomes a shared harm. Much
as Descartes argued that our desire and ability to think demonstrates our individual existence, so
Camus sees our desire and ability to rebel as proof of our collective existence. “I think therefore I
am” is joined by “I rebel therefore we are.”13

Camus and Levi were writing in the immediate aftermath of the Second World War; a time when it
was recognised that there had been a profound failure of moral agency and there was a desperate
hunger to prevent any repetition of the holocaust and its related horrors. In this context, the idea
that all human beings have the same fundamental qualities, share an “inherent dignity,” and are
equal “members of the human family”14 had powerful resonance. The view developed that the
protection and nurturing of these qualities, and recognition of them as inalienable rights, was the
only progressive way forward. Under the auspices of the newly formed United Nations (UN), this
resulted in The Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

As Szablewska and Kubacki15 argue, adopting a human rights approach to social marketing brings
a number of important benefits, especially regarding equality and empowerment. In Case Study
#9, Andrade et al note that “Our purpose is therefore to create space for community members to
exercise more agency so that ultimately, they can challenge structural inequalities that play out
in the communities they are part of. Our legacy in these communities is a shift in how we train,
creatively relate and evaluate community development work. To encourage and communicate a
culture of embodied, embedded evaluation that exists outside of our workplaces and practices –
that exists within and between us.” Human rights help address such unequal power relations.

Children are an obvious and vital case in point. The 1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child
(CRC) is the most widely ratified international treaty in history. It enshrines in international law
“the right of the child to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health,” that for
any government “the best interests of the child shall be a primary consideration,” and requiring
administrations “to ensure the child such protection and care as is necessary for his or her well-
being, ….and, to this end, shall take all appropriate legislative and administrative measures.”16 Try
Critical Thinking Task 9.6.

CRITICAL THINKING TASK 9.6:  HUMAN RIGHTS AND

SOCIAL MARKETING

1. States Parties recognise the right of the child to the enjoyment of the high-
est attainable standard of health and to facilities for the treatment of illness
and rehabilitation of health. States Parties shall strive to ensure that no child is
deprived of his or her right of access to such health care services.

2. States Parties shall pursue full implementation of this right and, in particular,
shall take appropriate measures:

Extract from Article 24 Convention on the Rights of the Child 1989

a. To diminish infant and child mortality;

 ETHICS, MORALITY AND HUMAN RIGHTS IN SOCIAL MARKETING 149

b. To ensure the provision of necessary medical assistance and health care to

all children with emphasis on the development of primary health care;

c. To combat disease and malnutrition, including within the framework of

primary health care, through, inter alia, the application of readily available
technology and through the provision of adequate nutritious foods and
clean drinking water, taking into consideration the dangers and risks of envi-
ronmental pollution;

d. To ensure appropriate pre-natal and post-natal health care for mothers;

e. To ensure that all segments of society, in particular parents and children,

are informed, have access to education and are supported in the use of
basic knowledge of child health and nutrition, the advantages of breast-
feeding, hygiene and environmental sanitation and the prevention of
accidents;

f. To develop preventive health care, guidance for parents and family planning
education and services.

What implications do you think the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) has
for social marketing?

The CRC has fundamental implications for social marketing. First, it means that measures social
marketers would support, such as controls on harmful marketing discussed in Chapter 7 or the
provision of free school meals in the UK championed by footballer Marcus Rashford,17 are not just
evidence-based actions which governments can be encouraged to take, they are legal obligations
which they can be compelled to fulfil.

It also challenges assumptions about the precedence of the individual. It is sometimes argued that
any intervention is a threat to individual freedom and therefore should be a) kept to minimum
and b) justified by showing that whatever good it will produce will be sufficient to compensate for
this inevitable harm. This builds on the idea of society being made up of autonomous individu-
als navigating their own way in life, a task which is constantly being threatened by those around
them. It links to the dictum Henry David Thoreau made famous in his essay ‘Civil Disobedience’:
“that government is best which governs least.”18

An alternate view, as we showed in our discussion of Exchange Theory in Chapter 3, is that as indi-
viduals we are vulnerable and frail; it is only by coming together with our fellow beings that we
become strong. This means that the collective is not a threat to our liberty, but an aid to it. Note
this doesn’t diminish the role of the individual in ensuring collective progress; it emphasises it – as
Thoreau went on to explain in his essay. This is why, as we discuss below, human rights laws not only
protect the individual, but also their right to participate in the process of progressive social change.
Interventions, rather than being a threat to this, are a necessary part of it; individual freedom, for
example, is reduced if governments do not take steps to curtail over-powerful vested interests.
150 ETHICS, MORALITY AND HUMAN RIGHTS IN SOCIAL MARKETING

“Nanny state is a term of British origin that conveys a view that a government or its
policies are overprotective or interfering unduly with personal choice. The term lik-
ens such a government to the role that a nanny has in child rearing. An early use of
the term comes from Conservative British Member of Parliament Iain Macleod who
referred to ‘what I like to call the nanny state’ in the 3 December 1965 edition of The
Spectator.”19

Figure 9.3 The Nanny State

The term Nanny State (see Figure 9.3), which is sometimes used to attack government attempts to
protect their citizens, fails to take this thinking into account.

A conference in Sydney set out to investigate this issue.20 They concluded that there are
indeed many nannies out there trying to influence our behaviour, but rather than govern-
ments, they are corporations, tech giants and conspiracy theorists, and they are nannies
from hell!

The right to participation

The implications of human rights for social marketing take us beyond public policy. They
reinforce the importance of moral agency: “the nature that underlies natural or human
rights is the moral nature of a human being” and they emphasise the idea of human poten-
tial: “human rights are less about the way people are than about what they might become.”21
Human rights law can provide an environment in which this potential can be fulfilled, but
in and of itself will not stimulate people to take up the resulting opportunities for personal
growth. For this to happen, people have to be recognised as active participants in the process
of change.

For this reason, human rights legislation overtly enshrines it as a right that all of us should be able
to participate in the process of change, from instigation right through to monitoring and evalua-
tion. Here is the UN explaining these principles in its ‘Right To Food Guidelines’:

“The process of designing and implementing [interventions] should also respect

participatory principles and empower intended beneficiaries, who should be
explicitly recognised as stakeholders…Fundamentally, a human rights based
approach to poverty is about empowerment of the poor…This focus on the poor
and the needy for their empowerment is amply reflected in calls … for those tar-
geted to have a say in how services are provided, and for poor communities to be
empowered to control the way money set aside for them is spent.

Thus, the idea of partnership working, which, as we have noted throughout this text, is such an
integral part of social marketing, it is not just encouraged by the UN’s Sustainable Development
Goals; it is a requirement in international law. Social marketing has a vital role to play in ena-
bling participation and helping us all to make the most of our human rights. For example, we
see the strong role of the public in combatting corporate power in Mexico, in Case Study #13
 ETHICS, MORALITY AND HUMAN RIGHTS IN SOCIAL MARKETING 151

(Pérez-Escamilla), while local groups – including NGOs, public agencies, the private sector –
are the building blocks of efforts to tackle climate in Portugal, in Case Study #3 (Marques et al).
Indeed, look at any of our case studies from around the world and you will see partnerships and
human rights at work for social change.

The prize for doing this is worth the winning: “…human development is possible only through
comprehensive human action coordinated by human rights.”23 However, it carries with it risks as
well as benefits: “The ‘human nature’ that underlies human rights is quintessentially human, full
of frailties but also fraught with the possibility of the greatest glory. Human rights are a practical
political institution for widely realising these higher potentials…”24 If social marketers are going to
move from micromanaging specific behaviours to empowering people, they have to be prepared
to let go of control and take chances. This is not as radical as it might sound; it is just the natural
endpoint for the social marketing commitment to client orientation. If we listen to and respect the
people we work with to the extent that we claim, we should have the confidence to trust them with
finding their own solutions.

Popular engagement in social change is also an important safety measure. Without it, human
rights legislation risks becoming pious sentiment, or worse, doing actual harm. Vanessa
Pupavac,25 for example, explains how over-zealous application by adults of the child’s right
to safety has dangerously constrained play, reducing school playtimes and even eliminating
unsupervised play altogether: “Panics over strangers, concerns about environmental dangers,
potential litigation over accidents (however remote) and fears over bullying are all leading to a
constriction of children’s play.” The negative consequences include isolation, obesity and men-
tal illness. To complicate matters further, Article 31 of the UN Convention also gives children
the right to play!26

The way to prevent this type of unintended harm is to encourage everyone – including children –
to join the debate. This also means that the ensuing change will benefit from a bigger pool of
ideas; given the complexity of the problems we now face, such creativity is vital. Have a go at the
last Critical Thinking task (9.7).

CRITICAL THINKING TASK 9.7:  THE RIGHT TO A

HABITABLE PLANET

Thinking once more about your response to the Government Call for Tenders on
carbon neutrality (Critical Thinking 2.1), how will you take the idea of rights into
account?

Human rights demand that everyone is heard and included in the process of change. They also
remind us of the importance of equity: climate justice must be a feature of any solution. At the
same time, it raises the question: is it enough just to think about the needs and rights of human
beings? Remember the words of Nina Gualinga of the Kichwa people (Critical Thinking 8.6) call-
ing for a much broader perspective which includes humans but also “animals, insects, trees, flow-
ers, mountains, lakes and it also includes the forces of the forest.”
152 ETHICS, MORALITY AND HUMAN RIGHTS IN SOCIAL MARKETING

Thinking like an ecosystem

We need to think beyond human rights, to the rights and requirements of other creatures and
nature as a whole; to recognise that we are part of an ecosystem in a mutually sustaining rela-
tionship with our environment, both living and non-living. This interconnection is naturally
occurring, and depends on balance: if one species becomes too dominant or the physical envi-
ronment changes, the ecosystem automatically corrects itself. When human beings try to interfere
with these processes – like when we introduced cane toads (for pest control) and rabbits (for food)
into Australia – the result is usually calamitous. This is why Robert Brockenhurst argues that each
of us should try to “think like an ecosystem instead of like a disconnected visitor.”27 Only when we
connect with our environment can we see our part in it.

Our economic system is the exact opposite of an ecosystem: it is a human construct that delib-
erately discounts its own harmful effects. The extraction of natural resources is an unquestioned
right; pollution and resource depletion are categorised as externalities to keep them off the bal-
ance sheets; lung cancer and obesity are ignored or denied. Rowan Williams explains that it con-
ceives of a world “made up of dead stuff plus active minds and acquisitive wills.”28 Furthermore,
humility about our role in the earth’s ecosystem helps us connect with our humanity; only when
we accept that we are part of nature, not its master, can we grow and fulfil our potential.

Wrap-up
We have moral agency: the ability to judge right from wrong and the capacity to act accord-
ingly, regardless of adversity. This enables us to strive to make our interventions as ethical
as possible – respectful of people and the planet. More profoundly, it is what defines us as
human beings. It is what we mean when we talk of human dignity, of the human spirit or
simply humanity. In the last century, we so valued these qualities that we came together as a
species to enshrine them as inalienable rights and commit their protection to international
law. Sustainability demands that other species and the natural world be treated with the same
respect. Thus, moral agency underpins our humanity, our collective consciousness and so
inevitably our place in nature.

Before we finish, let us return to the Lifeboat dilemma that opened the chapter. You may have felt
that the decision of the passengers not go back for survivors was hard-hearted and unacceptable.
How could they so callously disregard the plight of their fellow human beings? However, before
we get too indignant, we should note that the story is taken from a book of moral philosophy by
Julian Baggini and the lifeboat is actually metaphor for our planet. We in the Global North are
behaving just as selfishly as the folk in the lifeboat. This suggests that a crucial task for social mar-
keting is to reawaken our moral agency.

Reflective questions
1. List six ethical dilemmas a social marketer might experience.

2. Explain how ethical theory might help to address these.

3. What is moral agency and why does it matter?

 ETHICS, MORALITY AND HUMAN RIGHTS IN SOCIAL MARKETING 153

4. Why do human rights matter?

5. Does a tree have rights? Should a tree have rights?

Reflective assignments
1. Apply deontological and teleological theory to a fear-based social marketing strategy of your
choice.

2. Read Chapter 11 the Canto of Ulysses in Levi’s book If This is a Man.29 What he is trying to tell
us? What two ideas emerge from his conversation with Pikolo?

3. Access the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child online and provide three reasons why it
matters for social marketing.

4. Examine any one of the 17 UN SDGs from an ethical perspective.

5. How can moral agency save the planet?

Notes
1 Bringhurst, R. (2018). The Mind of the Wild in Learning to Die. Saskatchewan: University of Regina
Press. p. 22, p. 8.
2 This is adapted from Baggini, J. (2005). The Pig That Wants to Be Eaten: And Ninety Nine Other
Thought Experiments. Granta Publishing, chapter 22.
3 Thaler, R., & Sunstein, C. (2008). Nudge: Improving Decisions about Health, Wealth, and Happiness.
New Haven: Yale University Press.
4 Nolan, R. (2021). ‘No Bananas Today’, London Review of Books, 43(23), 2 December, p. 23 https://
www.lrb.co.uk/the-paper/v43/n23/rachel-nolan/no-bananas-today
5 Townsend, J.L. (1987). ‘Cigarette Tax, Economic Welfare and Social Class Patterns of Smoking’,
Applied Economics, 19(3): 355–365.
6 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drinking_the_Kool-Aid
7 Hazard Jr, G.C. (2004). ‘Humanity and the law’, Yale JL & Human, 16: 79.
8 http://www.iep.utm.edu/mill-eth/
9 Beauchamp, T.L., & Bowie, N.E. (1988). Ethical Theory and Business. Third Edition. New Jersey:
Englewood Cliffs.
10 Levi, P. (1979). If This Is a Man. London: Penguin Books. p. 47.
11 Farid at din Attar. (1974). The Conference of the Birds, Translated by C S Nott. London: Routledge &
Kegan Paul.
12 https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2016/sep/01/the-guardian-view-on-pope-fran-
cis-an-unlikely-voice-for-the-environment (Accessed 5 April 2017)
13 Camus, A. (2005). L’Homme Révolté, folio essais ISBN 978-2-07-032302-9 Espagne p. 8.
14 United Nations. (1989). Convention on the Rights of the Child (preamble).
15 Szablewska, N., & Kubacki, K.A. (2017). ‘Human rights-based approach to the social good in social
marketing’, Journal of Business Ethics, Springer, March vol. 155(3), pages 871-888, 1–18.
16 ibid
17 https://www.bbc.com/sport/football/55338104
18 Thoreau, H.D. (1849). Civil Disobedience
19 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanny_state
20 Griffiths, P., & Magnusson, R. (2015). Guest editorial Public Health; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
puhe.2015.07.041
154 ETHICS, MORALITY AND HUMAN RIGHTS IN SOCIAL MARKETING

21 Donnely, J. (1985). The Concept of Human Rights. London: Croom Helm. pp. 3 and 33.
22 Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations. (2006). The Right to Food Guidelines
Information Papers and Case Studies, Rome, pp. 143 and 47
23 Donnelly (1985) op cit p. 44.
24 ibid
25 Pupavac, V. (2002). The international children’s rights regime, in Rethinking Human Rights,
Chandler, D. (ed). London: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 72.
26 https://www.cypcs.org.uk/rights/uncrc/full-uncrc/#31
27 Bringhurst (2018) op cit p. 8.
28 Williams, R. (2019). Afterword in This Is Not a Drill. London: Penguin Books.
29 Levi (1979) op cit chapter.

Bibliography
Bringhurst, R. (2018). The Mind of the Wild in Learning to Die. Saskatchewan: University of Regina Press.
Farid at din Attar. (1974). The Conference of the Birds, Translated by C S Nott. London: Routledge &
Kegan Paul.
Levi, P. (1979). If this Is a Man. London: Penguin Books.
Williams, R. (2019). Afterword in This Is Not a Drill. London: Penguin Books.
 Chapter
10
Systems social marketing

This final chapter pulls everything together and explains how social marketing can address very
complex problems, like climate breakdown, that are caused by multiple forces, involve many differ-
ent actors and are the subject of much debate. In Chapter 8 we discussed the profound issues which
underpin our entire economic system; this chapter uses the same systemic lens to look for solutions.

It is, essentially, about thinking big; about global change and the transformation of our commu-
nities, countries and the global society in which we live. It builds on key ideas we have already
discussed – the importance of exchange between people; the power of grassroots empowerment
as well as collective action; the need for coordinated approaches to change; and the benefits of
strategic, critical thinking. We are social beings who live in mutually dependent communities and
behaviour change is inextricably linked to social and systemic change.

As we noted back in Chapter 1, transformation is dependent on both the wave and the ocean.

Learning outcomes
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

✓✓ Explain what systems social marketing is and is not.

✓✓ Discuss the global interconnectedness of the twenty-first century as captured by the UN

Sustainable Development Goals (or SDGs).
✓✓ Define a “system” and a “provisioning system.”

✓✓ Explain the characteristics of social marketing in a systems setting.

✓✓ Critique systems social marketing planning.

✓✓ Describe the dynamics of behavioural change.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003200086-10
156 SYSTEMS SOCIAL MARKETING

Keywords
Social marketing – global change – United Nations Sustainable Development Goals – systems sci-
ence – provisioning systems– causal loop diagrams – dynamics.

Thinking big
We humans thrive on Planet Earth – there is clean water, readily available food and a breathable atmos-
phere. Our home is a “Goldilocks Planet”: it’s not too hot, and not too cold, but just right.1 Importantly,
we have evolved with the Earth and that evolution continues. Dr Teghan Lucas, an Australian sci-
entist, shows that modern babies are being born without wisdom teeth and with smaller faces as
humans evolve at a more rapid rate in the past 250 years in a micro evolution.2 We are all part of a big,
interconnected ecosystem of living and non-living things as our Indigenous cultures remind us. While
our own lives are very short in the vast 4.5-billion-year timescale of our planet (see Critical Thinking
Task 10.1), we are witnessing monumental changes in the planet’s evolution.

CRITICAL THINKING TASK 10.1: WHAT IS LIFE?

It is the flash of a firefly in the night. It is the breath of a buffalo in the wintertime. It is the
little shadow that runs across the grass and loses itself in the sunset Crowfoot proverb3

What does the proverb mean to you? What implications does it have for our
response to the climate crisis?

In our lifetime alone, we have already experienced huge environmental stresses, climate change,
accelerated extinction of species, decreasing biodiversity, increases in human populations and
urbanisation. As we’ve seen, it’s not all doom and gloom. We are witnessing a rise in life expec-
tancy, a decrease in child deaths, and technological advances which are adding to the quality of
many, but not all, lives.

Individually and collectively, we have learnt how interconnected all humans are with our
Goldilocks planet, regardless of country or continent. The Covid pandemic shows us the huge
cascading effects of our interdependent systems, some positive, many negative, altering over-
night the way we work, shop, exercise, socialise and live our daily lives. Nowhere are these system
connections and human behaviours more evident than in the planetary climate emergency we
face. Climate breakdown is caused by humanity’s greenhouse gas emissions.4 90% of biodiver-
sity loss results from our consumption of natural resources, that is, fossil fuels, biomass, metals,
and minerals.5 The UN Climate and Biodiversity Treaty objectives are to “limit global warming to
1.5°C/2°C” and ensure that we “humans live in harmony with nature by 2050”6 if we are to avoid
massive global shortages of food, water, energy, medicines, increases in refugees and social-
economic collapse within a generation. The very existence of our society and the survival of
humanity depends on us radically changing our individual and collective behaviours.

Your timing is good, the Earth and humanity need big thinkers, people like you who can take a deeply
“connected” perspective, a systemic approach to complex problems and challenges. The world, with
all its beautiful endangered animals, plants and people will only survive if we change our behaviours
as individuals, communities, policymakers, and societies; if we can critique and address the system.
 SYSTEMS SOCIAL MARKETING 157

United nations sustainable development goals (UN SDGs)

In recognition of how interwoven behaviour change in our biospheres and technospheres are, together
with the complex problems facing all societies across the globe, the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development was adopted by the United Nations (UN) General Assembly in September 2015. At
the heart of the 2030 Agenda are the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The SDGs are a collec-
tion of 17 global goals that UN member states are using as a guide to tackle the world’s most pressing
challenges including ending poverty and hunger and bringing economic prosperity, social inclusion,
environmental sustainability, peace and good governance for all countries and all people by 2030.

The UN SDGs highlight numerous issues with multiple causes and effects that span multiple levels of
society (sometimes referred to as micro, meso and macro levels) and involve a rich diversity of stake-
holders from individual citizens to global policymakers and taking in a multitude of social and commer-
cial organisations in between. The SDGs are based on the five P framework People, Planet, Prosperity,
Peace and Partnering. Try Critical Thinking Task 10.2 to develop an understanding of the UN SDGs.

CRITICAL THINKING TASK 10.2: UN SUSTAINABLE

DEVELOPMENT GOALS (SDGs)

You’ll see examples of green procurement, sustainable construction, reduced carbon footprints and
initiatives to promote greater environmental responsibility such as recycling and renewable energy
efficiency. Others are taking a precautionary approach to the development of carbon-neutral tech-
nologies, products and services or the development of blue and green spaces for biodiversity as well as
physical and mental health benefits. Human rights such as the abolition of child labour and equality are
championed while many are working against violence, illegal drugs and corruption, including bribery.
158 SYSTEMS SOCIAL MARKETING

Some commercial companies are adopting the triple bottom line, natural capital accounting and/or
balanced scorecard of People, Planet and Profits. Carbon and ecological footprints are being measured
and lowered. A major awaking of consciousness is happening about how humans and Planet Earth
evolve together and the changes needed if the world and humans are to survive and prosper.

To this end, the United Nations (UN) along with the Organization for Economic Co-operation and
Development (OECD), and the World Health Organization (WHO) all declared systems thinking as
the key to deal with the fundamental interconnectedness of complex, local-to-global economic,
social, health and environmental issues in 2017. Just as one water molecule cannot describe the
viscosity or wetness of water, the social marketer cannot reduce or isolate the behaviour of a per-
son to a discreet series of non-interacting events. Our social marketing principles clearly show
change isn’t just about individuals’ behaviours, but the relationships and interactions between
people. Global progress results from joining up the dots and addressing the multiple influences
on an individual’s behaviour (e.g., the effects of family, schools, community capacity and access,
institutions’ roles, functions and broader cultural, political, technological and economic poli-
cies). Recall Social Ecological Theory from Chapter 3, Indigenous thinking in Chapter 8 and our
case studies from around the world. Systems thinking, particularly evident among First Nations
peoples as seen throughout this book, acknowledges a holistic approach to our Earth and repre-
sents new opportunities for social marketing at every level from local to global.

Systems science
What is a system? Briefly, a “system” is made up of diverse entities which are connected to each other
and so produce their own patterns of behaviour over time – recall Social Ecological Theory from
Chapter 3. Examples of familiar systems include transport, health and education where different indi-
viduals, people, organisations and institutions come together to do a particular job; in transport, the
system gets us from A to B; in health, the system aims to heal us from illness and in the educational
system, we gain new knowledge, skills and critical thinking ability. For the vast majority of us, one of
the biggest “systems” we engage with on a daily basis is the commercial marketing system as discussed
in previous chapters. To see other systems in your life, have a go at Critical Thinking Task 10.3.

CRITICAL THINKING TASK 10.3: SYSTEMS THINKING

Take a look around your world and jot down some animal, plant and social systems
at work, based on our definition where a system is made up of diverse but con-
nected entities producing their own behavioural patterns. Note the tendency for
the whole to be greater than the sum of the parts.

Animal systems embrace ant colonies and flocks of sparrows, plant systems are seen in trees and
flowers. The human brain represents another classic complex system as does the immune sys-
tem and human genome. Other examples of systems include cities, living cells, supply chains,
black markets, the World Wide Web and Facebook and Twitter.7 A system then has multiple inter-
acting parts or elements. The actions of one part or element of a system can impact the other
parts. As a result, multiple causal factors influence one outcome over time. Multiple stakehold-
ers are involved with no one stakeholder group or organisation being completely responsible for
 SYSTEMS SOCIAL MARKETING 159

outcomes. A system is a framework for seeing interrelationships rather than events or things, for
seeing “patterns of change” rather than static “snapshots.”8

CRITICAL THINKING TASK 10.4: MAKING TOAST

Here’s a fun introduction to systems thinking from renowned systems presenter

and author, Tom Wujec. Make sure to do it with teammates or friends. You’ll need
some recycled paper and pens. Click on the link below and follow the simple steps
to make toast.

https://www.ted.com/talks/tom_wujec_got_a_wicked_problem_first_tell_
me_how_you_make_toast/transcript?language=en#t-27856

This enjoyable exercise Crtical Thinking Task 10.4 demonstrates that we can all understand prob-
lems and challenges as systems of connected parts and their relationships. In a system, however
large or small, there will be interdependent elements or components with multiple causes leading to
observed outcomes. There can also be unobserved properties that have larger impacts than might be
expected. Systems are constantly changing as a result of actions and interactions within the system.

A word as to what is not a system. Think about a set of saucepans or a pack of playing cards. Are
they examples of a system? The answer is no. While there is a collective dimension to a set of
saucepans and a pack of playing cards, the parts do not interact with each other. The elements
may have a common denominator that bunches them together but there is no relationship
between the different components, they do not affect each other. The lack of interdependence
means such examples are collections and not systems.

Human consumption; provisioning systems

The systems of particular interest to social marketers are those which underpin human activ-
ity9 or provisioning systems. Individuals come together to form families, who come together to
form small groups and villages, towns, cities, regions and so on. Similarly, organisations and insti-
tutions emerge from informal rules for individual behaviour, to contracts between groups and
networks, to legislation that guides and controls human behaviour (most of the time!). Ultimately,
individuals and groups in organisations and institutions, in localities, cities and regions, form a
society with distinctive culture, norms, practices, policies and provisioning systems for the indi-
vidual and collective needs of its citizens.10

Provisioning systems can be relatively simple, such as a farmers market made up of stalls, where
local producers come as sellers to meet up with town residents and visitors as buyers. Alternatively,
a provisioning system can be a complex, dynamic melting pot of online and offline global produc-
ers, wholesalers, retailers, distributors, researchers, packers, advertisers and buyers separated by
time, culture, geography, needs, wants, demand, supply and more. In either provisioning sys-
tem, the whole is much greater than the sum of its parts. Technically, provisioning systems are
the social systems connecting individuals, small groups, entities, and embedded communities as
they seek to satisfy their needs and wants for goods, services, experiences and ideas through the
value-based exchange in communities.11
160 SYSTEMS SOCIAL MARKETING

Provisioning systems are designed, built and managed by us humans to meet our diverse needs
and wants. Provisioning systems cater for the requirements of a city, a region and a society. There
are basic requirements such as sustenance, food, water, sleep and shelter. Above all else, the latest
scientific findings reveal how our social needs trump our most basic necessities. In his book Social:
Why Our Brains Are Wired to Connect, psychologist Mathew Lieberman discusses how our social
bonds are the most essential need we have.12 Our psychological needs for friendship, belong-
ing, intimate relationships and ultimately love is a defining characteristic of Homo sapiens. Susan
Pinker, in her book The Village Effect: Why Face-to-Face Contact Matters,13 demonstrates the cen-
trality of warm, trusting, and loving relationships to the survival, development and wellbeing of a
child. Parents feed their young ones and teach them how to survive and how to interact. Without
the powerful parent–child bond, a baby or child cannot satisfy their basic sustenance needs.
And it’s not just the parent–child bond; it’s the social bonds throughout our lives that are impor-
tant. To live to 100 years and beyond, Pinker explains how social bonds, both the close strong
relationships with family and friends together with the weaker social interactions with commu-
nity members such as the postman, the person who serves tea or coffee or the shop assistant
throughout the day, are a predictor of a longer life.14 The survival, evolution, and thriving of the
human species are dependent on us having each other.

We, in conjunction with our Goldilocks planet, continue to evolve as highly social creatures,
unable to live independently of others. Our provisioning systems mirror this a million times
over as complex, constantly evolving social systems and sub-systems with multi-level stake-
holders in interacting communities. The different types of provisioning systems make avail-
able assortments of goods, services, experiences and ideas for societies with its seamless web
of communities, families and individuals living their daily lives. To go deeper into provisioning
systems and how they meet our everyday needs and wants, spend a few minutes on Critical
Thinking Task 10.5 below.

CRITICAL THINKING TASK 10.5:  PROVISIONING SYSTEMS

Think about your purchases over the past 7 days. What provisioning systems were
involved in getting the products, services, ideas or experiences to you?

Think beyond your day-to-day individual needs. Think about the community or col-
lective needs for security, safety, well-being, including spiritual needs.

Certainly, food will have been part of your consumption within the last week. Beverages too, most
likely, coffee or tea, soft drinks and water. Transport will also feature in your daily or weekly needs
as we move from A to B as part of our daily lives. Did you purchase a bus ticket? Fuel for a car?
Maybe you bought clothes too. Perhaps an outfit and fashion items for a night out or a special
occasion? For some who are part of a sports club or association, there may have been an equip-
ment purchase while others may have bought a cinema or concert ticket. You may or may not
have needed the police, a library or a hospital within the past week. In essence, all sorts of provi-
sioning systems shape your daily life. As well as your individual needs, provisioning systems cater
for our collective requirements.
 SYSTEMS SOCIAL MARKETING 161

Figure 10.1 Types of provisioning systems15

Provisioning systems, operating together for the common purpose of meeting the needs of
humans, come in all shapes and sizes. Some we interact with on a daily or weekly basis while oth-
ers are used only occasionally, as we need them.

Some provisioning systems are prescriptive and hierarchical in nature as Figure 10.1 illustrates.
They are highly restrictive in what they offer in relation to our needs and wants. These provisioning
systems are generally under the control of the state or region or city to present limited top-down
choices to meet the fundamental needs of communities and/or societies. Think of defence, social
housing, public transport and public health as classic examples. Other provisioning systems are
more collaborative in character, for example, co-operatives, charities, social enterprises and the
sharing economy. Many refer to these as third sector systems. There are also informal exchanges,
akin to barter, driven by the creativity and innovation of individuals trying out new ideas and
inventions, new ways of doing things better. Finally, there are marketing provisioning systems.
These are commercial marketing or non-profit, public sector marketing offerings. Marketing pro-
visioning systems offer greater degrees of choice and assortments with well-established markets,
networks, platforms and mechanisms for delivering products, services, ideas and experiences.
Taken together, the prescriptive exchange or state model, the collaborative/third sector model in
conjunction with the free market or marketing/business model and informal model form provi-
sioning systems in a community, a city, a region, and countries.16

Systems social marketing strategic plan

How does systems science help social marketing and global change? Its most fundamental con-
tribution is to the strategic planning process (refer back to Figure 4.1). Systems thinking enables
us to plan by undertaking a few more “diagnostic” tasks, namely:

1. Identify the problem provisioning system.

2. Conduct a systemic stakeholder analysis.

162 SYSTEMS SOCIAL MARKETING

Figure 10.2 A systems social marketing strategic plan

3. Map the current exchanges happening.

4. Undertake a barrier and enabler analysis.

5. Map the dynamics at work in the provisioning system for all the stakeholders.

Clearly, the outcome will most likely not be just a single campaign but multiple offerings with
partnerships – UN SDG #17 – as an essential part of formulating the offerings. The only constant
in life is change. So, system indicators in “real” time are essential as part of ongoing monitor-
ing and evaluation. Figure 10.2 captures this enhanced Systems Social Marketing Strategic Plan
framework.

Identify the problem provisioning system

The social marketer stands outside the system to see the whole, see all of the parts and not just the
sector or industry they operate in or are in contact with. At this point, it is all about an expansive,
bird’s eye view, distancing yourself from the problem, your organisation, your assumptions and
taking a moment to observe the entire provisioning system at work.
 SYSTEMS SOCIAL MARKETING 163

For example, In Ireland, a sustainable tourism project is being established in the peatlands in the
Midlands of Ireland, also known as Ireland’s Hidden Heartlands. Ireland’s peatlands account for
over 21% of its territory, provide an essential contribution as carbon sinks and store over three
times the carbon of all the forests in the world and critical habitats for endangered plants and
animals. These vast rewilding places of enchantment represent a local story and national ecosys-
tem becoming a symbol for global planetary health as well as being a critical economic regenera-
tion in an area impacted by the recent cessation of peat harvesting – traditionally used for home
heating, horticulture applications, and electricity generation. Defining the emerging provisioning
system would cope with a complex array of interrelated problems. For any nature, landscape and
waterscape-based sustainable tourism venture, the system includes climate change associated
with loss of biodiversity and deterioration of vital ecosystems, like bogs and peatlands; undevel-
oped local and rural communities where social, ecological, economical and other issues create
a vicious circle of abandonment, isolation, unemployment and deprivation; the lack of well-
developed amenity, exercise and wellbeing facilities to advert a health crisis. Table 10.1 provides
a brief overview of this problem provisioning system at the nexus of climate action, sustainable
tourism and health and wellbeing.

To visualise the problem provisioning system better, the rewilding Nature and Peatlands project
is positioned within the marketing, collaborative, informal and prescriptive sub-systems.
See Figure 10.3.

In Figure 10.3, commercial attractions within the hospitality sector that are for-profit, non-sus-
tainable tourism ventures, such as Tayto Park or the Guinness Storehouse, are part of the mar-
keting exchange sub-system. Coillte Ireland, a state agency who own forest parks are specifically
designed to promote sustainable tourism as part of the prescriptive sub-system.

A word of caution, we carry assumptions about the various systems we live in, how they operate,
and their influences on the issue of concern. Hence the need for critical, ethical and responsible
thinking as in Chapters 7–9. This is particularly true for individuals and organisations who are
experts in relation to an issue. The remedy is to carry as few assumptions as possible into your
investigative work and make assumptions based on robust evidence.17 For example, many public
health and ecological experts will assume a particular problem can be solved with SPLAT – some
posters, leaflets, ads and things.18 However, as we have emphasised throughout this book and the
case studies demonstrate, there’s a lot more to behaviour and social change than only communi-
cation, messaging or education! The results and outcomes of identifying the problem system will
consist of an initial provisioning system map and a critical discussion about assumptions being
made.

Conduct a systemic stakeholder analysis

Useful tools for this diagnostic research include a literature review, key informant interviews
(KIIs) and/or focus groups (FGs), and observation. A survey may also be helpful at this point
as discussed in Chapter 5. Turn to Case Study #8 (Duane et al.) for an example of systemic
stakeholder analysis in relation to recreational waters. The results and outcomes will consist
of a classified list of stakeholders and a stakeholder power and interest map showing all the
relevant stakeholders in the problem provisioning system, not just the known, usual or expert
164 SYSTEMS SOCIAL MARKETING

Table 10.1 Rewilding nature and peatlands project

Problematique Specific issues Issue-mitigating factors

Climate • Lack of implementation by • Environmental laws,

change the government, businesses regulation and policy.
and others to address • Rise in environmental and
climate change. health concerns among the
• Lack of sustainability funding. Irish public.
Community • Inadequate recreational • Increase in health concerns
health crisis and amenity facilities and (fuelled by the COVID-19
activities in the Midlands pandemic).
• Lack of consistent health • State public health authority’s
motivation and steady initiatives to stimulate healthy
interest in healthy activities lifestyles and public health
by subpopulations. advise to promote local active
• Failures in health education. tourism.
Sustainable • Lack of critical sustainable • Support and funding from
tourism under- tourism infrastructure, dedicated national tourism
development information and awareness. development authorities.
• Long-lasting fallout from the • Non-competing character of
COVID-19 pandemic. national tourist attractions.
Sustainable • Full capacity of formal, non- • Increased focus on
education formal and informal education sustainability across
deficiencies for teaching sustainability is various disciplines and
not tapped into. interdisciplinary approach
• Lack of sustainability towards its teaching.
embeddedness in the • Availability of sustainable
educational curriculum. tourism locations.
Social issues • Vested interests of the peat • Engagement of the peat
at local level industry. industry in addressing
• High unemployment in the sustainability issues.
Midlands, a Just Transition • Strong local communities in
region from fossil fuels to Ireland, though more oriented
renewables. on economic viability rather
than ecological issues.

stakeholders and an exchange map highlighting the different values and networks between
stakeholders at work in the problem system. Figure 10.4 provides two examples of power versus
interest grid maps for our rewilding nature and peatlands project.

These two maps highlight three important assumptions:

1. systemic stakeholder analysis with the aid of exercises such as power versus interest grid
mapping is a viable planning and modelling tool as it helps to visualise different mental mod-
els with respect to stakeholder roles, power statuses, interest levels, etc.
 SYSTEMS SOCIAL MARKETING 165

Figure 10.3 Provisioning system identification

2. Systematic stakeholder analysis with the help of power versus interest grid mapping provides
actionable insights. It is directly linked to a provisioning system barrier/enabler analysis and
implementation, which are elements of the systems social marketing plan. The visualised image
of stakeholder power/interest statuses creates a very rich narrative of stakeholder interactions,
which reveals system feedbacks and adverse side effects, illustrated by the following two quotes.

“Local workers have slightly higher interest than other groups in this quadrant [of
the power vs interest grid] as they could be employed by the project. In terms of
micro-stakeholders in the provisioning system, this can be seen as a gain. On the
other hand, commuters are negatively affected by the issue due increased volumes
of traffic because of the tourism attraction. This is a possible barrier that needs to be
considered in the social marketing plan. Reducing carbon emissions lines well with
the project, and this can’t be achieved with increased traffic.”14?

“…local families and farmers would have little interest in environmental change
because a large majority of them would be making money from the peatlands. Their
current status would be of low power and any attempt at change would be unsuc-
cessful. The entrance of a social enterprise could [negatively] affect the family’s
income, thus affecting the quality of life.”14?

3. The systemic stakeholder analysis with the help of power versus interest grid mapping is a
source of creativity which can be helpful in decision-making about possible solutions and
ways forward. See Figure 10.5.

Exchange analysis and mapping

The stakeholder analysis is enhanced with an exchange analysis and mapping of the existing
exchange networks among the stakeholders. Recall our segmentation discussion in Chapter 4.
Begin by identifying and profiling the existing segments, using your literature review findings.
166 SYSTEMS SOCIAL MARKETING

Figure 10.4 Examples of power versus interest grid mapping of stakeholders in a

provisioning system
 SYSTEMS SOCIAL MARKETING 167

Figure 10.5 An example of creativity is demonstrated by stakeholder mapping

Start to build demographic and psychographic details. For each segment, analyse the values at
work and the stakeholders involved. Move from segments to the networks of relationships in
the provisioning system; begin to create an initial picture, diagram or visualisation of all of the
exchange stakeholders involved in each segment in your marketing system. Primary research,
such as focus groups or a survey, will help with any gaps. Go to Case Study #1 (Brychkov et al)
about encouraging sustainable energy performance in a multi-stakeholder school environment
where the direct and indirect exchanges are mapped.

Broadly speaking, exchange maps will reveal (1) segments supporting the desired behav-
iours, (2) segments willing to engage but not yet involved in the desired behaviours and (3)
segments resisting the desired behaviours and/or having competing or contrary behaviours
(Jordan, 2019). These grassroots segments are important as the small group is the “funda-
mental unit of human social organization, required for both individual well-being and
elective action on a larger scale”19 – the ocean needs the wave as much as the wave needs
the ocean.
168 SYSTEMS SOCIAL MARKETING

Barrier and enabler analysis

From all the analysis so far, make a list of all the stakeholder, behavioural and structural barriers
and enablers – micro, meso and macro currently at work – based on evidence and critical think-
ing – within the problem provisioning system. Focus on the problematic aspects of the situation
and do not include possible solutions. Expect to have more barriers than enablers. In essence, you
are capturing the detailed complexity surrounding the problem in a provisioning system’s setting.

Dynamics analysis and systems map

To go beyond a good understanding of the detailed complexity of the individual issues, the next
job is to focus on the dynamics at work in the problem provisioning system. This covers structural
barriers and enablers, such as delivery and policies, access and technology; stakeholder barriers
and enablers, their interests and power and behavioural barriers and enablers such as commu-
nication, cooperation, conflict and the exchanges that occur or do not occur. The objective is to
learn about the dynamics driving the problem provisioning system.

You identify and map the dynamics at work in your problem provisioning system using causal
loop diagrams (CLDs). CLDs are defined as “maps showing the causal links among variables with
arrows from a cause to an effect”20 with an indication of the polarity of hypothesised relation-
ship between variables. A positive (+) arrow sign indicates that the effect is positively related to
the cause, while a negative (−) arrow sign means that increasing the cause, a barrier/enabler,
decreases or subtracts from the effect, another barrier/enabler. These sequences of polarity-
marked causal links form two reinforcing loops, marked with letter “R,” or balancing loops,
marked with letter “B.” Reinforcing loops amplify change, while balancing loops seek balance or
equilibrium in the system. These form the feedback loops in the CLD. A short narrative is devel-
oped to explain the CLD. Causal loops need to be backed by verifiable facts, literature, and data.
They must be existing and acting in the system, not imagined or speculative.

The process of developing CLDs is highly participatory and uses collective intelligence and cir-
cular causality. It cannot be done by an individual and is best undertaken by a team of people
(5-12) including persons affected by the problem. When all the individual CLDs are done, the
team weave them together into one map to create explaining the problem at hand. A provision-
ing systems map involves clustering loops around similar issues and finding points of congru-
ence between these loops. This process is similar to the creation of individual loops, but now the
behaviour of the whole system is simulated.

Look at Figure 10.6, to see an example of a sustainable tourism systems map drawing together
individual CLDs about Footfall, Weather, Transport, Accommodation dynamics to explain the
system.

With systems maps, provisioning systems can often be narrowed down to a few dominant dynam-
ics with enough complexity remaining to jolt the decision-making away from traditional reduc-
tionist ways of thinking about a problem. With relative simplicity being the key to changing
complex system behaviours, “it is not the strongest of species that survive, nor the most intel-
ligent, but the ones most responsive to change” as Darwin said 150 years ago. These dominant
 SYSTEMS SOCIAL MARKETING 169

Figure 10.6 An example of a CLD systems map for a regenerating peatland

dynamics and accompanying secondary dynamics become the change areas on which to focus.
Go to Case Study #18 about Active Play to see other systems map.

Formulating the offer(s)

A big picture understanding of the problem provisioning system from the research and analy-
sis gives dynamic insights about impactful offerings. The objective is to design and implement
campaign(s) to alter the dynamics and change the trajectory of the problem provisioning system
to a healthier sustainable state. The most impactful interventions are those that have the largest
consequential effects on the dominant system dynamics and introduce the most rapid evolution
of change.21 In keeping with Figures 4.1 and 10.2 the systems social marketing strategic plan, the
results and outcomes of focusing on the dominant dynamics in the problem provisioning sys-
tem includes “Acceptable,” “Appealing,” “Affordable” and “Accessible” exchange propositions/
offerings to bring about behaviour change; long and short term behaviour change goals; key eval-
uation metrics and indicators along with time lines, milestones and budget allocation.

Regardless of the actual offerings – recall our creative orientation from Chapter 2 – Critical
Thinking Task 10.6 shows us that tackling the dominant dynamics in any problem provisioning
system will require multi-level, multi-stakeholder and partnership exchanges over time.

Mock-ups of the selected elements of the social marketing mix in response to the sustainable
tourism dynamics in Figure 10.6 might include (a) an app page with games; (b) invitation box,
170 SYSTEMS SOCIAL MARKETING

CRITICAL THINKING TASK 10.6: FORMULATING THE OFFERS

IN A PROVISIONING
SYSTEMS SETTING

Based on the dynamics and CLDs in the sustainable tourism systems map in
Figure 10.6 above,

What “Acceptable,” “Appealing,” “Affordable” and “Accessible” exchange proposi-

tions/offerings would you design? Targeted at who? When? And to what end (objective)?

containing branded water bottle, info leaflet on recycled paper, wild seed packet, RSVP QR code,
coffee voucher and bike discount voucher; (c) #kidssavetheworld campaign; and (d) social media
use as highlighted in Figure 10.7.22

If we look again at the systems social marketing strategic plan (Figure 10.2) the detailed complex-
ity and the dynamic complexity of global change can be captured in the Dynamics Analysis. This
is a continuous process of diagnosing the problem provisioning system and its dynamics and co-
designing transformative change. Since provisioning systems perform repeated interactions over
time, it “can easily develop sets of norms and habits which impede an accurate view of reality”23
so navigating complexity and innovating for more equitable and responsible systems has never
been more relevant than it is today.

Systems social marketing indicators

To accentuate systems social marketing in action and its evaluation, Patricia McHugh (2013)
explains indicators are useful in reducing broad concepts, such as “trust” and “networks” to
measurable forms, while maintaining the bonds between them. The advantage of indicators is
that they integrate contributions from diverse parts of the system with dissimilar views, values,
backgrounds, experiences, cultures, languages and expectations. There is strong evidence for
three particular systems social marketing indicators: knowledge, relationships and networks, all
displayed and categorised in Figure 10.824

Knowledge or learning is a crucial first step in value co-creation and relationship marketing. It’s
about information acquisition, information dissemination and shared interpretation. The aim
is co-learning which involves knowledge transfer as the flow of information from knowledge
producers to knowledge users, for example, from researchers and scholars to policymakers and
professionals – or from patients to doctors. (Knowledge exchange is shared learning and commu-
nication between problem-solvers with a propensity to act as seen in Case Study #3 from Marques
et al., about the social innovation journey of the city of Águeda where local artists, creative agen-
cies, retailers and resident communities work together to tackle climate breakdown.) Knowledge
generation denotes the tacit and explicit knowledge shared continuously by all actors, that is, the
experiential insights from value-driven exchanges we discussed. Without learning, there can be
no value co-creation with clients or stakeholders. Relationship indicators, as we saw in Chapter 2
and again above, include trust and commitment. Finally, Network involvement is about the iden-
tities, status, resources, access and other stakeholder characteristics.
 SYSTEMS SOCIAL MARKETING 171

Figure 10.7 Potential social marketing offerings

Figure 10.8 Indicators for systems social marketing

172 SYSTEMS SOCIAL MARKETING

As social marketers, what is important for us to remember is that our and our clients’ struggle to
change is never isolated from society’s effort to transform. Recall Chapter 1 and what matters –
grassroots empowerment, we all matter and systems also matter. Indicators are our reminder and
measurement of these basic ideas, the big picture and how we can change the world.

Wrap-up
Our Goldilocks planet reminds us that local-to-global connectedness is part of our world and the
way we live our everyday lives. Social Marketing, in response to this complexity, has been expand-
ing in experience, evidence, theories and toolkits. Taking a “bigger picture,” circular causality or
systems approach, social marketing in a provisioning systems setting has been emerging in the
field among academics and practitioners alike.25

To this end, you have met some of the key concepts in systems social marketing – provisioning
systems, behavioural dynamics, stakeholders, exchange, structural dynamics, context/environ-
ment, and CLDs with positive and negative feedback. The essence of systems social marketing
thinking and practice is in “seeing” the system and its evolutionary dynamics. How you “see”
things affects the way you define problems and make decisions. Once you “see” the system, you
can never “see” the system again. And how you “see” a system, changes how you and the system
change.

People are muddling their way through crisis and change. The social and economic systems and
structures that made life acceptable are being re-assembled, re-formed, re-built – from the bot-
tom-up first, for example, Case Studies #3, 11, 12, as people join with each other in small groups,
helping, sharing, cooperating, working together supported by top-down, for example, the UN
SDGs, to re-construct new ways of life. This transition to sustainability and sustainable living can
be a daunting process, so our job is to ensure that it is sustainable and informed by decent values:
inclusivity, mutual respect and fairness. Ultimately it is individuals, the small groups and com-
munities who hold open the possibility of realising sustainable, ethical, and responsible societies
in a not too distant future world.

Reflective questions
1. What evidence are you seeing around the world and in your own life that organisations have
begun to recognise their Goldilocks (social and environmental) impact?

2. How and when did it become important for organisations to start thinking about the impact
they and their activities are having on Planet Earth?

3. Twenty-first century micro and macro issues are driving systems thinking. What examples
can you see and how do you explain them?

4. The world is shifting from a micro to a micro-macro perspective; from individual to collective
choices. How would you explain this in relation to the recent COVID-19 pandemic and its effects?

5. What is a system? How does a system differ from a collection?

6. How would you define the concept of a provisioning system with short examples?
 SYSTEMS SOCIAL MARKETING 173

Reflective assignments
1. Visit the Journal of Social Marketing, the Journal of Macromarketing and/or Social Marketing
Quarterly. Search for Systems Social marketing, Macro Social Marketing and Community-
Based Social Marketing papers to read about developments in social marketing and systems
thinking.

2. Visit the Macromarketing Pedagogical Place at https://pedagogy.macromarketing.org/ and

complete the Marketing Research exercise on CLDs.

3. Twenty-first century problems “are just too complicated to yield to the old nineteenth century
techniques which were so dramatically successful on two-, three-, or four-variable problems
of simplicity. These new problems, moreover, cannot be handled with the statistical tech-
niques so effective in describing average behaviour in problems of disorganized complexity.”
Weaver 194826 read Weaver’s article and critically evaluate problems of simplicity, problems
of organised complexity problems of disorganised complexity.

4. To see collective ant decision-making in action, visit https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=

FOMWse6P-9M.

Reflect on the lessons this holds for humans and human systems.

5. For oceans and human health connections, listen to https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6r-

IeUfwCzc&feature=youtu.be. What changes can you make to improve your relationship with
the sea nearest to you?

Notes
1 https://www.science.org.au/curious/space-time/goldilocks-planet
2 https://www.rte.ie/news/newslens/2020/1009/1170458-scientist-say-babies-being-born-
without-wisdom-teeth/
3 Boux, D. (1990). The Golden Thread: Words of Hope for a Changing World. Gateway Books, Bath.
4 Manabe, S. (1970). ‘The dependence of atmospheric temperature on the concentration of carbon
dioxide’, In: Singer, S.F. (ed), Global Effects of Environmental Pollution. Dordrecht: Springer.
5 United Nations Environment International Resource Panel. (2019). Natural Resources for the
Future We Want. Key fact: “90% of biodiversity loss is caused by extraction and processing (con-
sumption) of natural resources”.
6 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Paris Agreement (2015). (2021).
United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity. The Post 2020 Global Biodiversity Framework.
7 Mitchell, M. (2017). “What is Complexity”? Unit 1, Introduction to Complexity, Complexity Explorer.
USA: Santa Fe Institute.
8 Senge, P. (1990). The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of the Learning Organization. New York,
NY: Currency Doubleday.
9 Checkland, P.B. (1999). Systems Thinking, Systems Practice. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
10 Layton, R., & Domegan, C. (2021). ‘The next normal for marketing—The dynamics of a pandemic,
provisioning systems, and the changing patterns of daily life’, Australasian Marketing Journal,
29(1): 4–14. Open access.
11 Ibid.
12 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NNhk3owF7RQ
13 https://susanpinker.com/the-village-effect/
14 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ptIecdCZ3dg
174 SYSTEMS SOCIAL MARKETING

15 Layton, D., & Brennan. (2022). Systems Thinking in Marketing for Impact. Australia: Routledge
Companion to Marketing and Society.
16 Scharmer, O. (2009). Theory U: Leading from the Future as It Emerges. San Francisci: BK Publishers.
17 Anderson, V., & Johnson, L. (1997). Systems Thinking Basics: From Concepts to Causal Loops.
Cambridge, MA: Pegasus Communications Inc.
18 Tapp, A. (2018). Why marketers don’t get hugged at parties – And other useful things about social
marketing, keynote speech presented at the 8th Annual Social Marketing Conference, National
University of Ireland Galway, Galway, Ireland, May 24, 2018 (Accessed 14 March 2020), [available
at https://www.youtube. com/watch?v¼BQu8m-warWk&feature¼youtu.be].
19 Wilson, D.S. (2019). This View of Life: Completing the Darwinian Revolution. Pantheon Books.
Loc286.
20 Sterman, J. (2000). Business Dynamics: Systems Thinking and Modelling for a Complex World.
Irwin/McGraw-Hill, p. 102.
21 Layton, Domegan & Brennan (2022) op cit.
22 Acknowledgments – the Rewilding Nature and Peatlands materials in this chapter are based on
a sustainable tourism project drawn from the 2ndComm Marketing and Sustainability and MSc
Social Marketing and Sustainability classes of 2021/2022. Christine Domegan, Dmitry Brychkov,
Tina Flaherty and Fiona Donovan thank the students for all their work on their Rewilding Nature
and Peatlands projects, especially, James Morris-Burke, Evan McDonald, Kyle McTiernan, Orla
O’Regan, Myles Depinna, Hannah Lee, Aishwarya Chhaya, Emma Jourdan, Qin Liu and Juliane
Queißer.
23 Redmond, W. (2018 p.420). ‘Marketing systems and market failure: A macromarketing appraisal’,
Journal of Macromarketing, 38(4): 415–424.
24 Patricia McHugh in Chapter 11 inSocial Marketing, Rebels with a Cause, 3rd edition.
25 Layton, Domegan and Brennan. (2022). Systems Thinking in Marketing for Impact. Australia:
Routledge Companion to Marketing and Society.
26 Warren Weaver, American Scientist, Vol. 36, No. 4 (October 1948), pp. 536–544.

Bibliography
Carvalho, H., & Mazzon, J. (2013). ‘Homo economicus and social marketing: Questioning traditional
models of behavior’, Journal of Social Marketing, 3(2): 162–175.
Churchman, C.W. (1967). ‘Guest Editorial: “Wicked Problems”’, Management Science, 14(4),
Application Series, B141–B142.
Layton, D., & Brennan. (2023). Systems thinking in Marketing for Impact, Chapter 1 in Routledge
Companion to Marketing and Society, Editors Krzysztof Kubacki, Lukas Parker, Christine ine
Domegan and Linda Brennan, Oxford, UK.
Layton, R., & Domegan, C. (2021). ‘The next normal for marketing—The dynamics of a pandemic, pro-
visioning systems, and the changing patterns of daily life’, Australasian Marketing Journal, 29(1):
4–14. Industry and academic award winning open paper.
Layton, R.A. (2014). ‘Formation, growth and adaptive change in marketing systems’, Journal
of Macromarketing, 35(3): 302–319, published online 22 September 2014. DOI: 10.1177/
0276146714550314
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Marketing and Innovation Theory’, PhD thesis, National University of Ireland, Galway.
Social marketing case
studies from around
the world

CS 1–18

Case study Authors Context Key SM issues

1. ENERGE; Dmitry Brychkov, SDG #4 Quality Exchange

Encouraging Christine Domegan, education Marketing research
sustainable energy Edelle Doherty, SDG #7 Affordable Digital solutions
performance in a Raquel de Castro and clean energy
multi-stakeholder Rodrigues Lima &
Energy efficiency
systemic school Eoghan Clifford
environment Europe

2. Trust the meat Marisha Anand & SDG #3 Good Health Theory
thermometer Aileen McGloin and Well-Being Research
Food Safety Intervention mix
Europe

3. Acting on the Susana Marques, Ana SDG #13 Climate Relationships,

climate crisis through Estima, Edson Santos, Action Creativity
the arts and culture: Célia Laranjeira, Climate change Communities
A social innovation Adriana Mesquita & mitigation and
journey at the city of Carla Couceiro adaptation
Águeda
Europe

(continued)

DOI: 10.4324/9781003200086-11
176 SOCIAL MARKETING CASE STUDIES FROM AROUND THE WORLD

Case study Authors Context Key SM issues

4. Making Australian Maria Raciti, Jennifer SDG #10 Reduces Formative research
universities culturally Carter, David Inequalities Values, benefits
safe places for First Hollinsworth & First Nations
Nations peoples Kathryn Gilbey
Higher education
Australia

5. “What could Glen Donnar, Jon SDG #5 Gender Planning – User-

masculinity be?” Hewitt, Fiona Finn, Equality centred design
Using participatory Lukas Parker, Linda Wicked problems approach
co-design to define Brennan & co-creation,
Masculinities
and support healthier John Dingeldei co-design
masculinities Asia

6. “Standing Robert J Donovan, SDG #3 Good Health Beliefs

Strong Together”: Lesley A Murray, Julia and Wellbeing Cultural adaptation
A culturally Anwar-McHenry, Mental Health Intervention
appropriate Amberlee Nicholas &
Australia Indigenous cultures
adaptation for Cathy Drane
a social and
emotional well-
being intervention
in an Australian First
Nations community

7. The humble egg in Puja Peyden SDG #12 Responsible Segmentation

Malawi Tshering, Kalpana Consumption and Branding
Beesabathuni, Srujith Production
Behaviour change
Lingala & Rowena Food nutrition objectives
Merritt
Africa

8. Turning the Sinead Duane SDG #6 Clean Water Stakeholder analysis

tide on poor Blue Maeve Louise and Sanitation and engagement
Space quality Farrell, Alexandra SDG #14 Life Below Marketing Research
through Stakeholder Chueiri, Liam Burke & Water Partnerships
engagement – Dearbháile Morris Bathing water, Anti-
Lessons from PIER
microbial resistance,
Ireland
 SOCIAL MARKETING CASE STUDIES FROM AROUND THE WORLD 177

9. Evaluating real Marisa de Andrade, SDG #10 Reduced Evaluation

change in the real Colin Campbell, Inequalities Marketing Research
world: Creativity, Jean Dobbing, SDG #11 Sustainable Ethics
connection and Felicity Fyall & Rilza Cities and
the unseen as felt Montgomery Communities
evidence in aspiring
Community
communities
Development
Scotland

10. Leaf collective: Luisa Lopez Cordova, SDG #11 Sustainable Research methods
Piloting a social Yue Xi, Sharyn Cities and Partnerships,
marketing approach Rundle-Thiele, Renata Communities
Branding
to remove Eucalypt Anibaldi, Aaron Healthy Environments
leaves from Tkaczynski, Cuong Communication
Australia
stormwater drains Pham & Vanessa
Salamone

11. Logan city council Tori Seydel, Erin SDG #15 Life on Land Planning
wildlife movement Hurley & Sharyn SDG #11 Sustainable Marketing research
campaign Rundle-Thiele Cities and Intervention mix
Communities
Koalas
Australia

12. Tackling gender Michelle O’Shea, SDG #5 Gender Theory

inequality and Hazel Maxwell, Nicole Inequalities Behaviour change
promoting a healthy Peel & Women, Sports, objectives
lifestyle: The women Sarah Duffy Australia Systems change
in sport roadshow

13. The role of civil Rafael SDG #3 Good Health Critical marketing,
society in advancing Pérez-Escamilla and Wellbeing Social mobilisation
the sugar-sweetened SDG # 17 Policy
beverages tax policy Partnerships for the
in Mexico Goals
Sugar-Sweetened
Beverages
Mexico

(continued)
178 SOCIAL MARKETING CASE STUDIES FROM AROUND THE WORLD

Case study Authors Context Key SM issues

14. The baby killer Gerard Hastings, SDG #3 Good Health Critical marketing
revisited regulating Kathryn Angus, and Wellbeing
the marketing Douglas Eadie & Kate SDG #13 Climate
of breast milk Hunt Action
substitutes
Infant Nutrition
Global

15. Healthy Rowena Merritt & SDG #3 Good Health Marketing research
breakfasts in Armenia Nanna Skau and Wellbeing Intervention mix
Food Nutrition, Outcomes
Children,
Armenia

16. Social marketing Anna Earl & SDG #12 Responsible Wicked problems
at multiple levels Ann-Marie Kennedy Consumption and Social media
of the fashion Production
Outcomes
system with fashion SDG# Gender
revolution inequalities
Fashion, social
movement
Global

17. Autism: Change Sandra C. Jones SDG #10 Reduced Communication

your reactions Jennifer Lowe Inequalities Community social
Nicola Edwards & Education marketing
Jade Maloney Australia Evaluation

18. Active play for Christine Domegan, SDG #13 Climate Stakeholder analysis
0–3 years old in Tina Flaherty, Dmitry Action Systems social
Galway city Brychkov, Evelyn Sustainable tourism marketing
Fanning and Caroline
Global
Murray
 Case study
1
Encouraging sustainable
energy performance in
multi-stakeholder systemic
school environment
The ENERGE project
Dmitry Brychkov, Christine Domegan,
Edelle Doherty, Raquel de Castro
Rodrigues Lima and Eoghan Clifford

1.1 Introduction and problem definition

The building sector accounts for about 40% of the final energy use, while a significant share of
the building stock remains energy inefficient (Pietrapertosa et al., 2021). Public buildings, includ-
ing schools, tangibly contribute to this issue as schools are considered to be “significant energy
consumers – on a par with residential and office buildings,” given the number of buildings at a
regional or national level (Thewes et al., 2014, p. 469). In many cases, school buildings can be
relatively old and high priority for upgrades may be considered. Since renovation of school build-
ings is often unfeasible and costly (and renovated school buildings can result in increased energy
use), sustainable energy performance of schools will also depend on energy behaviours of vari-
ous stakeholders related to school operation and management, energy-provisioning and other
complementary systems (Thewes et al., 2014). This means that tackling energy efficiency issues
in schools is a systemic endeavour predicated on the complex interplay of feedback factors within
a multi-stakeholder environment. The present case study represents such a systemic approach

DOI: 10.4324/9781003200086-12
180 Dmitry Brychkov et al.

within the Interreg ENERGE project, aimed at improving energy efficiency in 13 post-primary
schools (hereafter the project schools), located in six North-Western European countries (France,
Germany, Ireland, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and Northern Ireland).

1.2 Primary research

1.2.1 Value exchange mapping
Systems usually feature a complex web of value exchanges between system stakeholders.
Figure CS1.1 shows, in a simplified manner, deliverables and values exchanged between key
stakeholders to provide sustainable energy performance of schools. Such value exchange map-
ping confirms the issue complexity and proves the fact that any approaches to its solution that
miss this complexity will be insufficient. What might be considered as a mainly technological
or retrofitting issue is a highly complex domain where multiple stakeholders emerge, interact,
compete, collaborate and evolve. From Figure CS1.1, it is clear that improving energy efficiency
in schools cannot be solved without active participation, collaboration, informational exchanges
and partnership building between stakeholders.

To this extent, the analysis of different stakeholders with their peculiar interests, attitudes and
actual involvement in the focal issue seems very important. Such analysis can be instrumental in
guiding interventions that address the focal issue.

1.2.2 Survey
A survey was held among the personnel (n = 166) of the 13 project schools to assess their involve-
ment in sustainable energy behaviours.

Figure CS1.1 Value exchange mapping for encouraging energy efficiency in a multi-

stakeholder school environment. Green-coloured numbers are used to mark
relevant stakeholder categories involved in the issue.
 CASE STUDY 1 181

1.2.2.1 Identification of new stakeholder roles

First of all, the survey unveiled a number of specific roles and positions, which might be missing
from available literature sources and which significantly increased the list of intra-school stake-
holders shown in Figure CS1.1. In particular, under stakeholder category 1, the survey results
highlighted a more complex structure of the school ecosystem with respect to stakeholder inter-
actions and revealed a number of new value exchange networks. The presence of multiple school
positions focused on leading specific units and activities opens a possibility for using social dif-
fusion as a social marketing strategy (Mckenzie-Mohr, 2011). The revealed job positions were
as follows: head of careers; department heads; senior teachers; general assistants; year heads
(teacher year heads); heads of specific subjects; curriculum leaders; building supervisors; science
technicians; guidance councillors; headmasters; technical education assistants; librarians; train-
ees; concierges; accountants and other holders of financial positions.

1.2.2.2 Stakeholder segmentation

With respect to sustainable energy behaviours, the school personnel could be roughly subdi-
vided into the four, often overlapping, categories (see Figure CS1.2 for frequency of respondents’
involvement in specific sustainable energy behaviours):

1. School personnel that showed a high degree of interest in energy use and its saving;

They are regular learners about energy saving (over 21% of all respondents) and may also ask
other experts to tell them more about energy and its saving (over 7% of all respondents). This
category may represent those with professional jobs in school energy system maintenance
and management.

Figure CS1.2 Participation of respondents in sustainable energy behaviours.

182 Dmitry Brychkov et al.

2. Casual (routine) and regular performers of energy-saving behaviours;

Such energy-saving behaviours include: (i) turning off the lights when they leave the
classroom or other school room, which won’t be occupied after them; (ii) prevention of
heat loss by closing doors or windows in cold times of the year; (iii) switching off over-
head electrical lighting when there is sufficient daylight in the classroom or other school
room; and (iv) turning off electrical appliances/equipment when not in use to prevent
electricity waste from a standby mode. These behaviours might be small in effect but
quite regular (both conscious and unconscious). Of course, the regularity of performing
these behaviours might be over-stated and affected by other factors. The level of over-
stating energy-saving behaviours could be probably understood via the use of observa-
tions and experiments.

3. Occasional performers of the energy-saving activities;

The percentages of occasional performance of energy-saving activities could be rather high

and range from a couple of percent (for turning off the lights when the respondents leave the
classroom) to almost 30% (for turning off electrical appliances/equipment when not in use).
It is worthwhile to elucidate which factors block the school personnel from performing these
behaviours regularly.

4. Non-performers;

There is a cohort of school population (about 15%) that is not interested in energy-related
topics and is not engaged in energy-saving behaviours. The important question is why this
negligence and non-performance happens.

1.2.3 In-depth interviews

In-depth interviews were held among the project school principals (n = 4) and teachers (n = 2)
of Ireland and Northern Ireland to identify key barriers to sustainable energy performance of
schools, as well as track those measures (including in the domain of behaviour change) that were
undertaken, prior to ENERGE project-related interventions, to improve this energy performance.
Table CS1.1 lists and explains these barriers and measures.

The interviewees were also asked about their expectations of the systemic energy-saving
interventions, like the ENERGE project. First, they consider it is vital to monitor energy use
and indoor environmental quality (IEQ). Second, they expect that such monitoring could
“enable evidence-based decision-making on energy efficiency measures and tracks the
impact of implemented measures.” Third, they deem it is important to “educate students in
energy management using their immediate environment as a real-life case study.” All inter-
view participants supported the idea of a holistic approach to improving energy performance
of schools, when different elements, like education, energy management, participation, col-
laboration via networks of teachers, etc., are blended in a one-package solution. Another
important dimension of raising energy efficiency in schools is the involvement of all stake-
holders in these activities, “bottom-up from teachers and students right up to the manage-
ment level,” also involving the stakeholders outside the school system, like academia and
universities.
 CASE STUDY 1 183

Table CS1.1 S
 ustainable energy performance of schools: Barriers and implemented
measures

No. Description

Barriers

1 Funding for major energy efficiency measures in schools is highly centralised and
attributed to national educational authorities (macro level).
2 Funding is allocated for health and safety needs rather than energy efficiency.
3 Lack of funding for energy efficiency, while “energy efficiency didn’t play a part on
the decision-making process.”
4 Funding is only possible for projects with a short payback and money-saving
potential.
5 Sheer complexity of behaviour change (e.g. “The school tried to implement blue/
green recycling bins etc. but the students didn’t really buy in to it”).
6 Lack of strategy to improve energy efficiency and become nearly zero energy school
buildings, as well as lack of guidance to develop such a strategy.
7 Lack of sustainability-related programmes or sporadic and small character of such
programmes.
8 Lack of attention to comfort evaluations in schools.
9 Lack of adequate energy/IEQ-monitoring systems in schools.
10 Lack of comprehensive teaching materials on energy efficiency, especially in terms of
cutting-edge solutions or research.
11 “Some of the teachers feel that they do not know enough to be educating the
students on energy efficiency.”
12 Implemented sustainable measures cause inconvenience (e.g. setting up the
computers to turn off automatically, which is confronted by teachers who said the
PCs took too long to start up in the mornings).
13 Passive role of parents and homes in “preparing someone to be a good citizen,”
when “schools get left with every task imaginable.”
14 Lack of motivated people on the ground to push sustainability agenda.

Implemented measures
1 Building new premises and retrofitting of the existing ones, including installation
of new double-glazed windows; heating system improvement (e.g. new boilers; a
separate system of hot water); better insulation (e.g. door insulation); LED lights with
sensors.
2 Establishment of green/eco teams made from students.
3 Oral and written prompts, (e.g. “Switch Off” signs on light switches), about heating
controls, open windows and switching off lights.
4 Keeping PCs in standby mode.
5 School administration participation in energy management training seminars and
workshops organised by local sustainable agencies.
184 Dmitry Brychkov et al.

Figure CS1.3 The adaptation of co-create-build-engage framework of behaviour change

for the ENERGE project.

1.3 Behavioural objectives

Social marketing advocates setting clear behavioural objectives. To reach more holistic and con-
sistent behaviour objectives, the case study follows and adapts, including methodologically, the
Co-Create-Build-Engage three-step framework/process of behaviour change (Rundle-Thiele
et al., 2021) (Figure CS1.3), when each stage has a set of its own objectives. Since the ENERGE
Project is a multi-year project, the realization of some objectives is currently only unfolding and
is a matter of future endeavours.

1.4 Intervention and outcomes

1.4.1 Establishment of ENERGE committees and teacher network
The intervention strategy for the ENERGE project was multi-stage and longitudinal. After iden-
tifying and classifying key stakeholders who can affect or are affected by the focal problem, the
ENERGE project selected, recruited and engaged diverse stakeholders pertinent to the focal prob-
lem and brought together stakeholders from various contexts. Stakeholder engagement took the
form of the establishment of different school-based working groups, while stakeholder interac-
tions were very collaborative and of cross-country nature.

Initially, the ENERGE Committees in all project schools (one per project school) were estab-
lished to include four to five students and members of the staff, who volunteered to join in.
The ENERGE Committees operated as testing laboratories for multiple interventions within
the ENERGE project, like running digital ethnography/co-create sessions. The ENERGE
Committees from different project schools and countries were linked via interpersonal
collaboration.
 CASE STUDY 1 185

Further, the ENERGE Teacher Network was formed to share ideas on teaching energy topics
and to collaboratively develop energy literacy modules. It also helped to build the channels for
communication between teachers from the different project countries. The Network included 19
teachers from 11 partner schools across all project countries.

1.4.2 Development of energy literacy modules

First, a shared database of energy-related teaching/learning modules, units and activities were
launched via a systematic review of the available energy literacy literature. Second, the Teacher
Network members provided feedback on the alignment of the ENERGE energy literacy framework
with their subject curricula, as well as contributed to the database expansion by suggesting relevant
units and activities. Third, the number and content of energy-related modules, units and activi-
ties were agreed, and the Teacher Network members started to pilot relevant activities among their
students. Fourth, following the piloting outcomes, the originated units/activities were reviewed
and finalised. Therefore, the outcome of these activities was the origination of practical educational
materials on energy and building climate, that were compliant with STEM curricula.

Another outcome was the formulation of important recommendations about ENERGE energy lit-
eracy educational materials. First, these materials need to be broader in scope, covering and link-
ing multiple areas of sustainability. Second, educational materials should be aligned with students’
skills and competences to reflect a specific age group and school orientation. Third, educational
materials should be accompanied by rendering adequate support for teachers in presenting these
materials to students, as such materials should be viewed as a “service,” rather than a “product.”

1.4.3 Digital platform

To monitor electrical energy consumption and IEQ, the ENERGE Digital Platform was installed
in all project schools. The Platform operated with the help of (i) two meters to monitor and trans-
mit data on electrical energy consumption; and (ii) four indoor climate sensors to monitor and
transmit data on temperature, humidity, carbon dioxide, lighting and noise levels at specific
school locations (Figure CS1.4). The installation of the Platform rested on extensive collaboration
between the school personnel, school-appointed contractors and dedicated ENERGE partners,
responsible for meter and sensor operations. The installed meter and sensor devices regularly
transmitted data for analysis and actionable insights. All school stakeholders were able to moni-
tor these data in real-time mode, using corridor-installed screens and tablet computer devices, as
well as to take certain correcting measures, pertaining to building/energy system controls, behav-
iour change and occupancy patterns. The operation of the ENERGE Digital Platform is linked
to the development of energy literacy modules (as a tool of learning about energy/comfort and
applicability of ensuing measures, based on the Platform data) and co-create sessions (as a tool
of sensitizing about energy; see next section).

1.4.4 Digital ethnography and co-create sessions

Co-create sessions, based on digital ethnography, were piloted among the members of the
ENERGE Committees and later among the selected classes of the project schools. Each ses-
sion started with a sensitising week, when the participants were given one week to complete a
sensitising package (e.g. a small workbook with several creative tasks). Further, the exercises
followed where participants used digital tools and media to visually document and report
186 Dmitry Brychkov et al.

Figure CS1.4 An indoor climate sensor (A) and an electrical meter/power analyser
(B) installed in a project school.

their energy-related practices. In conclusion, creative sessions were held, when the participants
worked on several creative assignments. The participants were encouraged to talk about their
feelings and opinions. The co-create sessions resulted in giving prominence to the participants’
energy-related practices and in evoking their lived experiences, memories and emotions, pertain-
ing to energy and its use. This stimulated their creativity in reaching behavioural objectives.

1.5 Lessons for the planet

The implementation of the ENERGE project has resulted in a number of important conclusions
to date.

•• Systemic issues require systemic solutions and systemic, but clear, behavioural objectives.

•• Context/stakeholder analysis is a vital element of any intervention.

•• Engagement of all stakeholders, coalition building and collaborative efforts are necessary in
order to render continuous behavioural changes.

•• The implementation of behavioural objectives should rest on reliable, mixed (combining dif-
ferent approaches) and context-adapted methodologies.

•• Adaptation of a social marketing programme is inevitable, while programme organisers have

to constantly learn.

These lessons support the five key principles of successful behaviour change programmes, i.e.
stakeholder orientation, clarity of behavioural objectives, coalition building, combination of
approaches, and continuation/learning/evaluation (French et al., 2011).
 CASE STUDY 1 187

Case study questions

1. To what extent is social marketing instrumental in causing behaviour change to reduce
energy consumption in school buildings?

2. Does systemic behaviour change to reduce energy consumption in school buildings require
collaborative efforts?

References
French, J., Merritt, R., & Reynolds, L. (2011). Social Marketing Casebook. London, UK: Sage Publications.
Mckenzie-Mohr, D. (2011). Fostering Sustainable Behavior: An Introduction to Community-Based
Social Marketing. Gabriola Island, BC, Canada: New Society Publishers.
Pietrapertosa, F., Tancredi, M., Salvia, M., Proto, M., Pepe, A., Giordano, M., Afflitto, N., Sarricchio, G.,
Di Leo, S., & Cosmi, C. (2021). An educational awareness program to reduce energy consumption in
schools. Journal of Cleaner Production, 278, 123949.
Rundle-Thiele, S., Dietrich, T., & Carins, J. (2021). CBE: A framework to guide the application of market-
ing to behavior change. Social Marketing Quarterly, 27, 175–194.
Thewes, A., Maas, S., Scholzen, F., Waldmann, D., & Zürbes, A. (2014). Field study on the energy con-
sumption of school buildings in Luxembourg. Energy and Buildings, 68, 460–470.
 Case study
2
Trust the meat
thermometer
Marisha Anand and Aileen McGloin

2.1 Introduction and problem definition

Foodborne illnesses are affecting a large number of people around the world and are a concern
for public health. According to WHO (2020), due to food contamination, around 600 million peo-
ple become ill every year and a great number of them succumb. This number is only increasing
with the passing time. The recorded number of cases of infectious intestinal disease caused due
to foodborne illness in the UK was identified to be 2.4 million in 2018, which was only 1 million in
2009 (FSA, 2020). These numbers only represent the recorded food poisoning cases (FSA, 2020)
as many people do not take medical advice when ill and yet the recorded number is alarming.
Meat is a common source of foodborne diseases and especially undercooked meat is the breeding
ground for the harmful bacteria which causes foodborne illness (WHO, 2020).

safefood is an all-island body, promoting healthy eating and food safety on the island of Ireland
through their public awareness campaigns using behaviour change techniques. They have been
recommending three safety checks to ensure the doneness of the meat, which are, while cutting
the meat, juices running clear, no pink meat left and it is piping hot all the way. This advice is
subjective as everyone has their own interpretation of pink meat or the hotness of the food. A
meat thermometer, on the other hand, is more reliable, easy and a definite way to check whether
the meat is cooked properly. It has been found that globally meat thermometer usage is still low
but the usage in the US is higher than in Europe (Elshahat et al., 2019), which could be the result
of the US’s interventions towards using a meat thermometer. Previous research by Kennedy et al.
(2005) showed that only 2% population of Ireland was using a meat thermometer. This is a major

DOI: 10.4324/9781003200086-13
 CASE STUDY 2 189

health crisis issue and yet there is no substantial recent research data on the ownership, usage
and domestic attitude towards the meat thermometer. Therefore, safefood conducted research in
collaboration with researchers around on topic (Hollywood et al., 2021) and later “Trust the Meat
Thermometer” campaign was launched to increase the potential ownership and usage of a meat
thermometer in the domestic setting in Ireland.

2.2 Primary research

Preliminary research was conducted on the island of Ireland with the following objectives:

1. Explore current perceptions and trends in the usage of meat thermometers.

2. Evaluate consumer behaviour and attitudes towards the use of meat thermometers.

3. Identify barriers and motivators to using meat thermometers.

4. Overcome barriers, raise awareness and promote the use of meat thermometers.

Both qualitative and quantitative approachs were used to carry out three-stage research where
each stage helped in formulating the later stage. The structure of the research was as follows:

1. Rapid review of academic literature

This showed that there was an increase in meat thermometer use from 49% to 70% in US and
Canada, from 1998 to 2010. The reason behind this spike was the targeted meat thermometer
interventions in the US: the “Fight BAC/Thermy” campaign in 2000 and the “Is It Done Yet?”
campaign in 2004.

2. Focus groups across the island of Ireland

The purpose of the focus groups was to understand consumers’ attitudes, beliefs and prac-
tices on using meat thermometers at home to cook meat safely. Sixty-five people (50 female;
15 male) participated. They were selected accordingly to reflect wide geographical spread
across socioeconomic, North/South, urban/rural and East/West split. Motivators of using
thermometer identified were social responsibility, could improve the quality of meat, ease
of use and the distribution of thermometers without cost. Barriers identified were expensive,
lack of exposure to thermometers on a regular basis, thermometers could be difficult to main-
tain and contribute to kitchen clutter and also, they are used by either highly experienced or
inexperienced cooks. People identified that they would take advice from these sources when
it comes to meat safety advice: butchers, direct selling at meat counters, TV ads and instruc-
tions on food packaging.

3. Consumer survey to identify consumer perceptions towards the use of meat thermometers

1,052 people aged 18 and above, who have cooked meat before and had the primary respon-
sibility of cooking meals at home completed the survey. The survey suggested that there is a
very low thermometer ownership-usage gap which is 1.7%, 17.4% owned a meat thermometer
and 15.7% used a meat thermometer when cooking meat. 86.5% of the people have never
used a meat thermometer and do not even think of using one. People (meat thermometer
owners and non-owners) do not know the right temperature for different cuts of the meat and
the accurate insertion method of the thermometer.
190 Marisha Anand and Aileen McGloin

2.3 Behavioural objectives

The research demonstrated the need for an intervention to increase the ownership of meat ther-
mometers in the domestic setting by considering the motivating factors and reducing the barriers.
safefood has been using “behaviour change wheel” (Michie et al., 2014, Figure CS2.1) to design
their intervention. The COM-B model, represented at the middle of the wheel helps in under-
standing the deficiency of “capability, opportunity and motivation” among people to bring the
desired behaviour change. These three factors are interconnected, therefore, increase in people’s
capability and opportunity, the motivation to adopt the desired behaviour becomes easier.

Behavioural insights from the research according to the sources of behaviour of the COM-B
(Table CS2.1) model can be found here:

2.3.1 Intervention functions used

Preliminary research suggested there was a lack in the motivation of buying and using the meat
thermometer among people who cook in the family. Therefore, motivation was the focus when
designing the intervention. Two important results from the research were: spreading the aware-
ness of the right cooking temperature, 75°C and leading with a message. In order to increase
the motivation among the target audience, capability and opportunity should also be increased
to increase the chances of behaviour change. Intervention functions mentioned in the second
layer of the wheel are utilised to make changes to the existing behaviours. Persuasion, Education,
Enablement and Modelling were identified to be the key techniques to deliver this interven-
tion. Persuasion that meat thermometer can increase the meat cooking performance and that

Figure CS2.1 Behaviour change wheel (Michie et al., 2014)

 CASE STUDY 2 191

Table CS2.1 COM-B applied

Capability

Physical Meat thermometers are used incorrectly.

Psychological Visual checks are the preferred norm.
Opportunity
Physical Lack of exposure and availability of thermometers.
The extra effort of buying one.
Perceived expense.
Social Barbeque and Christmas time are good occasions for introducing meat
thermometer.
Motivation
Reflective Social responsibility for the safety of friends and family.
Easy to use on a whole chicken.
Improves the quality of meat.
Automatic Usage shows care for the guests and loved ones.
Demonstrates professionalism.
Adding kitchen clutter.
Do not have time/energy to figure out how to use it.

could be achieved by reaching 75°C, which is Education, to increase the Capability of using the
meat thermometer correctly. Enablement can increase physical Opportunity by making meat
thermometers easily accessible to the audience through partnerships. Modelling is crucial in
increasing social Opportunity by creating social norms around thermometer usage.

2.3.2 Behaviour strategy

a. To increase the Need (Motivation) for using meat thermometers that can enhance the taste
and food safety of the prepared meat.

b. To increase Proximity (Opportunity) by making meat thermometers accessible and socially

acceptable.

c. To increase Education (Capability) by showing how to correctly insert a thermometer and

reach the temperature of 75°C.

2.4 Intervention
This 2-year food safety campaign was launched in July 2021. So far, there have been two phases:
phase 1 (Summer BBQ) and phase 2 (Christmas). These seasonal times were chosen to deliver
the campaign to create a social norm of the importance of using a meat thermometer for families
to avoid risks of food poisoning. “Trust the Meat Thermometer” is the tagline for the campaign to
build trust and increase the motivation of buying and using a meat thermometer. The target audi-
ence selected for this campaign were primary household cooks, those who cook on a barbeque,
those who cook Christmas dinner and the food shopper within a household.
192 Marisha Anand and Aileen McGloin

2.4.1 Product
Meat thermometers, campaign leaflets and stickers to show the right temperature 75°C and on
how to use the meat thermometer correctly on barbeque meats were displayed at various loca-
tions for phase 1. safefood’s Turkey Calculator is the most visited page before Christmas every
year which tells the appropriate time to cook a turkey properly when the weight of the turkey is
entered. This tool was utilised along with the leaflets and stickers for the second phase during
Christmas to spread the awareness of cooking turkey properly using the online tool and the meat
thermometer.

2.4.2 Price
The target audience will have to consider buying and using a meat thermometer to cook meat
safely for themselves and their loved ones to avoid food poisoning. They will have to adopt a
new behaviour of using a meat thermometer along with the previous three safety checks recom-
mended on the island of Ireland.

2.4.3 Place
The campaign messaging, distribution and communication were focused on the island of
Ireland. Therefore, the campaign was designed and delivered to the target audience present in
the Republic of Ireland (ROI) and Northern Ireland (NI). Since the focus of the campaign was on
cooking meat properly, leaflets, posters and stickers were distributed to the butchers and were
displayed in the meat section of SuperValu to target people who shop meat and cook it at home.

2.4.4 Promotion
A 30-sec advertisement was created where a couple is preparing barbeque outside, using the
three safety checks and then a meat thermometer guy starts counting the temperature to remind
them to use the meat thermometer. Then the voiceover delivered clear food safety advice and a
call to action – “Trust the Meat Thermometer – Always cook BBQ meats to 75°C” was also promi-
nently used in the ad. The humorous and fun approach was taken to gain people’s attention to
75°C. The same couple was used for the phase 2 ad, where they were cooking a turkey this time
inside a house to build trust with the audience. The same messaging was delivered to cook a tur-
key using radio ads, digital screen ads outside, display ads on top media sites, google ads, social
media ads and posts. The TV ad was a special edition to phase 2 to target the older audience.
safefood-branded aprons and meat thermometers were also distributed to approximately 50 food
writers and bloggers to promote the campaign. “How to check your meat is cooked” webpage was
created to provide guidelines on using a meat thermometer and the previous three checks. For
phase 2, creatives for TikTok were created to capture the younger audience.

2.4.5 Partnership
SuperValu was involved in the campaign through their store in Carrigaline where they displayed
the campaign leaflet alongside meat thermometers at the meat counter. safefood also partnered
with the Craft Butchers of Ireland to distribute campaign stickers to their 500+ members and
the sticker was displayed on various locations on their meat cabinet next to the barbeque meats.
Chef Eric Matthews and Darragh Milligan showed barbeque recipes to focus on reinforcing
the behaviours of cooking meat safely with the help of using a meat thermometer to target the
 CASE STUDY 2 193

young audience. For phase 2, Instagram influencers chef Gareth Mullins from ROI and Jordan
Humphrey and Ben Arnold from NI collaborated to target the audience of age range 24-35. Elite
butchers in NI, alongside Craft Butchers in ROI, received Christmas leaflets, posters and stickers
highlighting the meat thermometer and the turkey calculator.

2.5 Outcomes
2.5.1 Phase 1
After completion of the first phase of the campaign, an Omnibus survey was conducted by a mar-
ket research company, Ipsos MRBI, on behalf of safefood to measure the behaviour change in
the target audience. There were 2000 people involved in the survey, from both ROI and NI. As
the focus of the campaign was the people involved in cooking at home, it was observed that the
majority of the people surveyed (84%) reported that they were involved in food preparation in
their household. The campaign had a positive effect on the audience as meat thermometer own-
ership increased by 6% in ROI and by 10% in NI as people have bought thermometers within the
last 6 weeks when the campaign ran. Now, 27% of people own a meat thermometer, which has
increased as before the campaign, the numbers were lower. Half of the people who owned the
thermometer said they have used it in the last 6 weeks. The younger audience had a bigger impact
as people aged 25–35 as 67% of them used the thermometer in the last 6 weeks.

2.5.2 Phase 2
Similarly, after the second phase, an Omnibus survey was conducted to measure the behaviour
change around meat thermometer usage and for benchmarking purposes. In the survey, 2050
people participated from the Island of Ireland with approximately equal representation, 50.6%
from ROI and 49.6% from NI. In which, 81% of the people surveyed reported that they were
involved in preparing and cooking food at home. The campaign had a positive effect on the NI
audience as ownership of meat thermometers has increased by 5% among the NI respondents;
15% of people who owned a meat thermometer have used it in the last 6 months. The ownership
of meat thermometers on the Island of Ireland remains at 27% but the ownership was higher
among those who saw the campaign ad at 40%. In which, 16% of people have owned a meat ther-
mometer in the last 6 months, and 50% of the people feel a lot more confident when cooking
meats using a meat thermometer.

2.6 Lessons for the planet

This campaign development was inspired by WHO’s World Food Safety theme of the year 2021,
which was “Safe food today for a healthy tomorrow” which focuses on food safety for the peo-
ple of the planet with long-term benefits for both people and the environment. Promoting the
usage of a meat thermometer not only ensures the prevention of foodborne diseases but is also a
sustainable option with a low carbon footprint as a meat thermometer can last ages without hav-
ing to buy a new one every year or so. The campaign aligns with UN’s sustainable development
goal number 3, Good Health and Well-being and number 17, Partnerships for the goals. Ensuring
the health and well-being of the people is the main agenda of safefood and this campaign was
developed to tackle the rising cases of foodborne diseases. Collaboration and partnerships with
multiple stakeholders like SuperValu, Craft Butchers and Elite Butchers helped in spreading the
194 Marisha Anand and Aileen McGloin

awareness of the messaging to a larger audience. Working with stakeholders has always been an
essential part of safefood during any campaign development as the co-creation of a campaign
with various people encourages diversity and empowerment of people.

As safefood was created in 1999 under the Good Friday Agreement and the British-Irish
Agreement Act, it functions in both ROI and NI. This was reflected in the research as people from
both countries were represented equally according to the ratio of the populations. The focus
groups for pre-campaign research involved people from different socioeconomic groups, urban
and rural to support and encourage inclusivity and diversity. The core messaging of the campaign
is to protect yourselves and your loved ones from foodborne diseases caused by not cooking meat
correctly. This develops a sense of responsibility among the audience and creates value for the
meat thermometer that has triggered a positive behaviour change. Shared responsibility is the
way towards a healthy future and a sustainable environment.

Case study questions

1. What is the importance of the COM-B model in tackling wicked problems?

2. What are the behavioural challenges of the social marketing plan of this campaign?

3. How is the campaign’s effectiveness evaluated?

References
Elshahat, S., Woodside, J.V., & McKinley, M.C. (2019). Meat thermometer usage amongst European and
North American consumers: A scoping review. Food Control, 106, 106692.
Food Safety Authority. (2020). FSA research suggests new higher estimates for the role of food in UK
illness. [Available at https://www.food.gov.uk/news-alerts/news/fsa-research-suggests-new-
higher-estimates-for-the-role-of-food-in-uk-illness] (Accessed on 20 December 2021).
Hollywood, L.E., Price, R.K., Ward, S., McMahon-Beattie, U., Boyd, A., Devaney, M., McCloat, A.,
Mooney, E., & Raats, M. (2021). The use of meat thermometers in home kitchens on the island of
Ireland.
Kennedy, J., Jackson, V., Blair, I.S., McDowell, D.A., Cowan, C., & Bolton, D.J. (2005). Food safety knowl-
edge of consumers and the microbiological and temperature status of their refrigerators. Journal of
Food Protection, 68(7), 1421–1430.
Michie, S., Atkins, L., & West, R. (2014). The Behaviour Change Wheel: A Guide to Designing Interventions.
London: Silverback.
WHO. (2020). Food Safety. [Available at https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/food-
safety] (Accessed on 20 December 2021).
 Case study
3
Acting on the climate
crisis through the arts
and culture
A social innovation journey at
the city of Águeda
Susana Marques, Ana Estima,
Edson Santos, Célia Laranjeira,
Adriana Mesquita and Carla Couceiro

3.1 Introduction and problem definition

This case is about a social innovation journey built on the intersection of art and environmen-
tal protection at Águeda, a mid-size municipality in Portugal. More specifically, we examine
Águeda´s C-Change journey of Arts and Culture Leading Climate Action in Cities, a network of
cities with the European Union (EU) URBACT (https://urbact.eu/) funding.

Climate change mitigation and adaptation are central elements of Águeda’s city strategy and its
resilience and sustainable development work. At the same time, the arts and culture, cultural
heritage and creativity play a key role in Águeda’s quality of life and economic prosperity. Over
the last 10 years, the city has seen the positive economic and social benefits of nurturing the arts

DOI: 10.4324/9781003200086-14
196 Susana Marques et al.

and culture scene. However, the city is also now living with the consequences of climate change –
flooding and forest fires in particular.

In terms of characterization, the Municipality of Águeda is located in the Central Region of

Portugal, has about 46K inhabitants and has an area of 335 km2. The head of the municipality
is the city with the same name and with about 14K residents. It is a city that seeks to sustainably
consolidate its role as a protagonist in the central region thanks to indicators that contribute to
the quality of life of those who live or intend to live there.

Served by good accessibilities, modern cultural and sports infrastructures, and a renewed school
park, Águeda also has a university pole of excellence, thus seeking to position itself to attract
different public. It combines a strong business fabric with an impressive vitality of social, cul-
tural, and sporting associations with numerous events and inter-associative dynamics that make
Águeda stand out on the regional and national scene. In recent years, this associative dynamism
has had even more visibility, given the constant cultural initiatives of the City Hall. These initia-
tives have led traditional folklore, music, theatre, and arts associations to incorporate their activi-
ties into the life of the city and interact with each other as a way to take traditional culture further
and put it at the service of the community.

Arts have the power to stimulate critical and creative thinking concerning environmental prob-
lems, opening new and fresh perspectives and solutions. Through arts and culture, it is possible
to communicate information and connect people with the natural environment (e.g. Curtis,
2020). However, surprisingly, the literature on the role of the arts in affecting environmental
behaviour is still scarce. Hopefully, the case analysed here will help to fill that gap. This is a
journey that builds on the collective intelligence of Agueda Municipality to develop relations
across a network of actors and build collaborative solutions that address various levels of social
change, including micro, meso and macro-level factors (Brennan and Parker, 2014; Brennan
et al., 2016). Simultaneously, the case follows a systems thinking social marketing frame-
work, advocating change as a holistic approach and as a process of co-creating solutions (e.g.
Domegan et al., 2016).

3.2 Primary research

Águeda first heard about the Manchester Arts Sustainability Team (MAST) in 2017, when
Manchester was recognized as a Good Practice City under the EU’s URBACT programme.
Manchester’s winning formula – MAST’s collaboration on climate action and engagement, in a
city which recognized the value of culture and was itself demonstrating climate change leader-
ship – struck a chord. In 2018, Águeda joined C-Change: Arts and Culture Leading Climate Action
in Cities to learn from and adopt a similar approach to Manchester. Over two years, Águeda’s
local C-Change group, modelled on MAST, has been at the heart of the journey.

URBACT Local Groups (ULG) are a fundamental building block of the URBACT programme. Each
URBACT partner is required to set up a Local Group gathering key local stakeholders in order to
co-produce city strategies and action plans. The municipality had a strong foundation to build on
the C-Change journey. It was already taking an integrated approach to policy-making, for exam-
ple, with an integrated environment and tourism department. Developing partnerships involving
 CASE STUDY 3 197

NGOs, public agencies, the private sector and civil society had proven to be a key component
in the design and implementation of effective urban initiatives. And the city administration had
extensive experience with engaging the local community and stakeholders through initiatives
such as Local Agenda 21, participatory budget, and eco-school projects. So, it can be said that
C-Change came quite naturally. Building on that listening capacity, an open call was made for all
cultural agents of the region to bring together the whole cultural community. Although the initial
response was a little hesitant, as the project progressed the cultural agents spread the word,
causing a very positive snowball effect.

3.3 Behavioural objectives

Águeda´s Climate Change Adaptation Plan 2019–2027 foresees the involvement of the community,
different sectors, and stakeholders, including the arts and culture, through specific actions and
measures. The city had a reputation as a creative city in particular as a result of its Umbrella Sky
project, which has been replicated in other cities around the world, the Urban Art Programme and
the annual AgitÁgueda Arts Festival. City support and funding for arts and culture were strong, as
the municipality was already promoting climate change and environmental projects through our
flagship Urban Art programme and AgitÁgueda Festival (Figure CS3.1). However, up to 2018, there
hadn’t been any specific climate change or environmental support for the arts and culture sector.

Through C-Change, the ambition, by the end of 2020, was to see culture and climate change col-
laboration, support, and engagement happening in the city and to align city culture and climate

Figure CS3.1 Street in the historical city centre during the AgitÁgueda festival.
Photo: Patrick Ferreira
198 Susana Marques et al.

change policy. The city administration knew it needed a strong local C-Change group to make this
happen. Beyond getting the group up and running, there were two key concerns, how to get the
group to work effectively and how to work consistently across the culture and the environmental
departments. Thus, rather than targeting a specific direct behaviour, these tasks were targeted
at changing relevant intermediate behaviours towards a behavioural infrastructure to enable
change (Brennan and Parker, 2014).

3.4 Intervention
The journey started as intended to continue, with both environment and culture departments
agreeing to take on a joint role in establishing, leading, and supporting the local group. Through
exchange and learning sessions with Manchester and the four other C-Change cities, the team
learned more about the MAST model – participating in a MAST meeting and seeing and hearing
about the type of action MAST members were taking, individually and collectively. The sessions
also helped to come up with a plan for sector support (Figure CS3.2).

Back in Águeda, the team began to establish a local group bringing together organizations and
individuals from the arts and culture sector that were already known and committed to climate
action and engagement. Once the local C-Change group was in place, regular meetings were
organized, led by both the municipality’s head of culture and head of the environment. In the
early days, these meetings were more focused on planning and exchange of ideas, but they were
soon to lead to concrete action and collective initiatives including Monty Python-inspired “silly

Figure CS3.2 MAST meeting. Photo: Águeda City Hall

 CASE STUDY 3 199

Figure CS3.3 The sea starts here urban art installation. Photo: Águeda City Hall

walks” against pollution; environmentally-themed street mural painting with children in disad-
vantaged neighbourhoods, or The Sea Starts Here urban art installation (Figure CS3.3).

Furthermore, the Águeda City Hall promoted an Ideas Contest “Agents of Change” with the pur-
pose of fostering the emergence of new ideas or projects of cultural and creative potential within
the scope of community awareness of the climatic changes. This competition of ideas aimed to
enhance, promote, and support the implementation of projects that were differentiators in the
cultural area within the scope of community awareness of climate change. Two projects were
awarded – Projeto Circular and Clic. Lab with 3 000,00€ for the first place and 2 000,00€ for the sec-
ond place. Projeto Circular, the winner of the “Agents of Change contest,” developed pilot actions
exploring the idea of connection and love for our planet through a storytelling astronaut, which
travelled from the future with the purpose to save the planet, a goal only achieved with the com-
mitment and work of the present generations (Figure CS3.4).

C-Change local group meetings and key activities of the project are presented in a resumed
timeline (Figure CS3.5). Yet to refer the development of the carbon literacy training, where three
local group members – Luis Silva from the Manuel Alegre Municipal Library, Viktor Fernandes a
local artist involved in the GlocalMusic co-operative and Águeda Arts Centre’s Laura Almeida –
did a train-the-trainer carbon literacy training in Manchester. Back to Portugal, they developed
a test version of the training which was delivered in February 2020 for a mix of city and sector
representatives.

This initiative entitled “Carbon Literacy Training” in Águeda aimed to develop an awareness of
the carbon costs and impacts of everyday activities and the ability and motivation to reduce emis-
sions, on an individual, community and organizational basis. This training was focused on climate
change, carbon literacy and the so-called “citizen empowerment.” In an informal and interac-
tive environment, several examples were given of how each of one could actively contribute and
200 Susana Marques et al.

Figure CS3.4 Projeto circular. Photo: Águeda City Hall

become aware of the carbon costs and impacts of everyday activities and the capacity and motiva-
tion to reduce emissions individually, in the community and in the organizations.

In July 2020, 17 people mainly from the local group, participated in a sector-specific training
session combined with a visit to Águeda’s Smart City Lab demonstrating solutions that could
be easily scaled up such as action on energy efficiency, for example, a solar bench for charging
phones. Then in October 2020, Luis and Viktor did a version of the training for the public during
the Águeda Smart City Lab open day. Both July and October sessions featured a take-make-repair

Figure CS3.5 Resumed timeline of the C-Change project

 CASE STUDY 3 201

Figure CS3.6 Viktor’s materials workshop. Photo: Águeda City Hall

activity and a visit to Viktor’s materials workshop (Figure CS3.6) to see how he was putting sus-
tainability at the heart of his artistic practice.

When the COVID-19 pandemic hit, the group moved to virtual meetings and began to work
more independently of the municipality, using tele-esplanada an online collaboration tool
and creating its own WhatsApp group and Facebook page to keep the communications going.
During online meetings, the group mapped out what the arts and culture sector was doing
across the city on the environment and climate change, discussed topics of common interest
as well as municipal projects on low and zero-carbon solutions and how they might put these
solutions in place.

3.5 Outcomes
As the C-Change journey progressed, the municipality was increasingly investing in nature and
climate-change themed urban art projects. At the same time, new members joined the C-Change
group, including not only cultural organizations and local artists, but also environmental pro-
tection associations, local environmental activists, and even outdoor sports enthusiasts. This
resulted in some new collaborations such as Agueda Arts Centre’s project with a local high school
on material reuse in artistic practice; CircoAgitado no Vale using circus arts to raise environmen-
tal awareness at the Vale Domingos Botanical Park; AgitÁgueda artists developing performances
such as the bodypainting initiative (Figure CS3.7) and the event held in the river Águeda using
boats built-in bamboo structures, performing as the voice of water and the life which it supports,
telling why and how people need to conserve and protect it.
202 Susana Marques et al.

Figure CS3.7 AgitÁgueda’s bodypainting: The importance of preserving the water

resources. Photo: Águeda City Hall

Today Agueda’s C-Change group has 27 members, including the Águeda Arts Centre, the Manuel
Alegre Municipal Library, the Vouga Railway Museum, the cultural cooperative Glocalmusic and
Living Place an ecotourism organisation.

A critical success factor of Águeda´s C-Change journey was political commitment. For example,
the deputy mayor attended all meetings, to facilitate financial issues but also to remove different
sorts of barriers that may arise from a strategic and political point of view. In addition, this regular
monitoring legitimizes the project and ensures that it is framed in the Municipality’s strategic
objectives. It is undeniable that COVID-19 raised difficult challenges to the process, however, the
group has, against the odds, managed to survive, adapt, and thrive, finding new ways to keep col-
laborating. It has become a self-sufficient group and a model of collaboration which are extend-
ing to other sectors such as sports and tourism. Innovation revolves primarily around this group
of people and their commitment to future action. However, the situation of artists, creators and
cultural operators is often precarious, volatile, and very dependent on volunteer work. The city
administration is aware that a critical challenge for the future of this social change journey is
related to strong human relations and the continuity of human capital.

3.6 Lessons for the planet

The complexity of environmental sustainability raises multidisciplinary challenges and also
multidisciplinary solutions and that’s why this case brings so many lessons for the planet but
also implications for urban and city management and administration. First, city administra-
tions should and can play a brokerage, facilitation, and orchestration role between stakeholders
 CASE STUDY 3 203

to implement experimentation and social innovation, namely medium-sized cities that are in a
good position to develop more organic change processes.

This case also demonstrates that cooperation and coordination among different departments and
structures within the local authority are challenging yet crucial, and in particular the intersec-
tion of arts and environment demonstrates that breaking down institutional silos is an essential
requirement for social innovation, bringing a natural alignment and powerful synergies between
art and environmental protection.

Moreover, this journey built on the intersection of art and environmental protection shows that
projects must come naturally aligned with a global strategy, through a sense of purpose and
commitment from all partners, starting with the example of political leaders. As this project has
shown, money is important, but major social problems cannot be solved by financial resources
alone (as an example, this project had a budget of €65,714.00, 85% EU co-funded). Technical
expertise, delivery capacity, political commitment, human capital, and relationship management
are also crucial.

Case study questions

1. Taking your own city as an example, how would you see the potential role of arts and culture
to improve environmental awareness and protection? Beyond arts and culture, what other
multidisciplinary approaches could you identify?

2. How can social marketing help cities position themselves as key actors of sustainable
development?

3. Covid-19 has sped up digital transformation. How can digital and traditional channels be
combined for scaling up social innovation?

References
Brennan, L., & Parker, L. (2014). Beyond behaviour change: Social marketing and Social change.
Journal of Social Marketing, 4(3). https://doi.org/10.1108/JSOCM-08-2014-0052
Brennan, L., Previte, J., & Fry, M.L. (2016). Social marketing’s consumer myopia: Applying a behav-
ioural ecological model to address wicked problems. Journal of Social Marketing, 6(3), 219–239.
https://doi.org/10.1108/JSOCM-12-2015-0079
Climate Change Adaptation Plan 2019-2027 Município de Águeda (2018).Plano de Adaptação às
Alterações Climáticas do Município de Águeda. https://www.cm-agueda.pt/viver/ambiente-e-
sustentabilidade/energia-e-alteracoes-climaticas/adaptacao-as-alteracoes-climaticas
Curtis, D. (2020). Using the arts to encourage pro-environmental behaviour: Introduction. In D. Curtis
(Ed.), Using the Visual and Performing Arts to Encourage Pro-Environmental Behaviour (pp. 2–25).
Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
Domegan, C., McHugh, P., Devaney, M., Duane, S., Hogan, M., Broome, B.J., Layton, R.A., Joyce, J.,
Mazzonetto, M., & Piwowarczyk, J. (2016). Systems-thinking social marketing: Conceptual exten-
sions and empirical investigations. Journal of Marketing Management, 32(11–12), 1123–1144.
https://doi.org/10.1080/0267257X.2016.1183697
 Case study
4
Making Australian
universities culturally
safe places for first
nations peoples
Maria Raciti, Jennifer Carter,
David Hollinsworth and Kathryn Gilbey

4.1 Introduction and problem definition

Education is powerful – transforming people, communities and societies. A university educa-
tion enables intergenerational social mobility for First Nations peoples and their communities
by disrupting the social structures that are the result of colonisation in countries like Australia.
The First Nations people of Australia are the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples who
make up approximately 3.3% of the total Australian population which equates to an estimated
798,400 people (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2018). Most First Nations Australians identify
as Aboriginal (91%) and prior to colonisation there were approximately 750 distinct Aboriginal
societies with different languages and dialects, histories and territories (Walsh, 1991; Australian
Bureau of Statistics, 2018). Colonisation has and continues to oppress First Nations Australians
with present-day inequalities across all facets of life, including education.

Enhancing the participation and success of First Nations peoples in higher education has been
a stated Australian Government priority for decades with the most recent National Agreement
of Closing the Gap reinforcing the role of university qualifications to assist First Nations

DOI: 10.4324/9781003200086
10.4324/9781003200086-15
 CASE STUDY 4 205

Australians to reach their full potential and thrive. In Australia, there are approximately
1.6 million university students of which a minuscule 1.4% (22,935) self-identify as First Nations
Australians (Department of Education and Training, 2021). Government data reveals that some
of Australia’s 43 universities are more attractive to First Nations students than others which
cannot be explained by geographic population distribution as universities located in the same
city or regional area report different rates of participation and success (see Department of
Education and Training, 2021). This suggests that there are aspects of some universities that
both attract and support the success of First Nations Australians. These aspects appear to serve
as protective factors that create an attractive, culturally safe environment that supports and
empowers First Nations university students. However, little is known about how protective fac-
tors, such as First Nations Australians connection to place and each other, play out on univer-
sity campuses.

4.2 Primary research

Connection to place and connection to each other are central to the survivance and thrivance
of First Nations Australians. Place matters for First Nations Australians. Connection to place –
known as Country – is profound, tied to body, mind and spirit and shared across generations
and the Dreamings of each language group (Atkinson, 2002). Connection to other First Nations
Australians – also known as relationality – is fundamental, embodied kinship and reciprocity that
is the bedrock of how First Nations Australians know, be and become together (Nakata, 2007).
Thus, the notions of place and relationality are protective factors that cultivate cultural safety and
that universities need to embed and nurture in their campuses. It is important to recognise that
university campuses represent a what First Nations author Nakata (2007) referred to as a “cultural
interface,” being places where Western/Northern and First Nations ways of knowing and being
brush against each other.

Primary research was conducted at two multi-campus Australian universities with headquar-
ters in regional locales. The two participating universities were well known for their long-held
commitments to First Nations Australians. Both universities had exemplary whole-of-univer-
sity Reconciliation Action Plans but more importantly had sustained a multifaceted range of
activities to improve university opportunities and success for First Nations Australians over
decades. Both universities were regarded in the sector as being open, welcoming, respectful
and culturally safe places that embraced and advanced First Nations peoples and their efforts
were reflected in their year-on-year growth in student enrolments and strong completion rates.
Indeed, their First Nations student populations consistently exceeded parity with the Australian
population meaning that First Nations students comprised more than 3.3% of the total student
population. Both universities were exemplary in their engagement with First Nations peoples
providing the opportunity for the primary research to reveal successful protective factors that
could inform the sector.

Using interviews and focus groups, qualitative data were collected concurrently at the main
campuses of two Australian universities from First Nations students who were over 18 years
of age and enrolled full time in any degree. A total of 17 First Nations students participated,
seven from one university and ten from the other. The interviews and focus groups were
digitally audio recorded with the verbatim transcripts subject to manual thematic analysis.
206 Maria Raciti et al.

A subsequent quantitative survey at the same universities generated 51 usable responses from
First Nations students.

It is important to note that Australian First Nations peoples are one of the most over-researched
communities in the world and as such, there is both fatigue and resistance to participating in
research. Furthermore, First Nations Australians are overrepresented in social marketing inter-
ventions and programs, particularly those related to health, justice and education. It is well-
documented that the volumes of raw data that have been collected and the outcomes of these are
typically not accessible to those First Nations people participating in research. Indeed, this has
been the catalyst for the Indigenous Data Sovereignty movement around the globe. Hence, the 68
participants in the project exceeded expectations, especially when considering that there are only
22,935 First Nations university students in Australia.

4.3 Findings and outcomes

Several findings emerged from the data pertaining to the role of place and relationality in
Australian university campuses, including:

4.3.1 Connection to place

•• University campuses were important “third places” for First Nations students away from home
and work where they could be their authentic self and reach their full potential to become bet-
ter versions of themselves. Participants attended campus regularly, felt welcomed and sup-
ported with a strong sense of attachment to their university’s First Nations Centre/College.

•• While the universities demonstrated commitments to First Nations peoples via a range of
whole-of-campus activities, in the classroom most courses had little or no First Nations con-
tent or perspectives. As such, First Nations students did not “see themselves” in the material
they were learning and had little guidance on how to apply their learning ways that would
enhance First Nations communities. Where other students in their classes were ignorant of
First Nations peoples’ history and culture, this increased the need for First Nations partici-
pants to connect with other First Nations people on campus.

•• Participants reported that while some academics teaching their classes were highly knowl-
edgeable about First Nations peoples, many were not. First Nations students’ engagement
and satisfaction with their learning were high in classes where teaching staff were highly
knowledgeable as these teachers made the content relevant to the professional aspirations of
the First Nations students.

•• Participants were very aware of efforts to acknowledge First Nations people and culture on
the campus, such as flying the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander flags, dedicated gardens,
on-campus celebrations of the National Aborigines and Islanders Day of Observance and
on-campus events commencing with a “Welcome to Country.” However, some participants
raised concerns about these efforts being tokenistic.

•• Participants felt their university was trying to value First Nations culture and had made
connections with the traditional owners of the land where their campuses were located,
suggesting that the important next step was to include traditional owners in university
decision-making.
 CASE STUDY 4 207

4.3.2 Relationality
•• Coming to university evoked a sense of excitement and pride among participants knowing
that a university qualification would change the trajectory of their lives and that of their chil-
dren and extended families. They expressed that their university education would benefit
their First Nations community in that they could “give back” (reciprocity) by using the knowl-
edge and skills to improve others’ quality of life.

•• Participants expressed gratitude and connection to the staff at their university’s First Nations
Centre/College who were instrumental in making them feel like they belonged and creating
cultural safety by understanding the diversity among First Nations Australians as colonisation
meant that while some had strong cultural connections others did not. At the participating
universities, the First Nations Centre/College were staffed by First Nations peoples, includ-
ing elders, and they regularly facilitated student-to-student connection and opportunities for
small gatherings to build relationships and a sense of togetherness.

•• For some participants, going to university helped them to connect with and take pride in
their First Nations heritage. Colonisation meant that some participants did not grow up “on
Country” or had not had the opportunity to connect with many other First Nations people.
As a result, they had struggled with their identity and coming to university provided them
with the opportunity to connect with other First Nations people and strengthen their sense
of identity.

•• Some participants noted there were very few First Nations people in their course and as such
they sought out and valued the connections that they formed with other First Nations peoples
who were at their university but studying different courses.

•• There was a desire among participants for greater interaction with First Nations academics at
their university.

These findings provide valuable and deep insights for Australian universities about the lived
experience of First Nations peoples and how nurturing connections to place (Country) and each
other (relationality) create cultural safety which is needed to enhance participation and success
at university. The findings presented in this case study were part of a larger project, the findings of
which were widely disseminated across the Australian university sector. The most popular output
of the project was the e-booklet that has been downloaded 2700+ times. Presentations and work-
shops across Australia and overseas were well attended, highly engaging and favourably received.
As too were the conference papers, journal articles and reports. The nature of this project and
the expanse of the Australian university sector make it difficult to accurately determine changes
that resulted from the findings. However, the metrics presented suggest that these findings have
helped Australian universities to better understand their First Nations students and have helped
guide their thinking about protective factors that enhance the participation and success of First
Nations peoples.

4.4 Lessons for the planet

Several lessons for the planet emerge from this case study. Colonisation has and continues
to have significant impacts on First Nations peoples in all facets of life including education.
The effects of colonisation cannot be ignored or underestimated when working with and for
208 Maria Raciti et al.

First Nations peoples. Understanding the cultural pillars of First Nations peoples, such as
connection to Country and relationality for Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
peoples and finding out how they manifest in a particular context or situation is recommended.
Colonisation also means that First Nations peoples are diverse in their life experiences which
influences their sense of identity and, importantly, means that “one size fits all” interventions
or programs are ineffective. First Nations peoples are the experts in their own lives and tailored
interventions and programs co-designed and co-implemented with First Nations peoples are
strongly encouraged.

Acknowledgement
Funding for this project was provided by the Australian Government.

Case study questions

1. Many First Nations people do not “see themselves” in the content of their courses and it is
unclear how they can use what they learn to better their communities. How can universities
address this?

2. First Nations students want to interact more with First Nations academics. There are very
few First Nations academics in Australian universities and they are typically overloaded with
other university-focused cultural duties on top of their academic roles, which is known as
“cultural taxation.” How can this situation be improved?

References
Atkinson, J. (2002). Trauma Trails, Recreating Song Lines: The Transgenerational Effects of Trauma in
Indigenous Australia. Spinifex Press.
Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2018). Estimates of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
Australians, June 2016. ABS cat. no. 3238.0.55.001. Retrieved from https://www.abs.gov.au/
statistics/people/aboriginal-and-torres-strait-islander-peoples/estimates-aboriginal-and-torres-
strait-islander-australians/latest-release
Department of Education and Training. (2021). 2020 Student summary tables. Retrieved from https://
www.dese.gov.au/higher-education-statistics/student-data
Nakata, M.N. (2007). Disciplining the Savages, Savaging the Disciplines. Aboriginal Studies Press.
Walsh, M. (1991). Overview of indigenous languages of Australia. In S. Romaine (Ed.), Language in
Australia. Cambridge University Press.
 Case study
5
“What could masculinity
be?”
Using participatory co-design
to define and support healthier
masculinities
Glen Donnar, Jon Hewitt, Fiona Finn,
Lukas Parker, Linda Brennan and
John Dingeldei

5.1 Introduction and problem definition

Outdated gender norms, practices and rigid adherence to dominant forms and patterns of mas-
culinity negatively impact women and marginalised minority groups. These same norms and
practices also harm men. Young men are particularly vulnerable to experiencing pressure and
confusion around the “traditional” expectations and behaviours required to be a “real man” (Our
Watch, 2019); expectations that are unattainable for most. Men who endorse dominant forms
and patterns of masculinity report greater negative effects on mental health, higher rates of
alcohol and drug abuse, and increased incidence of violence and bullying (Our Watch, 2019).
Furthermore, an attachment to rigid gender roles and stereotyped constructions of gender are
leading causes of violence against women, and gender and sexually diverse people (Our Watch,
Universities Australia, & Victoria State Government, 2021).

DOI: 10.4324/9781003200086-16
210 Glen Donnar et al.

The extent to which the incidence of gender-based violence on university campuses mirrors soci-
ety at large is highlighted by the Australian Human Rights Commission’s 2016 national student
survey. The report found that 26% of students surveyed experienced sexual harassment within a
university setting in 2016. Women were also more than three times as likely than men to experi-
ence sexual assault, and students who identified as bisexual or asexual were nearly three times as
likely as heterosexual students to be sexually assaulted. Tellingly, most sexual assault (81%) and
harassment (71%) were reported as being perpetrated by men.

Conventional health and social marketing campaigns that aim to tackle such complex social
issues are often poorly conceived, targeted and executed (Brennan et al., 2018). Campaigns are
often narrowly focused on individual-level change, presuming that mere awareness can lead
to spontaneous and self-directed change, further these campaigns also tend to present gender
in binary terms. Consequently, male target groups are often either unresponsive or even react
against the messaging (Brennan et al., 2018). Resistance, more than merely defiance and back-
lash, can “represent the fears and anxieties men feel when there is change or uncertainty, par-
ticularly about their social identity and social practices” (Our Watch, 2019, p. 93). Therefore, the
complexity of this issue requires a campaign design involving an investigative and explorative
research approach capable of addressing interconnected relationships and which also involves
the target group throughout the co-design process.

For most people, everyday life is a complex series of performative practices. People create and
co-create their lives in conjunction with others and are both affected by and affect many inter-
related influences: historical, social, cultural and environmental. Individuals do not cognitively
process most of these performances and affects. In systems thinking, individuals are not active
choosers of their behaviours. They are actors influenced by a system of other actors and actions
at a variety of levels: macro (societal), exo (external), meso (mediating), and micro (individual).
In this view, choices are shaped by behavioural infrastructures, the collective, and the individ-
ual. Influencing these choices requires understanding the dynamics of the social networks and
processes underpinning the system in which behaviours occur. To summarise: Systems thinking
offers a deeper understanding of the dynamics of collective choice processes at all levels within
the social networks that connect individuals, small groups, entities, and communities in value-
based exchanges of goods, services, experiences, and ideas (Layton et al., 2022).

Through a university-based intervention,1 students of all genders were instructed on how to

engage in a co-design process in multidisciplinary teams to develop “solutions” to the wicked
problem: “What could masculinity be?” Teams were encouraged to challenge dominant notions
and rigid stereotypes of what it is to be a man, define the many valid ways to be a man might look,
and promote healthier masculinities and interactions with others.

5.2 Primary research

Data were collected via participation and observations during the studio, alongside interviews
with 18 undergraduate and postgraduate male-identifying university students aged 18–30 years
from across the university to inform the intervention. Semi-structured (40–60 min) interviews
were conducted to better understand participants’ attitudes and patterns of behaviour around
 CASE STUDY 5 211

masculinity and gender equality, particularly as they are experienced at university. Additionally,
interviews were designed to survey participants on what changes to masculinity were needed and
how change could be sustainably achieved.

Several key insights were developed from these interviews. Many participants sense that under-
standings of masculinity are changing; masculinity is not a “monolith” but multi-dimensional
and “expanding.” Additionally, males are increasingly (and rightly) being held accountable for
their actions and expressed attitudes. This flux is positive overall but can be confusing.

•• Masculinity – and “traditional” cultural expectations of it – is complex, often overwhelming,

often difficult to navigate, and always hard to live up to. There is “… a fear of not being able
to live up to these expectations that you have applied to yourself or what society applies to
yourself.”

•• Embodying stereotyped ideals of masculinity is damaging, for varied reasons, in the short-
and long-term: “I think they’ve [traditional expectations about masculinity] hurt me more
than they’ve benefited me.”

At the same time, many participants feel overwhelmed by contradictory pressures or expecta-
tions. That is, men feel that they are – and that masculinity is – still supposed to be tough, dominant,
assertive, unemotional, self-sufficient, fearless and protectors. But now men are also supposed to
be more sensitive, empathetic and mindful about (their impact on) others and especially obser-
vant of their behaviours towards women.

•• Men acknowledge male privilege but think that there should also be greater sensitivity to
young men’s struggles: “I think there’s a bit of a lack of understanding […] about masculinity,
about young men [… and] the problems that they face.”

•• Men can also be victims of “toxic” male behaviours and attitudes, especially when they do not
match dominant forms and patterns of masculinity:

“I can think of a lot of situations where I’ve been exposed to toxic masculinity. It
has affected me psychologically” because “it’s difficult when you don’t fit a certain
mould.”

Insights gathered from the interviews were used to develop the student brief and support notes
for the co-design stage.

5.3 Behavioural objectives

1. Challenge rigid or harmful gender norms, attitudes and behaviours.

2. Utilise a co-design process with students to redefine masculinity beyond dominant patterns
and stereotypes.

3. Involve the target group throughout the co-design process and in projects to support mean-
ingful behaviour and attitude change and expand definitions of masculinity.
212 Glen Donnar et al.

5.4 Intervention
A co-design and co-creation process engaged university students with an unwieldy “wicked
problem.” Co-creation is the process where people create something together, collaboratively
and in agreement about desired outcomes – it also increases engagement with social marketing
strategies. Co-design is also a form of design that actively involves a variety of stakeholders in the
design process; its roots are embedded in theories of participatory design (Langley, 2016). Wicked
problems with interconnected socially complex issues, such as rigid, harmful or unhealthy forms
of masculinity, are suited to a co-design process, principally because it is flexible and responsive
to changing actions and actors. The multi-faceted nature of such problems requires collaborative
involvement, contribution and innovation from multiple affected stakeholders.

A seven-day workshop of the Wicked Problems studio was conducted as part of a university
undergraduate and postgraduate subject (unit of study) at RMIT University, Australia. The unit is
available to all levels of study (1st year to PhD). The studio had 62 student participants aged 18–30,
representing 26 academic programmes, as varied as electrical engineering, business, communi-
cation, international studies and music – ideal for gaining diverse perspectives of multi-faceted
problems. Seven groups of students were established. Each group was balanced, as far as possi-
ble, with gender and disciplinary diversity.

The industry partner was the Man Cave, an organisation that uses community-based approaches
to support and empower young men. The students co-created projects that would be applicable
to their lived experiences and permit a real-world application of knowledge from their disci-
pline, as well as make a difference in the university community and young men’s lives. The
project employed a co-design process to develop and design a suite of seven social marketing
campaigns related to masculinity, with a focus on young men’s whole selves, redefining mas-
culinity more broadly, and offering safe initiation into adulthood. Working with the industry
brief and a multidisciplinary team, students were required to scope the problem and generate
people-centred solutions using a user-centred design approach (Figure CS5.1). Students expe-
rienced in different disciplines worked together to achieve a common goal using various online
collaboration tools.

The stages of the Wicked Problems studio were:

1. The Brief – delivered by the course facilitator with presentations from six experts with a focus
on: social marketing, indigenous male rites of passage, masculinity, gender-based violence,
design empathy and psychology.

Figure CS5.1 User-centred design approach (adapted from IDEO)

 CASE STUDY 5 213

2. Inspiration – Student participants reviewed the research from the interviews and then spoke
with team members, families and social peers to gain insights about the problem.

3. Ideation – team brainstorming.

4. Prototyping – testing ideas with the above groups.

5. Implementation/Presentation – teams pitch their ideas to an assessing panel of experts and

the client.

5.5 Outcomes
Some participants reported that this was the first time they had agency to tackle some of the prob-
lems of harmful or “toxic” masculinities, thereby increasing their sense of self-empowerment and
situational control. Participants felt that the value of the co-design process allowed them to shift
their perspectives and to be more open to other points of view, consequently increasing their abil-
ity to communicate across diversity.

Participants of all genders felt that the practice of co-creation and co-design allowed them to
understand how they would approach some of their own wicked problems in other aspects of
their lives. They valued learning to work with others and with diverse people, especially the inter-
disciplinary opportunities which mirrors the real world of work.

The industry partner was thrilled with the opportunity to be able to implement some of the ideas into
their program. Two of the campaigns designed will be combined and implemented as interventions
by the university in 2022 and beyond. The team will be evaluating the outcomes of this intervention
alongside supporting the university with the rollout of a multifaceted social marketing campaign.

5.6 Lessons for the planet

Work that transforms understandings of gender and “challenges dominant forms of masculinity
has the potential to benefit everyone” (Our Watch, 2019, p. 89). The studio allowed students to
challenge and be challenged in a safe space where they could confront their identity and open
themselves to “other” in a way that negative consequences could be managed.

Young men should be involved throughout the design process in creating solutions to this wicked
problem. This will ensure that the target group is not identified as “the problem” and will support
genuine attitude and behaviour change.

The problem itself is indefinable by “outsiders” and should be defined and addressed within the
affected group. Therefore, participants of all genders should be involved in the co-design process
to understand and tackle the problem from multiple perspectives and to design more inclusive
and apposite solutions.

Case study questions

1. What are some of the macro (societal), exo (external), meso (mediating) and micro (indi-
vidual) actors and actions that impact how males see themselves, think and behave?
214 Glen Donnar et al.

2. How can co-design enhance the success of a social marketing campaign?

3. How can systems thinking support sustainable behaviour and attitude change?

Note
1 The protocol for the Wicked Problems studio has been published by the authors previously. Please
contact the authors if you want to know more.

References
Brennan, L., Donnar, G., Parker, L., & Alessi, N. (2018). “I know what I’m doing”: Communicating a
safety message to change the attitudes and behaviours of older men. In G. Hastings & C. Domegan
(Eds.), Social Marketing: Rebels with a Cause (3rd ed., pp. 406–419). UK: Routledge.
Langley, J. (2016). Participatory Design: Co-Creation | Co-Production | Co-Design Combining Imaging
and Knowledge. UK: Sheffield Hallam University.
Layton, R., Domegan, C., & Brennan, L. (2022). (in press). Systems thinking in marketing for social
impact. In K. Kubacki, C. Domegan, L. Parker & L. Brennan (Eds.), Routledge Companion for
Marketing for Social Impact. New York: Routledge.
Our Watch. (2019). Men in Focus: Unpacking masculinities and engaging men in the prevention of vio-
lence against women. Melbourne, Australia: Our Watch.
Our Watch, Universities Australia, & Victoria State Government. (2021). Educating for Equality: A
Whole-of-University Approach. Melbourne, Australia: Our Watch.
 Case study
6
“Standing Strong
Together”
A culturally appropriate
adaptation for a social
and emotional well-being
intervention in an Australian
First Nations community
Robert J Donovan, Lesley A Murray,
Julia Anwar-McHenry, Amberlee Nicholas
and Cathy Drane

6.1 Introduction and problem definition

6.1.1 Aboriginal mental health/social and emotional well-being
As for First Nations people in other colonised nations around the globe, First Nations people in
Australia have substantially higher morbidity and mortality rates than non-Indigenous people,
including higher rates of mental illness, contributed to by factors such as disadvantage, racism,
and poverty (Donovan et al., 2022). However, rather than more services, it has been proposed

DOI: 10.4324/9781003200086-17
216 Robert J Donovan et al.

that there should be a positive, socially based approach to improving mental health in Indigenous
communities. The population wide Act-Belong-Commit mental health promotion campaign
appeared to be consistent with such an approach. Hence, as a result of extensive consultation
with community members, a culturally adapted version of the campaign was developed and
launched in a remote Indigenous community in Western Australia. Interviews were conducted
with key stakeholders and community members two years later to assess campaign impact. This
Case Study draws on a number of papers on this intervention, in particular Anwar-McHenry et al.
(2022), Donovan et al. (2022), and Donovan et al. (2018). As far as we are aware, this cultural
adaptation of the Act-Belong-Commit campaign is the first reported Indigenous adaptation of a
population-wide mental health promotion campaign.

6.1.2 The Act-Belong-Commit campaign

Act-Belong-Commit is a comprehensive, state-wide, community-based health promotion cam-
paign designed to build population mental health and prevent mental illness (see Donovan &
Anwar-McHenry in the 3rd edition of this book). The campaign encourages individuals to engage
in mentally healthy activities, while at the same time supporting and encouraging organisations
that offer mentally healthy activities to promote and increase participation in these activities. The
campaign is implemented through social franchising partnerships with health services, local gov-
ernments, government departments, schools, workplaces, community organisations and local
sports, art and recreational clubs.

As the brand name suggests, people can build positive mental health and resilience by keep-
ing physically, mentally, spiritually, and socially active (Act); by building a sense of identity and
belonging by keeping involved in family and community activities, and participating in commu-
nity events (Belong); and by taking on challenges or causes that provide meaning and purpose
in their lives (Commit). There is substantial evidence that these three domains contribute to
increasing levels of positive mental health (and in fact, to physical health) (Donovan et al., 2021).

6.1.2.1 The Act-Belong-Commit campaign and indigenous people’s beliefs

about social and emotional well-being
The basic constructs in the Act-Belong-Commit framework clearly overlap with and include the
factors identified as both protecting from and helping First Nations people deal with mental ill-
nesses: social connectedness and a sense of belonging; connection to land, culture, spirituality,
and ancestry; living on or near traditional lands; and passing on of cultural practices (Donovan
et al., 2022).

Given this overlap and Aboriginal people’s focus on family, community, and the social care of
others, it was anticipated that the principles underlying the Act-Belong-Commit framework
would be acceptable to Indigenous communities and readily translate to an Indigenous cultural
framework for mental health promotion.

6.2 Primary research

6.2.1 Cultural adaptation of the Act-Belong-Commit campaign
Given funding available for an intervention in the area, it was decided to explore the feasibility
of a cultural adaptation of the Act-Belong-Commit campaign in the remote town of Roebourne
 CASE STUDY 6 217

in the Pilbara region of Western Australia. The town of Roebourne sits on the traditional lands of
the Ngarluma people, although members of other Aboriginal language groups from surrounding
areas also reside in Roebourne. Roebourne has an estimated population of around 1,000, with
75 per cent identifying as Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander (ABS, 2016).

The consultation and formative research began in 2014 with the appointment of an Aboriginal
Project Manager (Author LAM) and the engagement of a local Aboriginal consultant. Following
recommended approaches to consultation and research in Aboriginal communities, the formal
and informal consultations over the first six months of the project involved group discussions
with elders, community organisation representatives, and members of the general community.
These discussions included both genders, a range of age groups, and the main language groups
in the town and surrounding area. The qualitative data were supplemented by community-wide
surveys using a semi-structured questionnaire, to ensure that general community members had
an opportunity to express their views.

In brief, the consultation phase confirmed that the overall messages of the Act-Belong-Commit
campaign were accepted by the community as relevant to social and emotional wellbeing, with
Aboriginal people in Roebourne emphasising that good social and emotional wellbeing depends
on interacting with family, involvement in community activities, and connecting to country and
culture. Hence, and consistent with the protective factors noted earlier, the community further
elaborated the Act-Belong-Commit domains in the following way:

Act: Keep mentally, socially, spiritually, physically, and culturally active;

Belong: Build and maintain a strong Aboriginal identity by keeping connected to family and
language group, and by getting together with others at cultural events and keeping connec-
tions to country strong;

Commit: Care for country, teach the young ones about culture and language or re-learn cul-
ture and language yourself, keep up obligations to family and community, take part in lore
ceremonies and express culture in art, craft, song, music, dance, or stories.

To strengthen local ownership, the community was then involved in developing a locally rel-
evant cultural adaptation of the Act-Belong-Commit branding, described in detail in Donovan
et al. (2018). That branding appears in Figure CS6.1. This branding was accompanied by a new
slogan “Standing Strong Together.” At its core, local people saw the “Standing Strong Together”
slogan as epitomising interacting with family, involvement in community activities, and con-
necting to country and culture for building and strengthening social and emotional wellbeing in
communities.

6.3 Behavioural objectives

The initial goals set for Act-Belong-Commit in Roebourne were based on the outcome of the
initial consultation phase, our knowledge of what factors are important to gain acceptance in
such communities, and also on our experience that interventions in Aboriginal communities take
time. Hence the initial individual behavioural objectives were to increase community members’
attendance at and participation in community events and cultural activities conducive to good
mental health.
218 Robert J Donovan et al.

Figure CS6.1 The locally developed Standing Strong Together logo branding
 CASE STUDY 6 219

6.4 Intervention
The Project Manager’s initial goals were to introduce the campaign to community members and
organisations, gain their trust, and then look for opportunities to assist individuals and organi-
sations to participate in activities that would enhance individual and/or community social and
emotional wellbeing. The strategy was to build on existing strengths and positive activities, not
introduce wholly “new” program activities. Given the consultation phase findings with respect
to many organisations acting in “silos,” an initial goal was to work on bringing groups together
and to encourage collaboration and cooperation in staging events. The Project Manager also
conducted an ongoing informal “gap analysis” as to needs in the community and introduced
solutions where feasible.

6.5 Outcomes
With respect to campaign awareness, an intercept survey of 31 Indigenous community mem-
bers showed that all but one were aware of the Act-Belong-Commit campaign being active in
Roebourne, with 81 per cent aware of the Standing Strong Together slogan. Indicative of the
Program Manager’s involvement in the community, all but one stated that they were aware of the
Program Manager’s activities in the town, and all but one respondent had attended an event or
activity in Roebourne supported by the campaign.

With respect to behavioural impact, at an individual level, just over 80 per cent of respondents
reported trying to do something for their own social and emotional wellbeing as a result of the
campaign, and of these, all but one said they were still doing these activities. This level of partici-
pation is much higher than in the general population and could be a characteristic of the individ-
uals selected or may reflect a greater response when the intervention is more intense at the local
community level. These respondents’ reported actions were consistent with the campaign mes-
sages such as being more active, getting involved with events and the community, visiting family,
talking to people, and helping others. When asked “why” they tried to do something for their own
social and emotional well-being, respondents said that they wanted to be healthy, they did it for
their family, to feel good and be happy, to be strong, and to prevent or help control physical and
mental illness. Overall, these data show that these respondents not only have a good understand-
ing of the campaign messages but are also able to act on these messages.

With respect to behavioural impact at a community level, almost three-quarters said they had
tried to do something for their friends’ or family’s well-being, and approximately half reported
they had tried to do something for community well-being. What they reported doing showed a
focus on helping/supporting others, cooperating in organising events, encouraging good health
habits, and educating others in these actions. Overall, these results indicate that the campaign is
reinforcing and strengthening community connectedness, cooperation and self-efficacy.

At the organisational level, two major initiatives were accomplished, the first as a result of the ini-
tial consultation, and the second as a result of the ongoing gap analysis: (i) the Project Manager’s
activities and encouragement resulted in the establishment of the “Roebourne Social and
Emotional Well-Being Group,” which for the first time brought together all groups in the town
dealing with mental health issues, many of whom had acted in a silo fashion; and (ii) in response
220 Robert J Donovan et al.

to an expressed need by community members, the Project Manager in collaboration with local
groups and the local government council established a Healing Out On Country program, which
took families bereaved by suicide and tragedy out-on-country for one to three days, where the
families spend time together, connecting to country and culture, and the Elders teach the chil-
dren about the land.

6.6 Lessons for the planet

This study adds to the literature that culturally adapted social marketing interventions can
improve the health and well-being of First Nations people. On a broader level, this cultural
adaptation in Roebourne has implications for positive mental health promotion in Indigenous
communities in all colonised nations, in the same way as the mainstream Act-Belong-Commit
domains have been adapted in various nations around the globe (Donovan et al., 2022).

Further, with respect to issues facing all nations, a major benefit of increasing First Nations peo-
ples’ well-being and sense of agency is that they are then better placed to pass on their long-
existing knowledge about the environments they have occupied for thousands of years about how
to better look after our planet. For example in Australia and elsewhere (Long et al., 2021), people
are now realising that passing on lessons about cultural fire practices not only reduces the risk
of bushfires, nurtures the land and protects wildlife species but also gives younger First Nations
people the opportunity to practise their culture and learn from their Elders.

Acknowledgements
We acknowledge the Roebourne community, the Ngarluma and Yindjibarndi people, other local
language groups, and their Elders, as well as community organisation representatives for their
guidance and support of Act-Belong-Commit in Roebourne. We also acknowledge the support
from the Act-Belong-Commit principal funders of this project, the Health Promotion Foundation
of Western Australia (Healthway), the Western Australian Mental Health Commission, and the
project partner Chevron Australia. We would like to especially acknowledge the assistance of
Ngarluma woman Ms Jolleen Hicks, founder of Aboriginal Insights, who assisted greatly with the
initial consultation in Roebourne.

Ethics approval statement

The project received ethics approval from Curtin University’s Human Research Ethics Committee
(HR02/2016) and the Western Australian Aboriginal Health Ethics Committee (HREC Reference
#574).

Case study questions

1. Why do you think this cultural adaptation was successful?

2. What do you think might be lessons learned from this Indigenous adaptation for developing
interventions for migrant and refugee populations from Africa and Arabia in the UK, Europe
and North America?
 CASE STUDY 6 221

References
Anwar-McHenry, J., Murray, L., Drane, C., Owen, J., Nicholas, A., Donovan, R.J. Impact on community
members of a culturally appropriate adaptation of a social and emotional wellbeing intervention in
an Aboriginal community. Journal of Public Mental Health, 21(2):108–118. https://doi.org/10.1108/
JPMH-09-2021-0109
Australian Bureau of Statistics. Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander Peoples: census 2016,
QuickStats.
Donovan, R.J., Drane, C.F., Owen, J., Murray, L., Nicholas, A., Anwar-McHenry, J. (under
review). Stakeholder feedback on a cultural adaptation of a social and emotional wellbeing inter-
vention in an Aboriginal community, Health Promotion Journal of Australia.
Donovan, R.J., Koushede, V.J., Drane, C.F., Hinrichsen, C., Anwar-McHenry, J., Nielsen, L., Nicholas,
A., Meilstrup, C., & Santini, Z.I. (2021). Twenty-one reasons for implementing the act-belong-
commit — ‘ABCs of mental Health’ campaign. International Journal of Environmental Research and
Public Health, 18(21):11095. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182111095.
Donovan, R.J., Murray, L., Hicks, J., Nicholas, A., Anwar, & McHenry, J. (2018). Developing a culturally
appropriate branding for a social and emotional wellbeing intervention in an aboriginal commu-
nity. Health Promotion Journal of Australia, 29(3): 314–320.
Long, J.W., Lake, F.K., & Goode, R.W. (2021). The importance of indigenous cultural burning in for-
ested regions of the pacific West, USA. Forest Ecology and Management, 500: 119597; https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.foreco.2021.119597
 Case study
7
The humble egg
in Malawi
Puja Peyden Tshering, Kalpana
Beesabathuni, Srujith Lingala and
Rowena Merritt

7.1 Introduction and problem definition

Poor nutrition (known as malnutrition) remains a challenge in Malawi and is a major contributor
to preventable child deaths in the country (1). Many Malawian children often suffer from micro-
nutrient deficiencies, which include anaemia and zinc deficiency. Stunting (being too short for
one’s age), which is at 37.1%, is also a major challenge in Malawi and children living in rural areas
are more affected. Maternal undernutrition may also contribute to the high burden of child mal-
nutrition rates; anaemia amongst pregnant women is 41.8% (2, 3).

Eggs are an excellent source of protein and micronutrients. However, eggs continue to be scarce and
costly in Malawi – the average per capita annual consumption is only 27 eggs, compared to 180 glob-
ally (4). Cultural beliefs and taboos also undermine egg consumption. For example, in some Malawian
communities, eating eggs is associated with stomach pains, or even with baldness in babies.

To address supply bottlenecks in the poultry landscape, Sight and Life – a Humanitarian
Think Tank, along with Lenziemill (Malawi’s largest animal feed provider and veterinary sup-
porter), implemented the Egg-hub. The Egg-hub is a scalable and financially viable business
model in Malawi. The Egg-hub organizes backyard farmers into small groups of five and sup-
ports them in setting up a medium-scale poultry farm (720–1200 bird size farm), complete

DOI: 10.4324/9781003200086-18
 CASE STUDY 7 223

with cages and bio-security clothing. The Egg-hub successfully helped in the production
of 3.5 million more eggs annually in Malawi. With egg supply in place, Sight and Life then
looked at increasing demand for eggs and subsequent egg consumption among pregnant and
breastfeeding women, and children aged between 6 months and 5 years. To do this, a social
marketing project was developed with the overarching aim of contributing to reduced rates
of malnutrition in Malawi.

7.2 Primary research

As a start of the social marketing project, formative research with pregnant and breastfeeding
mothers, as well as mothers of children under 5 years old was conducted to understand their
aspirations, concerns, and their idea of what a healthy child looks like and eats. Information was
also gathered to understand the perceptions of Malawian mothers in relation to eggs, exploring
participants’ knowledge, attitudes, perceptions, and current consumption habits in relation to
eggs, as well as barriers to consumption.

The research found many interesting insights, including:

i) All mothers talked about their regrets. They felt frustrated that they were unable to fulfil their
own aspirations. This led to them wanting their children to fulfil their dreams.

ii) While often everyday life can be challenging, the Malawian mothers worked hard to provide
the best they could for their families, hoping for a better future for their children. They made
personal sacrifices to try and secure this.

iii) Eggs were generally consumed by fathers or visitors (guests visiting the households) which
meant that pregnant or breastfeeding women and children under 5 years of age rarely ate
eggs. Also, eggs were mostly consumed either as boiled eggs or scrambled with nsima (maize-
based porridge) or rice. So, although eggs were a convenient food option, mothers were not
aware of how else to prepare eggs.

iv) Health was linked to growth, development, productivity and success, hence Malawian moth-
ers described a healthy child in the following ways – “fat or plump,” “good skin,” “strong,”
“active and bright” and “does not get sick often.” A healthy child is associated with unending
positivity and radiating happiness.

v) All the participants felt a sense of pride in buying products that were produced in Malawi.

7.3 Behavioural objectives

The behavioural objective was to increase the consumption of eggs among children aged between
6 months and 5 years old, and pregnant and breastfeeding women. A thorough evaluation was
conducted to measure changes in:

1. Knowledge, attitudes, and perception of benefits in relation to eggs.

2. Recall of key campaign messages and campaign branding visuals.

3. Consumption of eggs.
224 Puja Peyden Tshering et al.

7.4 Interventions
A social marketing campaign was developed, alongside behaviour change interventions to reduce
the barriers to change. All the eggs coming out of the Egg-hub were branded as “Zonse Momo”
eggs. Zonse Momo was chosen since the term means “all encompassing” or “self-contained” and
this was open to interpretation in many ways, be it for the consumer or the farmer. It could mean
power, or energy or wholesomeness, and it could mean that everything good is contained inside
an egg. The brand elements were:

•• Brand “Big Idea” – Grab every opportunity to make your family healthy and happy!

•• Tone – Energetic, Warm, Happy, Sociable, Approachable, Trustworthy, Genuine.

•• Main message – More Eggs, More Smiles!

The Campaign Big idea was carefully pre-tested before implementation. A total of up to 60 partici-
pants (30 mothers and 30 farmers) were involved in the pre-testing groups conducted in Mponela,
Lumbadzi and Dzaleka.

Two radio advertisements were developed in alignment with the campaign tone and Big Idea.
The ads highlighted the various benefits of eggs and ended with a strong call-to-action for Zonse
Momo eggs. Posters and roll-up banners were also used as the point-of-sale elements displayed
at or near egg-selling points, within a 5-km radius of the closest Egg-hub farm. Shopkeepers were
also given t-shirts promoting the eggs.

Interventions to reduce the barriers, and support the desired behaviour change, included:

1. Ladies Club – these are groups of women that attend interpersonal brand interactions which
comprised of various activities:

•• Cooking demonstrations where women learned different ways they could prepare eggs
and incorporate them into their daily diet.

•• Talks by Health Workers. Health surveillance assistants addressed the women for
15–20 minutes, discussing eggs and answer any questions/concerns/doubts around
them.

•• Quizzes and games – held in local community venues, fun interactive games were devel-
oped, with Zonse Momo branded t-shirts as giveaways.

•• Short videos to convey the multiple benefits of eggs showed as part of the club activities.

2. Branded growth meters, stationed at Community Based Childcare Centres (CBCCs) or local
health clinics were branded with Zonse Momo elements. Every time a mother needed to use
it for her child, the staff at the local health clinic or CBCC would tell her about the benefits of
feeding eggs to her young child.

Figures CS7.1–7.3 show a few of the campaign materials used.

 CASE STUDY 7 225

Figure CS7.1 Campaign materials: Brand logo and posters (continued)

Figure CS7.1 (continued)

226 Puja Peyden Tshering et al.

Figure CS7.1 (continued)

 CASE STUDY 7 227

Figure CS7.1 (continued)

228 Puja Peyden Tshering et al.

Figure CS7.2 A still from one of the ladies club where a group of women participated in
awareness and engagement building activities around Zonse Momo eggs

Figure CS7.3 One of the branded growth meters which was installed at a local health clinic
 CASE STUDY 7 229

Figure CS7.4 A poster directed at prospective poultry farmers who worried about training
and marketing support in their line of farming

The campaign sought to also create an appeal for small holder poultry farmers and aspiring poul-
try farmers to join the Egg-hub. It chose to capture the key pain points associated with being a
poultry farmer and addressed them in its posters as seen in Figure CS7.4.

7.5 Outcomes
The social marketing interventions and campaign were rolled out in two phases. The initial phase
targeted three sites, including Mitundu, Dzaleka and Mponera in Lilongwe and Dowa districts.
The second phase targeted two additional sites in Nsaru in Lilongwe and Chiosha in Mchinji. The
choice of sites was made based on the distance to the nearest Egg-hub farm.
230 Puja Peyden Tshering et al.

The project was evaluated by an external research company, based in Malawi and supported by
the University of Kent. To evaluate the project, three data collection methods were used, including:

•• Survey conducted with mothers of children under 5 years old and pregnant and breastfeeding
mothers in eight rural villages in Malawi to understand their knowledge of health benefits,
attitudes towards eggs, and their consumption of eggs.

•• Interviews with key informants to gain further insights into how the campaign is being
received and to gain feedback on the campaign processes.

•• Focus group discussions with mothers of children under 5 years old and pregnant and breast-
feeding mothers to gain in-depth feedback on how the campaign messages and images are
being perceived and ways in which they can be modified and improved in the future.

The data were collected at three time-points, once before the social marketing campaign and
interventions were launched (timepoint (T) 1), at a mid-point (after 3 months; T2), and at the
project end (end-point after 6 months; T3). The same people were interviewed at each timepoint.
In order to understand what mix of behavioural interventions is most effective, different inter-
ventions were piloted in different areas, detailed in Table CS7.1. This was done as interpersonal
communications and support interventions have been shown to be effective when improving
nutrition outcomes (5), however, they are very costly to implement. Therefore, it was important to
understand the added value they provided.

7.5.1 Findings
Overall, the social marketing campaign and interventions increased the consumption of eggs
(Figure CS7.5). Over half of the target audience (51%, n = 217) ate eggs twice or more a week at
follow-up (T3). This was compared to only 12% (n = 229) at baseline (T1). Only 7% did not eat eggs
at all at follow-up, compared to 55% at T1.

The target audience in level 3 intervention mix areas consumed the highest number of
eggs (Figure CS7.6), in comparison to those in areas which received levels 1 and 2 intervention
mixes (Figures CS7.7 and CS7.8). Instead of buying more eggs, they instead saved them for family
consumption.

Table CS7.1 Intervention mix, by level

Villages receiving these

Level Interventions received interventions

1 Mass media – Radio adverts Choisha

2 Mass media – Radio adverts Nsaru
Point-of-sale advertising materials
3 Mass media – Radio adverts Mitundu, Dzaleka, Mponela
Point-of-sale advertising materials
Branded Growth Meters/health
professional intervention and ladies club
Control group No interventions Madalitso, Palao, Malambe,
Mkwede
 CASE STUDY 7 231

Figure CS7.5 Changes in egg consumption between baseline (T1) and end-point (T3)

Figure CS7.6 Changes in egg consumption for the target audience receiving level 3
interventions

Figure CS7.7 Changes in egg consumption for the target audience receiving level 2 interventions
232 Puja Peyden Tshering et al.

Figure CS7.8 Changes in egg consumption for the target audience receiving level 1 interventions

This was in comparison to the target audience receiving level 2 interventions, where there
was only a slight increase in the consumption of eggs by the promised audience, mostly
redirected from other family members. However, visitors still were given most of the eggs
(Figure CS7.3).

What this tells us is that despite an increased supply of eggs, egg consumption did not really
increase in the desired way, as visitors continued to get the lion’s share of eggs in the household.
Creating demand acted as a differentiator, being effective at improving egg consumption in the
target audience as well as word of mouth publicity. Radio and point-of-sale interventions were
not effective in this case, which highlights the importance and value of interpersonal communi-
cations when reaching very rural communities, where literacy rates are often low.

7.6 Lessons for the planet

There are three takeaways for the planet here:

1. There is merit in implementing a holistic approach toward a nutrition problem, including

focusing on both the supply as well as demand aspects. Once the supply bottlenecks were
addressed in this case, the next logical step was to create demand for the 3.5 millions surplus
of eggs in the markets, with a focus on ensuring our target audience – those most at risk of
malnutrition – increased egg consumption.

2. The use of Interpersonal interventions is crucial – more so, when working in communities
that are “media-dark” or where literacy levels are low. This helps with social norming and
allows the target audience to see others like them engaging in a new behaviour, live.

3. Eggs incur a lower environmental impact compared to other animal source foods. Eggs have
a two to eight times lower carbon footprint, two to four times lower ecological footprint (water
and land use) and have a lower carbon footprint than some plant proteins too, such as nuts
(using half the land and a fifth of the water supply). The humble egg is a climate-smart food
that can also help tackle malnutrition.
 CASE STUDY 7 233

Case study questions

1. Why do you think interpersonal communications were more effective in this case example?

2. Why do you think it was useful to set objectives around several variables and not simply egg
consumption goals?

References
1. World Health Organisation, Malnutrition Datasets. (2017). Geneva, Switzerland
2. UNICEF Malawi. (2018). The Nutrition Programme in Malawi [Factsheet]. https://www.
unicef.org/malawi/media/596/file/Nutrition%20Narrative%20Factsheet%202018.pdf
3. Levy, A., Fraser, D., Katz, M., Mazor, M., & Sheiner, E. (2005). Maternal anemia during pregnancy
is an independent risk factor for low birth weight and preterm delivery. European Journal of
Obstetrics Gynecology and Reproductive Biology, 122(2):182–186. doi: 10.1016/j.ejogrb.2005.02.015.
4. Lingala, S. (2019, November 22). Boosting Egg Production to Reduce Malnutrition in Malawi.
Sight and Life. https://sightandlife.org/blog/boosting-egg-production-in-malawi/
5. Ezeah, G., Ogechi, E.O., Ohia, N.C., & Celestine, G.V. (2020). Measuring the effect of interpersonal
communication on awareness and knowledge of COVID-19 among rural communities in Eastern
Nigeria. Health Education Research, 35(5): 481–489. https://doi.org/10.1093/her/cyaa033
 Case study
8
Turning the tide on
poor Blue Space quality
through stakeholder
engagement – Lessons
from PIER
Sinead Duane, Maeve Louise Farrell,
Alexandra Chueiri, Christine Domegan,
Liam Burke and Dearbháile Morris

8.1 Introduction and problem definition

Ireland as an island nation is home to over 3700 km of beautiful coastlines. From daily dippers
to day trippers, Irish rivers, lakes and seas offer something for everyone. Our naturally occurring
rivers, lakes and seas, or Blue Spaces as they are referred to within this case study, have many
benefits which are well documented. They are one of the world’s main climate regulators, provide
ecosystems supporting plant and animal health, support agriculture, drinking water and other
ecosystem services such as fish and shellfish. Blue Spaces provide direct and indirect economic
benefits linked to tourism, food production and transport, to name but a few, whilst access to Blue
Spaces has also been linked to human physical and mental health benefits.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003200086-19
 CASE STUDY 8 235

Unfortunately, the quality of our Blue Spaces are under threat as we continue to exploit these
water environments through overconsumption and lack of consideration. Steps to protect this
valuable resource have begun however the solutions are complex. Legislation, for example, plays
an important role in preserving and protecting our water quality. The Water Framework Directive
(WFD, 2000/60/EC) (WFD) and the Bathing Water Directive (BWD, 2006/7/EC) (BWD) have
been impactful in setting standards for water quality. However legislative action is only one part
of the solution. We need to reframe the way we think and utilise our Blue Spaces. Societal and
behavioural change strategies have and will play an important role in this transformation process,
making the adoption of a systems thinking approach vital. Both the United Nations Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) (UN 2019) and the European Green Deal (European Commission
2019) action plan promote the adoption of a systems thinking perspective. Blue Space quality
is complex and is integrated into other societal challenges. This is illustrated by its integration
across at least three of the 17 SDGs, for example #6 Clean Water and Sanitation, #11 Sustainable
Cities and Communities and #14 Life Below Water. Each of these SDGs place multifaceted change
activities and stakeholder engagement as central to success. Partnership and stakeholder devel-
opment is recognised as central in SDG #17 Partnerships for the goals. Unfortunately, the imple-
mentation of systems thinking has been slow, and as we are set to miss some of our SDG targets in
2030. It is important to understand more about how to implement impactful, sustainable systems
change strategies. The remainder of this case study presents the PIER (Public health Impact of
Exposure to antibiotic Resistance in recreational waters) project as an illustration of the impor-
tant role of stakeholder engagement when adopting a systems thinking approach to address
water quality issues.

The PIER project (PIER) examines one of the invisible contributors to poor water quality – anti-
microbial resistance (AMR) (www.nuigalway.ie/pier). AMR occurs when microbes like bacteria
and fungi are no longer killed by the antimicrobials that used to work against them, because they
have changed somehow to become resistant and have been referred to as the silent pandemic.
AMR means that antibiotics we have used and relied on in the past to treat bacterial infections
will no longer be effective, resulting in longer illnesses or potentially no treatment options at all.
Urgent action needs to be taken to protect this finite resource. AMR in itself is a wicked systems
problem whereby it is multifaceted in nature and there is no one cause or solution. There are
many contributors to AMR including human and animal healthcare as well as food production.
AMR bacteria and antimicrobial resistant genes (ARG) have also been found in our environments
such as our Blue Spaces and Figure CS8.1 illustrates how AMR bacteria (bacteria that are resistant
to antibiotics) can enter our waterways. Figure CS8.1 also illustrates that many of the contribu-
tors to the transmission of AMR in our environments such as hospital and pharmaceutical waste,
agricultural runoff and sewage are shared with other pollutants impacting our water quality.
Therefore it would be impossible to address the issue of AMR in the environment without con-
sidering the Blue Space system holistically and in the context of other societal challenges such as
sustainability and climate change.

8.1.1 Stakeholder interviews

Stakeholder interviews were undertaken to understand the complexities within the Blue Space
system and to identify any gaps in the stakeholder analysis. Figure CS8.3 identifies some of the
key topics that were discussed throughout the interviews. In particular, interviewees were asked
236 Sinead Duane et al.

Figure CS8.1 Type of environmental AMR pollution sources and areas for prevention and
treatment action
 CASE STUDY 8 237

Figure CS8.2 Stakeholders classified in the Blue Space System

about the most influential stakeholders who should be part of the PIER project. Interviewees were
recruited from across the different levels of the system (macro, meso and micro) as well as their
power/interest classification. The interviews helped us paint a picture of the interactions within
the systems from different perspectives. For example, findings showed that communication at
the macro level was formalised with relationships developing over time, whereby at the meso and

Figure CS8.3 Strategic questions to enhance stakeholder engagement

238 Sinead Duane et al.

micro levels the stakeholders had the flexibility to establish relationships on a more ad hoc basis.
This is important as it could act as a blockage within the system. In terms of the boundaries
of the system, all stakeholders agreed that every citizen in Ireland has a stake in this issue
and should be part of the conversation. As a result Stage 2 of the PIER project opened this
conversation up to every citizen in Ireland. The stakeholder analysis was used to help build
relationships with key stakeholders who could act as gatekeepers to reach the citizens within
this focal system.

8.2 Lessons for the planet

We know that a “one-size-fits-all” approach does not work; and therefore we must adopt a
more strategic approach to engaging stakeholders in sustainable change activities. Sustainable
Development Goals and the Green Deal have recommended Systems Thinking as an approach
which can help us turn the tide on poor Blue Space quality. The PIER stakeholder analysis is the
first step in this process and gave the PIER team the opportunity to identify and understand the
role of stakeholders currently working to address this issue and their relationships with each
other. This process established that:

•• The majority of our policies relating to Blue Space quality are developed at a European level
and then implemented at a national level – this can be a very formal process which uninten-
tionally excludes many of the stakeholders who want to make a difference.

•• There are hundreds of stakeholders in Ireland who are ready and willing to take action to
address our water quality challenge – however – many do not have a voice that can shout loud
enough on this issue yet. There needs to be a mechanism whereby these stakeholders can
work together to achieve this common goal of developing one voice.

•• Currently there is no map of the barriers or enablers to using Blue Spaces – this type
of map would help to prioritise change activities that could be simultaneously imple-
mented across levels of the system. Phase 2 of PIER will be working towards developing
this map.

Acknowledgements
This case study was written as part of the PIER (Public Health Impact of Exposure to antibi-
otic Resistance in recreational waters) project. This project is funded under the EPA Research
Programme 2014–2020 (2018-HW-LS-2). The EPA Research Programme is a Government of
Ireland initiative funded by the Department of Environment, Climate and Communications. It
is administered by the Environmental Protection Agency, which has the statutory function of co-
ordinating and promoting environmental research. The authors would like to acknowledge PIER
working and steering groups for their support and guidance.

Case study questions

1. Identify the main types of stakeholders that would be involved in improving Blue Space
Quality?
 CASE STUDY 8 239

2. Using the Matrix below classify the stakeholders you have identified

Types of
Article Stakeholder Micro Meso Macro Incumbents Challengers Regulators Power Interest

3. Reflecting on Figure CS8.3 and the matrix you have completed – what stakeholder engage-
ment strategies would you prioritise for the PIER project?

References
European Union. Water Framework Directive 2000/60/EC OJL 327. 2000;22 December 2000:1–73.
European Commission. A European Green Deal: Striving to be the first climate-neutral continent 2019
[cited 2021 08/02/2021]. Available from: https://ec.europa.eu/info/strategy/priorities-2019-2024/
european-green-deal_en.
McHugh, P., Domegan, C., & Duane, S. (2018). Protocols for stakeholder participation in social market-
ing systems. Social Marketing Quarterly, 24(3), 164–93.
UN Environment Programme. Summary for Policymakers - Environmental Dimensions of Antimicrobial
Resistance 2022 Access: April 2022 P.9.
United Nations. Sustainable Development Goals: United Nations. 2019 [cited 2021 01/08/2021].
Available from: https://sdgs.un.org/goals.
https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/38373/antimicrobial_R.pdf.
 Case study
9
Evaluating real change
in the real world
Creativity, connection and
the unseen as felt evidence in
aspiring communities
Marisa de Andrade, Colin Campbell,
Jean Dobbing, Felicity Fyall and
Rilza Montgomery

9.1 Introduction and problem definition

With austerity, comes increased accountability. Prove best value for money. Evidence how interven-
tions improve outcomes. Measure how “our most deprived and fragile communities” co-produce
sustainable “local solutions that address local priorities and needs, increase active inclusion and
build on the assets of local communities to reduce poverty and enable inclusive growth.”1

But how do you prove real change in these communities, especially during these extraordinary
times when the pandemic has disproportionally impacted the unemployed, those with exist-
ing long-term physical or mental health conditions, women, Black Asian Minority Ethnic and
LGBQT+ communities, isolated, ageing populations and digitally excluded individuals?

DOI: 10.4324/9781003200086-20
 CASE STUDY 9 241

Figure CS9.1

How do you evaluate community-led, asset-based projects with marginalised populations and
prove they’ve improved lives when wider determinants of inequality perpetuate?

9.2 Primary research

Four community workers evaluated their Asset-Based Community Development (ABCD) work,
focused on community skills and strengths rather than deficits or problems, in Scottish “disad-
vantaged communities” (referred to as “aspiring communities” by the government funder) from
April 2019 for 18 months. They also worked with a researcher (Figure CS9.1) to problematise lin-
ear approaches to evaluation and propose creative-relational alternatives that are:

•• situated, positioned, context-sensitive, personal, experience-near and embodied,

•• performative and aesthetic,

•• engaged with the political, social and ethical,

•• problematising agency, autonomy and representation,

•• in relationship with theory,

•• dialogical and collaborative, and

•• explicit and curious about the inquiry process itself.2

9.3 Behavioural objectives

Armed with a co-produced methodological evaluation framework – an asset-based indicator
framework (ABIF) – we set out to measure “soft” outcomes linked to health improvements such
as happiness and optimism (Figures CS9.2 and CS9.3).
242 Marisa de Andrade et al.

Figure CS9.2

Figure CS9.3
 CASE STUDY 9 243

We engaged marginalised communities to measure the impacts of creative community engagement

on health and inequalities through a holistic approach – using our minds, bodies and souls – our “felt
experiences.”3 We gathered “unconventional” data using reflective diaries, art, poetry, conversations,
sport and other humanities and arts-informed methods. Marisa studied the evaluation process through
organisational ethnography and (in-person/virtual) participatory action-research workshops.

Our key behavioural objective was to trouble the thinking that evaluators should be disembodied
narrators detached from their data. To subvert the assumption that policymakers should only rely
on objective, text-based evidence that can be replicated.

We sought to usher new types of knowledge into the evidence-base, and for this knowledge to sit
alongside and be in dialogue with positivist approaches.

We “stepped inside of” and “sensed” our data. We questioned why we were being asked to evi-
dence the value of our community work in a way that wasn’t connected to our felt experiences as
we connected with those we were meant to evaluate.

9.4 Intervention
We feel uncomfortable about the language of intervention.

Are we intervening in people’s lives? Or are we part of them? Are we intervening in their existence
to evidence outcomes? Or are we connecting, human to human?

What are we doing in or with these communities?

According to our funder, our asset-based interventions need to:

•• achieve “operational programme targets” that support “community based or community ser-
vices” in “deprived or fragile communities,”

•• “clearly” demonstrate “positive impact of our proposed investment” and provide “evidence
of shaping of services by local people,”

•• set out “critical partnerships and relationships with other service providers” including statu-
tory agencies and third-sector organisations,

•• link activities and make “best use of local resources,” and

•• “enable, enhance and/or complement delivery of national and local priorities as set out in
relevant local policy and delivery plans.”4

9.5 Outcomes
We’re also doing so much more. We’re mindful of numerous calls to reframe how asset-based
activities are assessed due to:

•• ABCD being dubbed an exploitative, neoliberal tool with communities and organisations
expected to do more at a grassroots level without sufficient resourcing,
244 Marisa de Andrade et al.

•• narrow conceptualisations of evidence – in the evidence hierarchy, statistics count more than
people’s stories,

•• epistemological and methodological incompatibilities – to reach the top of the evidence hier-
archy, research needs to produce a particular kind of knowledge that is “scientifically sound”
and “valid enough,” and

•• a lack of capacity and resources for sustained engagement.5

As we’re embedded in these communities, we know first-hand there’s no clear-cut way to carry
out the evaluation. There are so many changes over a period of time to skew “results,” particu-
larly as our community projects started pre-pandemic and evaluations “ended” (though our work
didn’t) when Covid numbers soared.

9.5.1 “Slow Tiny Acts of Resistance (STaRs)”6 to evaluation

One of us writes: “I don’t know if I am any clearer in terms of how to evaluate in a community
as you have to be seeing the same people in a set group to carry out an evaluation. It would be
ideal to ask people every week how they see meeting up as benefitting them, but that again causes
problems as they’re not going to maybe be there every week, they might have had a difficult situ-
ation (abuse, addiction, food poverty and homelessness) before coming along to the group, and
maybe they’ll get annoyed being asked the same question all the time.

In deprived communities, there are often so many situations going on that it seems emotions and
outlooks of happiness, optimism and health change much more frequently. For example, just recently
a lady that comes along to the group said “I really like coming along here and I’m so glad it’s opened
up again, I feel like I’ve got something to do and meet people.” From there, I would put a big tick beside
the result of happiness and optimism. This though changed in the week we were not on as I’ve heard
she’s not getting out bed much, not looking after herself and her daughter and is really struggling. Do I
change my evaluation based on how I know she is, or just evaluate her short time period at the group?”

Another one of us, who’s been connecting with women from varied cultural backgrounds learn-
ing English as a Second Language (ESOL), noted how lockdown led to further isolation. They used
to meet in community centres, though a move to online classes meant physical distance was no
longer an issue, but digital poverty became a barrier. As the setting for this evaluation was estab-
lished before lockdown and landscape of the group changed dramatically, how was this project
meant to be honestly evaluated?

Some women used Zoom easily as they had devices for home learning with children. Others were
offered digital tablets, though struggled to use them. Most used mobile phones to connect and
shared small screens – not ideal for seeing each other and facilitating text-based learning.

Despite these limitations, one community worker diligently followed the evaluation framework
to assess real changes in this community facilitated through partnership (advertising the group
through other agencies):

•• a safe, supportive space to overcome isolation,

•• a place for women to bring questions about lockdown-related rules and health and safety
issues linked to schooling from home,
 CASE STUDY 9 245

•• a space to share fears and anxieties when their “soul and mood are tired” and they “need to
contact others,”

•• social connection through a place to attend online quizzes and a Zoom Burns Night,

•• enrolling on subsequent College English courses,

•• volunteering in charity shops thereby gaining employability skills, and

•• learning how to teach and present.

The evaluator also questioned tabular-linear evaluation. They reflected on how they “could not
neatly and concisely put data and evaluation into boxes of a linear nature. Evaluation needs to be
three or four dimensional. It’s also impossible to delineate between individual, group and struc-
tural level at times. The lines between these are more often than not blurred. For example, in dis-
cussion with a woman on the phone and hearing about her situation and issues (homelessness,
addition, isolation, unemployment) – I can record that at an individual level, but it may also be
indicative of a group or structural level situation or issue. What the women individually are saying,
is often what the group together might be saying, which is often true of what might be happening
on a wider structural scale. Fear and anxiety felt at a micro-level with individuals were also felt as a
group, and more widely with talking to others and listening to media, others would feel that too.”

The achievement of community outcomes during this ever-changing pandemic ebbed and flowed
with Government mandates and challenging circumstances beyond communities’ control –lock-
downs, school closures, vaccine hopes and fears, illness and loss of loved ones – while dealing
with poverty, addiction, unemployment and homelessness in some cases.

To manage fear and uncertainty, experts have suggested that public health messages should
avoid “the risk of creating a sense of fatalism and loss of control.”7

But to what extent is this in the interest of human flourishing? While being hopeful, shouldn’t we
also be in touch with these difficult feelings and circumstances that are very much a part of the
human condition?

9.5.2 Felt evidence and the unseen

We feel pain with these communities when we engage with them in food bank queues and recov-
ery cafes. Reflecting on the evaluation of community lunches, outdoor hubs, kayaking and paddle
cafés (groups that ran, stopped, then ran again post-lockdown with different members so impos-
sible to genuinely assess for “indicators of success”), one of us feels their way through moments
of connection so difficult to articulate:

“People said Hope was important to them. What does Hope mean to you? What gives
you Hope?’ Again it was insightful hearing answers and discussions, but it would’ve
been great to know from those answers in a deeper way. What we can then do with
those thoughts and make them into positives for the community. Not merely an
empty discussion and for some people just going back to ‘hopeless’ lives.”

One week, I bought along pictures and asked people what made them feel happiest if they had to pick
the top three, and it was interesting to hear the very different ways in which people found happiness
246 Marisa de Andrade et al.

while they were thinking about the current pandemic we are in. One week, one of the group also
asked why I came along each week to be with them, and I managed to turn the question around
after answering and to ask them why they enjoyed sitting in a freezing cold outdoor café in winter
with people from the community. Answers ranged from getting to know others, having a laugh and
being out of the house. This then turned into a full discussion about kindness, and definitely how
others have been reaching out to other people in kindness during the lockdown and pandemic. Once
again they probably wouldn’t see it themselves, but there are stronger connections. People felt more
comfortable to share ideas, felt like they could ask me for help or guidance with a particular problem.

Through this group, there have been many times that the ABIF has seen results in terms of observ-
ing people and how they have moved on. Often the people in this group wouldn’t have noticed
that much had changed, but from a personal point of view observing people, taking notes, photos
and other ways of questioning, it’s clear that community is developing – empathy, trust and a
healthier culture. If I had taken a linear survey and had asked people if these were developing in
the group, they might have put those quite far down the list. It’s made me think more about evalu-
ation in terms of how I carry it out and what results, we put down for funders. But I still believe a
situation, for example, where two guys went kayaking for the first time with the outdoor activity
place and the way in which they were speaking afterwards about how good it felt to do something
different and the smiles and laughter afterwards, would still – from a funder’s point of view – not
be classed as important as, for example, moving onto paid work.”

9.6 Lessons for the planet

9.6.1 Pockets of power
Amidst free-market capitalism, deregulation, austerity, pandemics and national and global deci-
sions that may leave us feeling helpless and disempowered, we propose power in doing things
differently.

As evaluators evaluating evaluation, we’re thinking critically about what we’re being asked to do
and how to “prove” that what we’re doing makes a difference. We’re critiquing funder and statu-
tory expectations of evaluations that aren’t fitting to community responses and felt experiences.

Yes, we could simply tick boxes and circle scales in line with systemic expectations. Or, when
asked how well equipped we feel in terms of skills to develop a bank of evidence to use in evalu-
ations, we could note that rating scales are a poor measurer of progress as they can be subject to
an individual’s feelings at the time – responding to personal and structural events – rather than a
reflection of learning that has occurred.

When asked how competent we are at planning in evaluation, we could reply our work is ever-
changing so forecasting in fluid communities with extreme circumstances often focused on sur-
vival, is very difficult. Instead, we can reflect on how interpersonal encounters made us feel in our
bodies at that time.

“How confident are you that you’d be able to plan and facilitate meaningful research and evalu-
ation for every activity that is a part of your work?” is a question that renders pause. My defini-
tion of what “meaningful research” entails needs to take into account what community members
 CASE STUDY 9 247

feel is meaningful to their lives. This can change greatly over time, sometimes daily as people
overcome obstacles and face new challenges, so using standardised approaches to evaluation is
counterproductive.

9.6.2 Being in relationship, being bold

Evidence shows supportive relationships with professionals and “social interactions” that involve
“being able to share vulnerability and laugh together” reduces homelessness.8 While being in
relationship with our “most deprived and fragile communities”, we’ve seen a strength that can’t
be fully expressed in words. A stronger community sense. These “internal” assets, many of which
can’t be measured, do not excuse structural inequity. Rather, they shine light on the shortcomings
of target and even outcome-focused performance management and resource allocation.

Our purpose is therefore to create space for community members to exercise more agency so
that ultimately, they can challenge structural inequalities that play out in the communities they
are part of. Our legacy in these communities is a shift in how we train, creatively relate and
evaluate community development work. To encourage and communicate a culture of embod-
ied, embedded evaluation that exists outside of our work places and practices – that exists within
is and between us.

Our reflections on the evaluation process are “a writing away from the rigidities and hegemonies
of the neo-liberal assumptions of academic writing.”9 We’re proposing something different to
bring about real change in the real world – troubling the use of “real” as we write it. Acknowledging
the reality of widespread poverty, homelessness and inequity in this world, while holding in our
minds the multiple realities (ontological disparities) that we encounter daily.

Case Study questions

1. a) How useful is this framing of the communities being ‘evaluated’?

“our most deprived and fragile communities”

b) How useful is this framing of the communities being ‘evaluated’?

“aspiring communities”

2. Check out the hip-hop video “Dear Human” as part of Measuring Humanity: Measuring
Humanity – Measuring health and inequalities through creativity and connectivity.

https://measuringhumanity.org/?msclkid=d5faf54baab311ec8660186da92c95a9#single/0How
could you argue that this too is evidence of inequalities?

Notes
1 This was the purpose of The Aspiring Communities Fund supported by the European Social Fund
(ESF) and Scottish Government and delivered by Social Justice and Regeneration Division, Scottish
Government as Lead Partner for the 2014–2020 ESF Programme. Our project was funded through
this programme.
248 Marisa de Andrade et al.

2 This is the focus of the Centre for Creative-Relational Inquiry at the University of Edinburgh: Centre
for Creative-Relational Inquiry | The University of Edinburgh.
3 “Felt experiences” is inspired by the thinking in this paper: Rebecca Madgin, David Webb,
Pollyanna Ruiz & Tim Snelson (2018) Resisting relocation and reconceptualising authenticity: The
experiential and emotional values of the Southbank Undercroft, London, UK, International Journal
of Heritage Studies, 24:6, 585-598, DOI: 10.1080/13527258.2017.1399283.
4 See European Social Fund, Aspiring Communities Fund: ACF+-+Round+3+-+Stage+2+-
+Application+-+Guidance+and+Help+Notes+-+FINAL+-+Dec+2018+-rev.pdf (www.gov.scot).
5 de Andrade, M & Angelova, N (2018) Evaluating and evidencing asset-based approaches and
coproduction in health inequalities: measuring the unmeasurable?, Critical Public Health, 30:2,
232–244,. https://doi.org/10.1080/09581596.2018.1541229.
6 Harré, N, Grant, BM, Locke, K, & Sturm, S (2017) The university as an infinite game: Revitalizing
activism in the academy. Australian Universities Review, 59(2), 5–13.
7 Building public understanding of health and health inequalities – The Health Foundation.
8 Homeless persons’ experiences of health- and social care: A systematic integrative review – Omerov –
2020 – Health & Social Care in the Community – Wiley Online Library.
9 Qualitative Inquiry, Activism, the Academy and the Infinite Game: An Introduction to the Special
Issue – Edgar Rodríguez-Dorans, Fiona Murray, Marisa de Andrade, Jonathan Wyatt, Rosie
Stenhouse, 2021 (sagepub.com).
 Case study
10
Leaf collective
Piloting a social marketing
approach to remove eucalypt
leaves from stormwater drains
Luisa Lopez Cordova, Yue Xi, Sharyn
Rundle-Thiele, Renata Anibaldi,
Aaron Tkaczynski, Cuong Pham
and Vanessa Salamone

10.1 Introduction and problem definition

Lake Tuggeranong is a merging water body including natural tributaries and stormwater dis-
charge, localized within the Tuggeranong area in the Australian Capital Territory. Over the last
30 years, Lake Tuggeranong has experienced increasing nutrient loads and sediment runoff,
resulting in the growth of blue-green algae, which affects not only the quality of the lake but also
the communities around it (Achá et al. 2018; Wang et al., 2021). The lake is constantly closed and
is now receiving five times more phosphorus than can naturally be supported (AU, 2019). The
excess organic matter rests at the bottom of the lake and mixes with high temperatures in sum-
mer months feeding algae. Outbreaks of algae are known to have harmful effects on public health
(Wiltsie et al., 2018; Waters et al., 2021). Eucalypt leaves, which fall in Summer, are one of many
organic materials entering Lake Tuggeranong.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003200086-21
250 Luisa Lopez Cordova et al.

To tackle the problem of leaves entering the storm water system that drains into Lake Tuggeranong,
Social Marketing @ Griffith implemented The Co-create, Build and Engage (CBETM) process.
Co-creation is all about learning what solutions people may value. A range of research methods
were applied to learn what people liked and what types of actions they wanted to see. The build-
ing phase involved creating community partnerships, planning events, building the project web-
site, delivery of a communications plan and a social media schedule for the 6-week pilot program.
During the engage phase a competition between two community groups, leaf drop off events and a
communication campaign were implemented aiming to motivate behavioural change, namely the
collection and sustainable management of native leaf litter (leaves, twigs, bark, flowers and nuts).

10.2 Primary research

Social Marketing @ Griffith delivered a 6-week pilot program focussed on deciduous trees in
Autumn 2021. Evaluation data from the 2021 Autumn pilot did inform the summer pilot program.
For example, free leaf bags and a 10% discount offer for composting products were popular fea-
tures of the autumn pilot and these were retained in the summer 6-week pilot program. More
than 200,000 litres of leaves were diverted from ACT waterways during the autumn campaign.

Eucalypt leaves are different from deciduous trees. They have a waxy surface and leaves and other
organic matter that drop from eucalypt trees take longer to break down when compared to leaves
that fall from deciduous trees. Because of these key differences a full co-create phase was imple-
mented. Research activities delivered by the research team included a literature review, a sur-
vey (which also serves as the baseline for pilot-program evaluation), co-design and a Creating
Collective Solutions (CCS) process were undertaken. The literature review identified ideas from
campaigns implemented in Australia and overseas. The survey was implemented across the ACT
and more than 700 people completed the survey assisting the team to identify motivations and
barriers for leaf litter collection and to identify different persona groups. Two groups exhibiting
different values and behaviours were identified. This identification helped to acknowledge and
categorize possible participants for co-design sessions.

10.2.1 Co-design
In co-design community members from ACT participated in a stepwise process, working in small
groups to create solutions for Tuggeranong Catchment area (see Figure CS10.1 for co-design ses-
sion format).

A total of 8 teams identified 308 strategies and ideas that could be included in the 6-week pilot
program. Key ideas delivered in co-design that were implemented in the 6-week pilot program
included a competition to get community groups involved in picking up leaves, adopt a tree or
drain, incentives including free leaf bags and composting discounts to support residents to pick
up leaves, information about gardening and composting and more. Four categories of preferred
activities were identified (see Table CS10.1. Research finding themes).

10.2.2 CCS
Too many leaves left to go down stormwater drains is a complex issue that extends beyond
householders. The Creating Collective Solutions (CCS) process was applied to consult multiple
 CASE STUDY 10 251

Figure CS10.1 Co-design steps

Table CS10.1 S
 olutions identified by ACT residents and stakeholders during the
co-creation phase

Theme Details

Category 1: Tell me Too many leaves in the wrong place are litter. How
can I realise the value of leaves?
For example, communication campaign, bridging
the gap between science and people, engaging
messages to capture attention
Category 2: Show me Teach me how I can realise the value of leaves. What
can be done with leaves?
For example, composting and garden
demonstrations
Category 3: Share the collection No time or interest in composting, but I care about
water quality and love the lakes. What else can be
done with leaves?
Different collection points tailored for residents
For example, share the work, Local drop off and
collection points
Category 4: Regular promotions Community participation and involvement
For example, competitions and discount offers
252 Luisa Lopez Cordova et al.

stakeholders including government, non-government, and businesses to explore, identify and

reach consensus on key priorities for action.

There were four steps in CCS (see Figure CS10.2 for CCS steps):

Step 1: Working Group. A working group of 10 stakeholders with a variety of backgrounds was
established to support the full CCS process. A total of 46 organizations and community mem-
bers were identified, including water quality scientists.

Step 2: Trigger Question. The trigger question was: What can ACT residents and other interested
parties do to help encourage the collection and redistribution of native leaf litter from areas near
stormwater drains to improve water quality?

The question was sent out via an online survey, to stakeholders who were identified by the
working group. Additional stakeholders were also contacted by Social Marketing @ Griffith to
reach a wide variety of responses across different sectors. People were asked to list up to five
priorities in response to the trigger question.

Step 3: Priority Setting. All unique responses were shared with the working group and a repre-
sentative sample of the wider stakeholder group. Stakeholders were asked to nominate their
most important priorities via a second online survey before the online workshop.

Step 4: Workshop. Stakeholders who attended the workshop reached consensus on priorities
and developed ideas for strategies to be included in the Summer 6-week pilot program which
aimed to encourage ACT residents to collect native leaf litter.

Stakeholders participating in the CCS process agreed on 11 key priorities (See Table CS10.2.
Research Priorities CCS)

The workshop was supported by Interpretive Structural Modelling (ISM) software that is built
with consensus. The CCS process highlighted the stakeholder belief that providing information
and tools would enhance community involvement.

Figure CS10.2 CCS steps

 CASE STUDY 10 253

Table CS10.2 Priorities identified by ACT stakeholders during the CCS phase

Creating collective solutions (CCS) process

1. Make any education campaign not only educational but have incentives, competitions
(which school can collect most) or give awards, small prizes (compost bins, worm farm,
seeds for native plants and pollinator plants, small native plants, etc.), also involve people
in multi-unit developments that now are often built near Lakes (e.g., Lake Tuggeranong)
about leaf collection and have incentives.
2. Cash for litter scheme – 10c per bag when dropped off at a certain point.
3. Creation of community groups for collective action.
4. Identify community drop-off points (e.g., schools, community gardens, compost hubs)
within every 2km. Create a drop-off point where there are gaps.
5. Where to collect native leaf litter: in your own green bin but not in landfill bin
(relates to education campaign); how to compost: needs advice on doing it correctly;
neighbourhood leaf collection compost and use, how to use safely as mulch.
6. A funded, well-designed, and aesthetically pleasing social media campaign that
highlights the fact that native leaf litter is an important habitat for many of our indigenous
fauna (lizards, insects), linked with encouraging residents to use native leaf litter in well-
maintained garden beds away from storm water infrastructure.
7. Leaf towers to be built in schools and other community hubs with trees and students
and community to be involved in leaf gathering as a physical exercise, part of caring for
environment, and sense of achievement!
8. Provide special leaf litter bins for community composting activities and provide
residents with collection containers or compostable bags.
9. Education of the effect of organic matter on our waterways.
10. Street-level working bees to collect it with a corresponding morning or afternoon tea.
11. Create school and community org competition activities. Prizes for schools and
community orgs that collect the most.

10.3 Behavioural objectives

The measure of success for this 6-week piloting campaign (1 February to 20 March 2022) was how
many leaves were picked up and taken away from storm water drains by people living in suburbs
around Lake Tuggeranong. Our team set an ambitious target hoping we could reach 400,000 litres
of leaves.

10.4 Intervention
Over a 6-week pilot period, people living around the Tuggeranong Catchment were encouraged to
divert native leaf litter (twigs, bark, leaves, flowers and nuts) away from stormwater drains. Over the
6-week campaign period people participated in Leave Collective activities, they adopted trees and
drains, ordered free leaf bags and more. To help achieve outcomes the Leaf Collective implemen-
tation team provided drop off points, delivered information about composting leaves (see www.
leafcollective.com.au and https://www.facebook.com/theleafcollectiveACT), provided prizes and
incentives and they delivered leaf bags and scales to more than 300 people living in the ACT.
254 Luisa Lopez Cordova et al.

10.5 Creative strategy

10.5.1 Branding identity, narrative and key messages
The leave collective logo and name represent community taking action to realise the true value
of leaves. The logo colours represent autumn and colours used in the 6-week summer campaign
reflect the Australian summer (green eucalypts and bright blue skies). Three key messages under-
pin the brand identity, namely Care for it, Collect it and Enjoy it. (See Figures CS10.3–CS10.5 for
branding identity messages).

10.5.2 Branding assets

The Leaf Collective website and Facebook page were re-designed to reflect the summer pilot pro-
gram’s focus on native leaf litter. Colours and visual elements were updated (see Figure CS10.6 for
Facebook Banner and Figure CS10.7 for Website Design Examples) with the aim of giving a sum-
mer feel to the campaign. In addition, a software application was created by ACT Government for
Canberrans to record the amount of leaves picked on the spot (See Figure CS10.8 for App design)

10.5.3 Communication strategy

The communication strategy considered frequency, engagement, creative fit, budgetary constraints
and target market preferences. Drawing from insights emerging from the research, campaign com-
munications focused on participation and education. Traditional and digital marketing methods
were utilised to encourage householders and community organizations to “get involved” in the
community program, and “get informed.” Information delivered during the 6-week campaign

Figure CS10.3 Care for it

 CASE STUDY 10 255

Figure CS10.4 Collect it

Figure CS10.5 Enjoy it

256 Luisa Lopez Cordova et al.

Figure CS10.6 Facebook banner

Figure CS10.7 Website design

 CASE STUDY 10 257

Figure CS10.8 App design

delivered scientific facts to build community knowledge that leaves left in the wrong place are litter.
Survey data identified that people did not understand that leaves are contributing algal blooms and
co-design and CCS indicated people wanted scientific data and explanations to educate the public.
Promotions were implemented to motivate people to take up composting and gardening and tips,
expert explanations and ideas were provided to community over a 6-week period. Communications
outlined ways people can sustainably manage native leaf litter.

Encouraging residents to stop leaves from entering stormwater systems involved taking people
on a behaviour change journey. It began with awareness (education and offers), consideration
(website traffic), conversions (offer downloads), behaviour (collecting and recording leaf litter),
and ended with loyalty (sharing with others and supporting program delivery through local drop
off events). Content marketing, social media advertising and promotions, influencer and refer-
ral marketing, public relations and media advertising were integrated across online and offline
media channels. See Table CS10.3. The Leaf Collective Marketing Strategy summary.

10.5.4 Engagement strategy

The engagement strategy for the pilot summer campaign was designed to reach and engage
two primary groups: community groups/schools and householders living in the Tuggeranong
Catchment area. Selected community groups (see Table CS10.4 for partners) were approached to
partner with the 6-week pilot program.
258 Luisa Lopez Cordova et al.

Table CS10.3 The leaf collective communication strategy summary

Media or
Marketing distribution Promotional
strategy method tools Details

Content Website Leaf 1. Co-creation: Research blog

marketing and Collective 2. Garden drainage and other water storage ideas
Facebook blogs
3. Canberra leaf FAQ’s – https://leafcollective.
com.au/canberra-leaf-faqs/
4. The path to preventing toxic blue green algal
blooms – https://leafcollective.com.au/2022/01/31/
the-path-to-preventing-toxic-blue-green-algal-
blooms/
5. Four creative ways to re-use leaves in
your garden – https://leafcollective.com.
au/2022/02/01/4-creative-ways-to-reuse-leaves-in-
your-garden/
6. The benefits of composting leaves
Website, Leaf Expert and community Q&A sessions
Facebook, Collective 1. Interview with Ralph Ogden, ACT Waterways
and video Program Manager – what is government doing?
YouTube interviews:
2. Composting in Kambah
3. Interview with Ralph Ogden, ACT Waterways
Program Manager – what can we do to help?
4. Interview with Ralph Ogden, ACT Waterways
Program Manager – nutrients are pollutants
5. Interview with Professor Fiona Dyer, University
of Canberra – preventing algal blooms in Lake
Tuggeranong
6. Gift of giving
7. Composting in Canberra
8. C’mon Canberra – time to turn a new leaf
9. Check your soil health
10. Turn your leaves into mulch
Printed Leaf Letterbox deliveries to 11,448 householders in
material Collective Kambah, Oxley, Monash, Wanniassa, Isabella
Newsletter Plains, and Bonython
(double- A newsletter will be framed to tell The Leaf
sided A4 Collective story; articles in the newsletter will be
newsletter) aligned to the key messages of care for it, collect
it, and enjoy it
 CASE STUDY 10 259

Printed Leaf Local shops, libraries, community centres,

material Collective gyms, notice boards, day care and schools will
A3 posters be targeted; Kambah, Monash, Isabella Plains,
and A4 Wanniassa, and Bonython
posters
(2 x kinds)
Printed Thankyou The thank you cards are supplied with the reusable
material card leaf bag offer; it will be used to encourage
residents to record their leaf collection activities in
the Leaf Collective App
Social Facebook Social 6 x Facebook Ads ($1,500)
media media Brand ad, adopt a tree or drain, reusable leaf bag,
content compost revolution, pop-up leaf drop-off point,
Leaf Collective App
10 x Boosted posts ($1,000)
Content that performs well organically will be
boosted
Influencer Facebook, Scout Leaf Scout Leaf Collection competition
and website, Collection Mount Taylor Scouts and Lake Tuggeranong
referral and email, competition Sea Scouts will participate in The Leaf Collective
marketing digital Leaf competition (competition detail is outlined under
flyers, Collective Engagement Strategy).
newsletters, champions Leaf Collective champions
and posters
Digital Schools and community organisations have been
newsletter engaged as Leaf Collective champions; their role
and posters is to participate in the behaviour and encourages
others to join The Leaf Collective.
Public Facebook Public Co-ordinate a public relations event with Minister
relations and Relations Rattenbury and Lake Tuggeranong Sea Scouts;
RiotACT Event media coverage from RiotACT will be included
Feature
Article
Media Website RiotACT Photographic package
package and Media Supplied article:
Facebook Package
The path to preventing toxic blue green algal
blooms in Canberra’s lakes
Feature article:
Lake Tuggeranong Sea Scouts and Minister
Rattenbury Public Relations Event
260 Luisa Lopez Cordova et al.

Table CS10.4 Partnership agreements

Sector/Organisation Partners Program support

Community Communities @ Work Promoting The Leaf Collective Pilot

Organisation Organising Leaf Collection
Champions
Facilitating e-introductions to other
community groups
See-Change Promoting The Leaf Collective Pilot
Tuggeranong Securing volunteers for the Pop-up
Native Leaf Litter Drop off Point
Tuggeranong Promoting The Leaf Collective Pilot
Community Council
Over 55s Group Promoting The Leaf Collective Pilot
Canberra Organic Promoting The Leaf Collection Pilot
Growers Society
Scouts ACT Lake Tuggeranong Sea Community Leaf Collection Champions
Scouts Participate in Native Leaf Litter
Mount Taylor Scouts Competition between Scout Groups
Co-create content for the Leaf
Collective Social Media Channel
(social proof)
Promotions of program to members
and families
Gardening Brindabella Waste Provide discounted Trash Packs to
Contractor Scouts Groups (6 Trash Packs per
group)
Green Waste Corkhill Brothers Provide a 5.8m x 2.34m Skip for Pop
Facility Up Drop off Point (Wanniassa)
School Tuggeranong College Community Leaf Collection
Champions
Promoting The Leaf Collective Pilot
Retailer Anaconda Donated 2 x $100 prize vouchers

In addition, based on the co-creation research, offers were built into the program to overcome
barriers identified in the survey. Identified barriers included lack of time, issues of access, stor-
age, or disposal of green waste. The program offers are outlined in Table CS10.5: Program Offers.

10.5.5 Treatment areas

The geographical boundaries for the summer pilot program were centralised on suburbs
within the Tuggeranong Catchment area. Significant water quality issues are ongoing for Lake
Tuggeranong, with frequent closures to recreational use when toxic blue-green algal blooms are
present.
 CASE STUDY 10 261

Table CS10.5 Program offers

Offer QTY Details and purpose Promotions

Adopt a tree - An online tool enables participants to identify Facebook ad

or drain specific collection locations and provide Website
photographic evidence that the behaviour has been
Posters
completed.
Newsletter
Capturing stories and photos from participants
provides a way for the project team to share
community involvement on The Leaf Collective
social media channel. Leveraging social proof for
the management of leaf debris on nature strips and
in gutters is an effective method for encouraging
others to do the same.
Free leaf bag 260 Householders can order one or two bags to help Facebook ad
them collect native leaf litter (200 bags). Lake Website
Tuggeranong Sea Scouts and Mount Taylor Scouts
Newsletter
will receive 30 bags each.
The sheer volume of leaf litter and lack of access
to green bins are barriers to change. Two leaf bags
can store the equivalent leaf matter of a standard
ACT Green Bin.
Handheld 20 The digital scales will be provided and used to Adopt a tree or
digital scales measure collections of native leaf litter (leaves, drain form and
twigs, bark, flowers, and nuts) in kilograms. leaf bag form
$10 off - This incentive is designed to motivate householders Facebook ad
composting to purchase and engage in composting behaviours. Website
products Sustainable management of leaf litter is a key
Poster
from compost priority; therefore, providing access to different
revolution behaviour change enablers is needed to achieve Newsletter
(on orders the overarching goal of preventing leaves from
over $100) polluting ACT waterways.
Pop-up leaf 1 A 5.8 x 3m Green Waste Skip supplied by Corkhill Facebook ad
litter drop off Bros will be onsite in Wanniassa between 12.00 pm Website
point and 2:00 pm on Saturday 5 March. Volunteers from
Newsletter
SEE-Change Tuggeranong will work to eliminate
any contamination of green waste.
This service offer has been built into the program to
provide another free green waste drop off point (in
addition to Mugga Lane Green Waste Facility) for
leaf litter collected by householders. Corkhill Bros
will mulch and compost the day’s collection at their
green waste facility.
The Leaf - Participants self-report leaf collections’ quantities, Facebook ad
Collective tools used to collect leaf litter, and leaf disposal
App behaviours. The purpose is to record the impact for
funding partners and share community collections
on social media.
262 Luisa Lopez Cordova et al.

Figure CS10.9 Environmental stewards and Lake lovers

 CASE STUDY 10 263

Treatment area selection was underpinned by the following factors: 1) located within the Lake
Tuggeranong Catchment; 2) suburbs’ proximity to the lake and waterways; 3) separate houses
featuring large gardens present in each suburb; 4) demographic variables matched to persona
profiles and 5) proximity to community and partner organisations. A total of 12 suburbs were
selected as the target area (Kambah, Oxley, Wanniassa, Monash, Bonython, Isabella Plains,
Fadden, Gowrie, MacArthur, Calwell, Chisholm Gilmore and Richardson).

10.5.6 Targeted groups = Two personas

Segmentation helped to define two targeted groups for the summer piloting campaign.
Segments had to be: 1) measurable (e.g., statistically significant differences at the p = 0.05
level); 2) sustainable (e.g., large enough to warrant consideration); 3) accessible (can be
reached through specific targeting mechanisms); and 4) actionable (specific social mar-
keting campaigns can change the behaviour of specific segment/s). Two-step cluster
analysis identified two segments, namely 1) Environmental Stewards (account for 41.8%
of the target population) and 2) Lake Lovers (account for 32.7% of the target population)
(See Figure CS10.9 for targeted groups).

10.6 Outcomes
The total number of leaves collected in the ACT community are yet to be assessed. At week 5 of the
pilot 5,160L of leaves have been reported as “collected” on the App. Monitoring data identifying
results of the in-progress pilot program are summarized in Table CS10.6.

10.7 Lessons for the planet

10.7.1 We should always learn from nature = Biomimicry it
Leaves left in the wrong place can be litter. Leaf matter is a key organic source that is contributing
to toxic algal blooms leading to lake closures in urban waterways such as ACT’s Lake Tuggeranong.
Ecological processes show us how easily leaves can be recycled and reused naturally. Leaves can
be composted in the garden and leaves can be used as mulch reducing evaporation in long, hot
summer periods as experienced in Australia. When placed on gardens leaves deliver phosphorus
safely back into soils, which promotes plant growth, and reduces the need for chemical fertilisers
saving people money. Taking leaves away from storm water drains prevents pollution in water-
ways.

10.7.2 Everything is connected and coordinated action is needed

Whole of community action is needed to shift organic matter away from urban lakes. Currently,
5 times more phosphorous is available in Canberra’s urban waterways delivering the perfect
growing conditions for toxic blue-green algae. Go to this link to learn more: https://youtu.be/
XGzkdepelkk. A balanced ecosystem is essential to keep the community environmentally safe.
Individual, community and government actions are needed. Watch this video to understand what
the ACT Gov is currently doing: https://youtu.be/7VJhGJM4GXY
264 Luisa Lopez Cordova et al.

Table CS10.6 Outcomes summary

Media or Distribution
channel Outcomes and observations

Facebook @ Followers > 293

theleafcollectiveACT Total Reach > 112,067
Engagement > 15,211
Leaf Collective Total page viewed: 5,768
Website Users: 2,635
Website: New users = 2,449
Engagement Pages viewed = 5,768
Sessions = 3,166
Pages per session = 1.9 rolling average
Average session duration = 1:37 rolling average
Bounce rate % = 56%
Website Traffic Organic (Unpaid listings on search engine results pages) total = 191
Direct (Typing URL in browser or through browser bookmarks) = 879
Referral (Directing external sources outside search engine) = 43
Social = 1,407
YouTube Views: 111 total
Radio Content Radio- Interviews conducted: ABC Radio x 2
Printed material In person activation via offer uptake or activity engagement
(Flyers, posters & Physical newsletters delivered > 11,700
newsletters)
RiotACT’s report Three partner content articles = 3,509 readers
Site banners resulted in 107,378 impressions and 190 clicks
Four Facebook posts = overall reach of 31,635 people
Public Events Public events participants: More than 40 people participated in
community events
Program Offers • Free Leaf Bag—609 orders
Results • View Green Waste Dropoff Points — 179
• Green Waste bins ordered = 98
• Compost Revolution $10 Off Offer — 153
• Adopt a tree or drain — 131 drains adopted
• Leaf Collection App Survey** — How much can we pile up?
Link to survey — 117 The Leaf Collective App — 5,160L of
leaves collected (20,740 L to date – 15580L recorded in Autumn)
• Contact us (Leaf Bag interest) = 87
• Pop up Leaf Litter Drop off Point – Tuggeranong Sea Scouts >
2,749 people reached
• Handheld Digital Scales > 117 orders
 CASE STUDY 10 265

Case study questions

1. So far, the project team have been challenged to focus their work on leaves. Do some desk
research and identify other forms of organic matter that can be contributing to blue-green
algal blooms.

2. The project worked with community members to divert leaves going to drains, but there are
other consequences of changing the landscape surrounding water bodies. Can you find addi-
tional consequences?

3. Talking about biomimicry = imitate nature. Can you find additional examples of how humans
have used nature-based solutions to solve an existing issue with water and pollutants?

References
Achá, D., Guédron, S., Amouroux, D., Point, D., Lazzaro, X., Fernandez, P.E., & Sarret, G. (2018). Algal
bloom exacerbates hydrogen sulfide and methylmercury contamination in the emblematic high-
altitude lake titicaca. Geosciences (Basel), 8(12), 438. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences8120438
AU, A.E. (2019). Lake Tuggeranong research project research outcomes and recommendations. University
of Canberra. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Fiona-Dyer-2/publication/337757816_Lake_
Tuggeranong_Research_Project_Final_Report_Research_findings_and_recommendations/
links/5de8934e299bf10bc3405bd2/Lake-Tuggeranong-Research-Project-Final-Report-Research-
findings-and-recommendations.pdf
Wang, J.-H., Li, C., Xu, Y.-P., Li, S.-Y., Du, J.-S., Han, Y.-P., & Hu, H.-Y. (2021). Identifying major
contributors to algal blooms in lake Dianchi by analyzing river-lake water quality correla-
tions in the watershed. Journal of Cleaner Production, 315, 128144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jclepro.2021.128144
Waters, S., Verburg, P., Schallenberg, M., & Kelly, D. (2021). Sedimentary phosphorus in contrasting,
shallow New Zealand lakes and its effect on water quality. New Zealand Journal of Marine and
Freshwater Research, 55(4), 592–611. https://doi.org/10.1080/00288330.2020.1848884
Wiltsie, D., Schnetzer, A., Green, J., Borgh, M.V., & Fensin, E. (2018). Algal blooms and cyanotoxins in
Jordan Lake, North Carolina. Toxins, 10(2), 92. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins10020092
 Case study
11
Logan City Council
wildlife movement
campaign
Tori Seydel, Erin Hurley and
Sharyn Rundle-Thiele

11.1 Introduction and problem definition

In February 2022 the conservation status of koalas living in Queensland, NSW and ACT was raised
from vulnerable to endangered indicating a 20% chance they may not be living next to us in the
future. Urban and per-urban environments (e.g. cities and towns) have put enormous pressure
on wild koala populations. In Queensland, the largest population of wild koalas live in the most
densely developed and populated region, South East Queensland. Key threats that koalas face
range from habitat clearing, disease, car strikes and dog attacks.

Koalas are more mobile during their breeding season, and therefore they are more suscepti-
ble to increased road-vehicle interactions and dog attacks causing injury or mortality during
this period. Hence, it is important to develop strategies, such as community engagement
campaigns, to increase public awareness that can be implemented to keep people aware of
actions they can take at the times that koalas are most active. Understanding how people
living in communities think and feel about koalas, as well as their level of awareness of the
range of actions they can take to help protect koalas is needed before we design engag-
ing and effective communication campaigns capable of changing the actions that people
can take.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003200086-22
 CASE STUDY 11 267

Increasing importance is being placed on the need for partnerships between academic and non-
academic players (Plummer et al., 2022). Partnerships for wildlife conservation are important
given it is a complex social issue that needs many members in community to get involved to take
a range of actions, e.g. dog training in wildlife avoidance or making a backyard wildlife friendly.
Partnerships between State and local governments and businesses allow for meaningful collabo-
ration that can generate solutions through capitalising on the knowledge, experience, resources
of each organisation and allows for a division of labour and other resources that can extend reach
and achieve shared objectives.

Funded by the Department of Environment and Science, Social Marketing @ Griffith sought to
partner with local governments across South East Queensland. One of the project aims was to
co-design and deliver a coordinated community engagement campaign on actions that peo-
ple living in community can take to help protect koalas. Following community co-design work,
Social Marketing @ Griffith designed koala conservation messaging that focused on koala pro-
tection actions. The communication materials developed drew from 4 years of evaluation learn-
ings and co-design workshops that tested past approaches that had been applied to effectively
engage more members of community to take actions that would protect koalas. This case provides
a brief overview of a partnership between Logan City Council and Social Marketing @ Griffith
who worked together implementing a koala awareness campaign in the 2021/22 breeding season,
namely the Logan City Council’s Wildlife Movement campaign.

11.2 Primary research

The Logan City Council (LCC) Wildlife Movement campaign implemented in partnership with
Social Marketing @ Griffith (SM@G) was designed based on insights gained through co-design
workshops and insights obtained from performing evaluations (Pang et al., 2020; Shawky and
Rundle-Thiele, 2020) over a 4-year period for a koala awareness campaign implemented in a
nearby local government area.

Primary research was conducted to gain insights into:

•• The types of behaviours to target

•• The types of messages and imagery to use

•• Key audiences to target

A co-design approach was implemented by the Social Marketing @ Griffith research team.
Co-design workshops were conducted with community members (Rundle-Theile et al., 2021).
Current and previous koala breeding season awareness campaigns were presented to partici-
pants and feedback was gained on likes, dislikes and areas for improvements through a feedback
grid (see Figure CS11.1).

In addition, participants were asked to design a campaign of value to them. Finally, data from four
years of awareness campaign evaluations in a nearby local government area informed the devel-
opment of the campaign collateral. Figures CS11.2 and CS11.3 show examples of participants’
designed campaigns.
268 Tori Seydel et al.

Figure CS11.1 Feedback grid

Insights informing campaign development included:

•• The use of imagery that portrays koalas as not being too humanised but still cute

•• The use of Aussie colours so the design can be applied throughout Australia and is not limited
to one region.

•• The inclusion of a strong call to action that isn’t hidden away at the bottom but is the main
focus of the message and enables people to easily understand how they can contribute

Following campaign development, Social Marketing @ Griffith researchers conducted further

workshops with residents across South East Queensland (SEQ) to test the developed ideas.
Participants liked that there was clear information in a fun way with strong calls to action, they felt
that the colouring was very “Australian” and thought the ideas were visually appealing. Feedback
included providing additional messages with clear ways to mitigate threats, and some partici-
pants were worried that the light-hearted nature may not highlight the seriousness of koalas’ cur-
rent state (e.g. being endangered).

The implementation of co-design workshops across South East Queensland found that resident’s
needs are similar across regions. Residents want:

1. To know more about koalas in their area and how they move around
 CASE STUDY 11 269

Figure CS11.2 Example of designed campaign 1

270 Tori Seydel et al.

Figure CS11.3 Example of designed campaign 2

2. More actionable tips that they, their families and community can do, including;

a. How to spot koalas

b. Identifying a sick koala

c. How to make their property/backyard more koala friendly

3. A campaign that had a mix of real koalas (including injured) and cartoon-like images, across a
variety of formats to reach diverse audiences in the community including schools.

11.3 Behavioural objectives

The campaign was delivered with the purpose of protecting the koala population in the Logan
City Council region. The overarching behavioural goal of the campaign was to encourage
residents to take action to support koala conservation in their community. Key behavioural
objectives were to

•• Increase the number of sick and injured koalas reported to RSPCA via 1300ANIMAL and
Wildcare on 07 5527 2444

•• Increase the number of koala sightings reported on the Logan City Council website

•• Decrease the number of koalas hit by cars

To achieve this the campaign focused on increasing residents’ awareness of koalas and providing
information on conservation actions that community can take. The campaign aimed to engage
community through a communications campaign that sought to change behaviours through a
series of targeted and actionable messages.
 CASE STUDY 11 271

11.4 Intervention
11.4.1 Partnership and collaboration
Social Marketing @ Griffith consulted with community on the design of campaign themes and mes-
sages. The final designs and themes developed by Social Marketing @ Griffith. Communication
materials were designed to be adaptable to suit the needs of different councils in terms of the key
messages they wanted focused on and use of local statistics in the messages. The key themes tar-
geting different audiences and koala conservation behaviours were:

•• Breeding season (awareness and slowing down when driving)

•• Signs of an injured koala

•• I’m stuck and can’t get out (backyard escape)

•• Dogs and koalas

•• Swimming pools and koalas

Social Marketing @ Griffith presented developed messages to the 12 local governments across
South East Queensland explaining the research, design and indicating the final campaign materi-
als available to local government areas for their use. Logan City Council were in the process of
planning their “Wildlife Movement campaign” and they indicated they were open to collaborate
with Social Marketing @ Griffith on their upcoming 2021/2022 campaign. A meeting with rep-
resentatives from Logan City Council’s environmental projects and marketing team was held to
understand the requirements and needs moving forward. Discussions focused on branding and
logistics of how to adapt and run the campaign. Social Marketing @ Griffith offered a number of
options on delivery for the campaign including collaborating on a marketing plan for the cam-
paign and:

1. implementing the communication campaign across the Logan City Council area

2. supporting council implementation

3. letting the council run the campaign with their own resources.

Given the capabilities and resources that the LCC team already had including graphic designers,
a marketing team, environmental project officers and funding already dedicated to the imple-
mentation of a campaign it was determined that Social Marketing @ Griffith would support coun-
cil implementation.

Social Marketing @ Griffith customised communication campaign messages into editable

Photoshop files for handover to the Logan City Council’s team (see Figure CS11.4 for original
branding). The graphic design team at Logan City Council adjusted the communication materials
with their branding and they made changes to font sizes to align the provided communication
materials to council branding (see Figure CS11.5). The first round of adjustments was shown to
Social Marketing @ Griffith to ensure that the key message and feel of the original designed mes-
sages was maintained. The full campaign was scheduled, organised and administered by Logan
City Council across their channels and using their designated budget.
272 Tori Seydel et al.

Figure CS11.4 Social marketing @ Griffith branded

11.4.2 Wildlife movement campaign

The objectives that Logan City Council developed for the Wildlife Movement campaign were to:

•• Raise awareness of koalas in the community.

•• Provide information about koalas and conservation actions residents can take.

•• Promote community appreciation for helping koalas.

The campaign ran across a 4-month period from September 2021 to January 2022 which
spans across the koala breeding season when koalas are most active and moving around. The
campaign used key themes and messages designed by the Social Marketing @ Griffith team.
General breeding season, slowing down and reporting koala sighting messages were commu-
nicated to a city-wide audience. More targeted messages about making your backyard koala
friendly (Figure CS11.6) and dogs and koalas (Figure CS11.7) were placed in koala-prone sub-
urbs including Park Ridge, Greenbank, Daisy Hill, Cornubia, Chambers Flat, Bahrs Scrub,
Shailer Park, and surrounding areas. Additionally, during the campaign, a video received
from a community member of a koala crossing a busy road in Logan during the morning peak
hour was included in the social media campaign. While this was not a pre-planned campaign
video, the ability to include this in the social media campaign improved campaign engage-
ment and told the stories of local koalas living in the area highlighting actions that people
could take, for example slowing down and being more aware when driving.

The campaign included a range of digital and printed collateral items and events
(Figures CS11.5 - CS11.7).

Figure CS11.5 Logan City Council branded

 CASE STUDY 11 273

Figure CS11.6 Example of a targeted ad in koala-prone areas 1

11.5 Outcomes
11.5.1 Social media outcomes
The Wildlife Movement campaign reached over 295,000 people on social media, with 16,200 peo-
ple actively engaged through likes, shares and comments. The campaign received an impressive
engagement rate of 11.7% (average engagement rate across all industries is 0.18%). The addi-
tional video included in the campaign by LCC that featured a koala crossing a local road was the
274 Tori Seydel et al.

Figure CS11.7 Example of a targeted ad in koala-prone areas 2

 CASE STUDY 11 275

Table CS11.1 Awareness campaign measures implemented

Logan Koala Awareness Campaign Measures Implemented

Digital • Assorted digital displays (fuel pump, shopping centres, gyms,

advertising customer service centred and libraries)
• Web banners
• Environment e-newsletter
• Social media (Facebook, LinkedIn, Twitter and Yammer-internal council
communication)
• Videos
• Radio
Printed/OOH • Our Logan magazine advertisement and article
• Glovebox checklist via direct letter box distribution
• Car magnets on council vehicles (Figure CS11.8)
• Posters
• Roadside banner (Figure CS11.9)
Events • Wildlife Movement Event
• Koala Education Webinar (how to spot, identify sex and submit sightings)
• Koala Count (month-long event encouraging people to submit koala
sightings)

top-performing post across the campaign (Figure CS11.10), followed by ads featuring the signs
of an injured koala (Figure CS11.11). The video received such high engagement because people
were shocked to see a koala crossing a busy road and because of the time of the day it was moving
around. This result is in line with Social Marketing @ Griffith insights indicating that people want
to see more information and posts about koalas in their community. The single LinkedIn organic
post did quite well with an engagement rate of 24.5% whereas Twitter did not perform as well
with only 1.8% engagement. Overall, the campaign did a great job in raising awareness about the
objectives of the campaign, achieving high engagement rates (Table CS11.1).

11.5.2 Behavioural outcomes

The campaign successfully engaged community, encouraging some members of the community
to take positive action to help save koalas. The campaign aimed to increase the number of people
reporting sighting of koalas and reduce the number of koalas hit by cars. Data were compared
between the previous year’s breeding season (September 2020 to January 2021) and the breeding
season the campaign was active (September 2021 to January 2022). Measures compared include
the number of koala sightings reported (to LCC, iNaturalist and Wildcare), and the number of
koalas hit by cars (as reported by the RSPCA).

During the previous year’s breeding season a total of 50 koala sightings were reported, while 126
were reported during the campaign period. The campaign’s 5 months of communications suc-
cessfully increased koala sightings reported by 152%.
276 Tori Seydel et al.

Figure CS11.8 Car magnet

RSPCA data showed that 24% of koalas admitted to care at RSPCA were injured due to a vehicle
strike (n = 6) during the 2020/21 breeding season while vehicle strikes accounted for only 9%
(n = 1) of admissions in the 2021/22 breeding season.

11.6 Lessons for the planet

11.6.1 Leveraging partnerships for koala conservation
Funded by Queensland Government, the partnership between Social Marketing @ Griffith and
Logan City Council successfully delivered positive outcomes supporting the koala conserva-
tion protection actions focused on in the Wildlife Movement campaign. Each partner delivered
unique value to the campaign by contributing their resources, expertise, and capacity. Social
Marketing @ Griffith was responsible for the researched-based design of campaign collateral
which Logan City Council then leveraged to create a comprehensive koala breeding season cam-
paign. Financial and human resources were maximised resulting in a stronger campaign with
increased impact in the Logan community.

In addition, the partnership sparked innovation. Logan City Council got creative with campaign
materials creating a handy glove box checklist (Figures CS11.12 & CS11.13) that residents could
keep in their cars to have easy access to important information if they ever come across a sick or
injured koala making sure the information was available right when it would be needed.
 CASE STUDY 11 277

Figure CS11.9 Roadside banner

11.6.2 Inspiring real action for impact

We need to engage community before we can see change. This involves empowering communi-
ties to take action. There is often a gap between what people say and what they actually do. For
example, people say that they want to take actions to save koalas, but this often does not trans-
late into action simply because too few understand what they should do. We need to support
278 Tori Seydel et al.

Figure CS11.10 Top performing social media post-koala crossing road

and empower communities that may lack the knowledge of what to do by providing them with
clear and specific tasks that they can action to achieve change. The Logan City Council Wildlife
Movement campaign included targeted and actionable messages relating to koala conservation
behaviours to influence people to act (e.g., put a rope in the swimming pool, call 1300ANIMAL if
you see a sick or injured koala) resulting in positive behavioural outcomes.

11.6.3 Social media delivering positive change for the planet

Social media is well known as a platform to spread messages and ignite conversations and is
increasingly used to drive positive environmental change. Utilising social media, the campaign was
able to spread messages about how community can play a role in supporting koala populations. In
addition, social media brings with it a flexibility and responsiveness that traditional media lacks.
The top-performing post was one that was not included in the original implementation plan and
instead came about in response to footage captured of a koala crossing a busy local road. Planning
for stories that can be included as they arise can clearly enhance community engagement.
 CASE STUDY 11 279

Figure CS11.11 Second top-performing social media post-sick/injured koala glove box

checklist
280 Tori Seydel et al.

Figure CS11.12 Glove box checklist front

Acknowledgements
The authors wish to acknowledge the Logan City Council team who led the implementation of the
2021/2022 Wildlife Movement Campaign and members of the community who assisted in cam-
paign co-design and the people who contributed film and photo footage to support the campaign.

Case study questions

1. In your own words explain how the CBE process (Co-create, Build and Engage) was applied
in the Logan City Council koala movement campaign.

2. Which social marketing benchmark criteria (SMBC) are evident in the Logan City Council
koala awareness case study?
 CASE STUDY 11 281

Figure CS11.13 Glove box checklist back

References
Pang, B., Seydel, T., David, P., & Rundle-Thiele, S. (2020). Koala Awareness and VMS Campaigns
2019/2020: Supplementary Report. Social Marketing @ Griffith. https://www.redland.qld.gov.au/
info/20301/koala_conservation/913/koala_conservation_plan
Plummer, R., Blythe, J., Gurney, G.G., Witkowski, S., & Armitage, D. (2022). Transdisciplinary
partnerships for sustainability: An evaluation guide. Sustain Sci. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-
021-01074-y
Shawky, S., & Rundle-Thiele, S.R. (2020). Evaluation of koala conservation campaigns using co-design.
Social Marketing @ Griffith, prepared for Redland City Council.

Read this paper

Rundle-Thiele, S.R., Dietrich, T., & Carins, J. (2021) “CBE: A framework to guide the application of
social marketing to behaviour change” Social Marketing Quarterly, 27 (3), 175–194. https://doi.
org/10.1177/15245004211021643
 Case study
12
Tackling gender inequality
and promoting a healthy
lifestyle
The women in sport roadshow
Michelle O’Shea, Hazel Maxwell,
Nicole Peel and Sarah Duffy

12.1 Introduction and problem definition

In the past five years some of the biggest shifts in the participation of women and girls in
Australian sports have occurred (O’Shea et al., 2021). At the elite professional level, these
changes have been most visible. The recent growth of domestic professional leagues and the
rising profiles of national teams have culminated in Australian women’s national teams out-
ranking their male counterparts. Women’s teams have also outranked men’s teams in surveys of
emotional connection and national pride. This is a poignant representation of women’s sports
cultural significance and the contribution their participation at the highest levels of sport is mak-
ing to equity gains.

Despite this success, Australian women and girls are underrepresented in all facets of the sport.
This includes as participants, coaches, officials, administrators, journalists and board members.
The management of sports is historically grounded in assumptions about the “naturally superior”
sporting performance of masculine bodies on and off the field. The Australian Sports Commission

DOI: 10.4324/9781003200086-23
 CASE STUDY 12 283

(ASC) is the peak Australian federal government agency for sport, and they have begun to high-
light ingrained gender inequities on and off the pitch. In 2016, Kate Palmers was appointed as
the first woman to lead the commission in its 31-year history. Palmers leadership is a huge leap
forward as just 23.4% of all National Sporting Organisations (NSOs) directorships are held by
women. Unfortunately, 17% of NSOs have all-male boards.

The statistics are no better in the context of coaching and associated activities such as sport jour-
nalism, which is both culturally and numerically dominated by men. Respected Australian jour-
nalist and writer Angela Pippos bluntly described Australian sports media as “pale, male and
stale”. This case study of the “Women in Sport Roadshow” (WISR) explores a strategy to increase
the participation of schoolgirls in sports from a low socio-economic and culturally diverse part of
Sydney. The purpose of the intervention is to enable girls to enjoy organised sports and overcome
the gender bias that can hamper their participation.

Structural constraints (such as access to facilities, nature of the facilities, playing and training
conditions) and cultural discourses and norms (including attitudes concerned with appropri-
ate femininity, lack of cultural heroes) continue to inequitably shape young women and girls
access to and involvement in sport (Maxwell et al., 2021; O’Shea and Maxwell, 2021). To rectify
these inequities, various levels of government have sought to fund and support opportunities to
enhance girls and young women’s involvement in physical activity.

The case details an Australian State Government funded grant campaign directed at improving
the: (a) Health and Well-being and (b) Participation and Empowerment for women and girls
(O’Shea et al., 2020). In 2020 The NSW Government encouraged local councils within the state of
NSW to apply for a grant to hold events and activities that celebrate women during NSW Women’s
Week from 2 March 2 to 8 March 2020. This was the fifth year of the programme.

12.2 Primary research

Social capital theory is the linking framework that was used in the research accompanying this
intervention to understand how the WISR could contribute to improved sport and physical activ-
ity outcomes for girls and young women in a local government area (LGA) in Greater Western
Sydney, Australia. The selected LGA was our study focus given its cultural and religious diversity
together with its suburban locality (see section 4 for more detail about the LGA). Social capital
focuses on the effects and consequences of our sociability and our connectedness as human
beings. Consequently, social capital’s underlying premise and the focus of the data collection in
this study was to qualitatively understand how relationships between people operating within
organisations develop trust and reciprocity which can then be leveraged to provide opportunities
for girls to participate in sports and physical activity.

Specifically, linking social capital involves connections between people with power and influence.
Szreter and Woolcock (2004, p. 655) conceptualise “linking social capital as norms of respect and
networks of trusting relationships between people who are interacting across explicit, formal or
institutionalized power or authority gradients in society.” The key point of agreement in the social
capital literature is that people who do better, are somehow better connected and have societal
power and influence.
284 Michelle O’Shea et al.

Sport has an important role in facilitating the social bonds that tie or connects community mem-
bers together. With our focus on women and girls sport participation, key stakeholders were
invited to take part in an in-depth semi-structured interview to reflect on the nature of their
involvement in the Women’s sport roadshow development and delivery. Their formal and infor-
mal involvement with other roadshow stakeholders and partners was a focus of our discussions.
We invited stakeholders to consider their experiences and perceptions of how relationships were
formed, forged, and unfolded over time. Material and other resources garnered and leveraged
provided us with a rich window into how linking social capital was created, enabled and indeed
in some instances blocked.

In total 13 key stakeholders participated in interviews, including: representatives from local coun-
cil, state and national sport organisations, elite female athletes who delivered aspects of the road-
show together with school principals and teachers. Interviews were conducted via zoom and the
telephone. Analysis of the interview data enabled us to identify and map relationships. Layering
this mapping exercise with stakeholder experiences and reflections allowed us to signpost where
and how impactful links and relationships were formed. The next step involved documenting how
stakeholders interacted so that these formal and informal connections might be further strength-
ened in ways that contributed to the programme’s continuance and ongoing sustainability. We
will now discuss the objectives.

12.3 Behavioural objectives

The aim of the WISR is to help bridge the gender gap in sport participation. To achieve the behav-
ioural objectives of the intervention a number of barriers to participation need to be overcome
first. Prior research tells us that girls and young women may: feel self-conscious in their sport
uniforms, be concerned about their appearance and body image, are lacking in role models, have
a lack or perceived lack of skills or may prefer to be non-competitive (Maxwell et al., 2021). Being
aware of these obstacles helped to set the behavioural objectives for the intervention.

Specifically, the programme aims to:

•• Teach young women and girls about resilience and overcoming challenges shared by female
sporting role models.

•• Build confidence in young women and girls to participate in sport by facilitating skills work-
shops that are supportive and encouraging.

•• Promote mental health and well-being of young women and girls by hearing female sporting
role models talk about the importance of healthy active bodies for healthy minds.

•• Encourage young women and girls to support and encourage one another to engage in physi-
cal activity.

•• Enable girls and young women to have fun when engaging in physical activity.

These behavioural objectives are not quantitatively measurable. However, interviews were con-
ducted with key stakeholders involved in the programme to qualitatively assess the programme.
The programme is structured in a way that allows some margin for ongoing adaptation and
 CASE STUDY 12 285

improvement. Further, we recognise that this intervention cannot alone redress lower rates of
female participation in sport. However, it can be a part of the solution.

12.4 Intervention
The WISR is an ongoing initiative from the Cumberland local government in Western Sydney
(O’Shea et al., 2020). Cumberland is one of the most culturally diverse areas in Australia. Over
240,000 people live in the Cumberland area with more than half of the population born over-
seas. Cumberland has the second-highest percentage of people speaking a language other than
English in Australia (65.6%). Approximately 150 different languages are spoken in Cumberland.
The three largest ancestries in Cumberland are Lebanese, Chinese and Australian. The largest
religion of the region is Islam with 21.9% of the population identifying as Muslim, compared to
5.3% in greater Sydney. Cumberland is culturally and linguistically diverse and is also consid-
ered a low socio-economic government area. There is a notable rate of population growth in
this area which is already densely populated placing pressure on the availability of: urban open
space, sporting infrastructure and public facilities for sporting competitions and recreational
activities.

With the specific local conditions in mind, the WISR was created to overcome the gen-
eral barriers for girls and women to participate in sport identified in section 3, but also
to overcome the specific barriers that are unique to the low-socio economic and cultur-
ally diverse region of Sydney. The Cumberland Youth Strategy of 2017–2021 places priority
on the importance of culturally appropriate physical activity programmes. There is stigma
within the Islamic community about female sport participation that may inhibit young
women and girls’ engagement with sport. Another facet of this stigma is the prioritisation
of male siblings’ sport participation and cultural norms that suggest participation in sport
and competition isn’t feminine.

Teachers from individual schools need to signal their interest in participating in the programme
by completing an expression of interest process. As part of this process, schools must identify the
topics they would like athletes to talk about (this involves selection from a list). The local council
then decide about which schools should be prioritised for the programme. Successful schools
receive:

•• A visit from a professional female athlete who shares their personal sporting story and answers
student questions over an engaging 30-minute session.

•• This is followed by 45 minutes of skill development facilitated by the athlete’s in the area of
their sport expertise.

Originally, it was intended that only female students would participate in the programme, how-
ever, some schools requested boys were able to participate so they could also benefit from inter-
acting with a strong and successful sportswoman. Many of the schools asked for the athletes
to talk about resilience as a means to overcome challenges and to support mental health and
well-being. The skill development session after the initial talk was seen as an important space to
encourage young women and girls to feel confident in their bodies, to support each other’s physi-
cal activity and most importantly to have fun in a safe space.
286 Michelle O’Shea et al.

There are three weaknesses to the intervention. The first is that it is contingent on the passion,
interest, and action of individual teachers within schools to express an interest in being involved
in the process. The second is that the programme only runs for one day each year. For greater
impact to occur the programme needs to be ongoing and offered once a school term, in every
school in the local region. However, the current programme could be positioned as a pilot pro-
gramme with the goal of scaling up if additional funding was received in the future. The third
weakness is that in some cases male students participated in both the Question and Answer seg-
ment with the professional athlete and the skill development session. While it is acknowledged
that it is important for boys to witness and interact with successful female athlete’s the research-
ers observed that sessions with male students present were dominated by male students, which
in some ways defeated the purpose of the programme.

12.5 Outcomes
The three key findings from our research were:

1. Cost is a significant issue – for some schools the programme wasn’t fully funded and in some
cases required students to pay $2–$5 to participate. In a low socio-economic area cost may
be a barrier, we recommend for increased participation the programme needs to be offered
at no cost.

2. Network effects – we found that the sporting organisations who facilitated the skill develop-
ment workshop reported that the WISR gave them an opportunity to meet and spark a con-
nection with schools that was the beginning of an ongoing relationship. These organisations
then had contacts with teachers and students that led to future interactions and ultimately
worked towards the goal of increasing female participation in sport.

3. Mental health and resilience resources – Future iterations of the programme may benefit
from incorporating digital mental health resources. The professional athlete’s shared in the
interviews that they were inundated messages via social media about mental health issues
that were outside of their knowledge, capacity and skill set to cope with. The athlete’s indi-
cated a genuine desire to help the young women contacting them, however, they were aware
of their own limitations to respond appropriately. We recommend the establishment of
an online mental health age-appropriate resource that the athletes could direct the young
women to.

Case study questions

1. Overview of the strengths and weaknesses of including male students as participants to sup-
port the goal of the women in roadshow programme?

2. Would you implement a similar programme in your local area? What aspects of the pro-
gramme would you keep and what would you change? What specific sports do you think are
appropriate to showcase based on your local areas social and cultural profile.

3. Investigate how you would fund a similar project in your local area and what changes if any
you would make to meet the funding requirements.
 CASE STUDY 12 287

References
Maxwell, H., O’Shea, M., Stronach, M., & Pearce, S. (2021). Empowerment through digital health track-
ers: An exploration of indigenous Australian women and physical activity in leisure settings. Annals
of Leisure Research, 24(1), 150–167.
O’Shea, M., & Maxwell, H. (2021). Exploring new media and sport through a gendered lens: Enabling
possibilities and/or reproducing inequities for women?. In Insights on Reporting Sports in the Digital
Age (pp. 65–83). Routledge.
O’Shea, M., Maxwell, H., Duffy, S., & Peel, N. (2021). One step forward and two steps back?: Pandemic
effects and women’s sport in Australia. In Impacts and Implications for the Sports Industry in the
Post-COVID-19 Era (pp. 209–231). IGI Global.
O’Shea, M., Maxwell, H., & Peel, N. (2020). “Women in Sport Roadshow”: Exploring partnership
approaches to creating sport opportunities for girls and emerging women. In Book of Abstracts of
the 2020 Sport Management Association of Australia and New Zealand Conference (SMAANZ 2020),
2-4 December 2020, online.
Szreter, S., & Woolcock, M. (2004). Health by association? Social capital, social theory, and the political
economy of public health. International Journal of Epidemiology, 33(4), 650–667.
 Case study
13
The role of civil society
in advancing the sugar-
sweetened beverages
tax policy in Mexico
Rafael Pérez-Escamilla

13.1 Introduction and problem definition

The outbreak of the obesity epidemic that started to be detected since the 1980s in high-income
countries soon followed in middle-income countries and eventually spread to low-income
countries becoming a pandemic that continues to grow. This despite it being clear for decades
that a key determinant of the obesity pandemic was the global emergence of quite unhealthful
obesogenic global food systems loaded with highly caloric ultra-processed foods and bever-
ages that are relatively cheap and available anytime and anywhere. Until recently, there were
few evidence-informed options that policymakers could choose from to reduce the consumption
of ultra-processed foods and beverages. One of these options is the implementation of taxes on
unhealthy foods and beverages with the dual purpose of reducing consumer demand for them
and to nudge the food industry to reformulate their product to make them less unhealthy. This
case study illustrates the multi-sectoral participatory process that Mexico undertook that was led
by civil society organizations to pass its sugar-sweetened beverages tax law in 2014 and to suc-
cessfully implement it and enforce it with promising results.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003200086-24
 CASE STUDY 13 289

13.2 Primary research

In Mexico the prevalence of overweight and obesity reached 70% among adults and 30% among
children in 2012 (Colchero et al., 2017). The decision to move forward with a sugar-sweetened
beverages tax policy was supported by epidemiological and public health research showing strong
and consistent evidence that sugar-sweetened beverages led to obesity and non-communicable
diseases such as type 2 diabetes that were bankrupting Mexico’s health care system (Pérez-
Escamilla et al., 2017). A nationally representative dietary intake survey conducted in Mexico in
2012 found that 12.5% of total daily energy intake comes from added sugars which is much higher
than the World Health Organization’s recommended level of less than 5% of total energy intake.
Sugar-sweetened beverages alone accounted for 70% of the sugars added to the diet in Mexico,
or 9.8% of total energy intake. Therefore, from a public health perspective a policy involving tax-
ing sugar-sweetened beverages became a logical target for lowering the intake of added sugars in
Mexico (Colchero et al., 2017).

The tax policy proposal was also supported by extensive empirical research showing that taxes for
other unhealthy products such as tobacco were successful at reducing use. Lastly, mathematical
models showed not only the potential savings of this policy related to reduced health care costs
but also the hundreds of millions of dollars in tax revenue that the government would be able to
raise every year (Colchero et al., 2017; Pérez-Escamilla et al., 2017). Public health research was
indeed key in the public debate and decision-making process (Rivera Dommarco et al., 2019).
Specifically, the National Institute of Public Health (INSP) was instrumental in setting the stage
for the tax approval. INSP’s research documented the excessive intake of sugar-sweetened bever-
ages, the sharp increases in obesity, and the associated health and economic consequences. This
work clearly demonstrated an urgent need to address the excessive intake of sugar-sweetened
beverages and provided evidence-based support for the sugar-sweetened beverages taxes by
demonstrating that the demand for the excessive intake of sugar-sweetened beverages was elastic
in the Mexican population (a 10% increase in price was associated with an 11.6% reduction in the
demand) and that the principal substitutes were healthy options including water and milk. It also
projected body weight and diabetes reduction under different tax scenarios. These studies, along
with the existing evidence on the impact of taxes on sugar-sweetened beverages to disincentive
their intake, the reduced health care costs associated with unhealthful foods and beverages, and
the potential use of tax revenue to support obesity prevention efforts, were key for civil society
organizations to strongly shape public opinion in favour of the policy. This in turn was essential
for securing support from Congress and the Ministry of Finance.

13.3 Behavioural objectives

The specific objectives of this case study are to show (1) how evidence-based advocacy and social
marketing strongly driven by civil society organizations in partnership with academia can shape
public opinion, a crucial step for the successful passing, implementation and sustainability of the
sugar-sweetened beverages taxes in Mexico; (2) how a well thought out policy co-designed with
strong input from civil society organizations can lead to lower purchase and consumption of sugar-
sweetened beverages among individuals living in obesogenic environments that are conducive to
the development of non-communicable diseases such as type 2 diabetes and heart disease.
290 Rafael Pérez-Escamilla

13.4 Intervention
In September 2013, as part of the federal budget, the Mexican Congress passed an excise tax,
i.e., charged at the point of production instead of at the point of purchase; on sugar-sweetened
beverages and a sales tax on several highly energy-dense foods (Colchero et al., 2017; Pérez-
Escamilla et al., 2017). This case study focuses on the excise tax added to sugar-sweetened
beverages. A specific excise tax of 1 peso/L (approximately a 10% price increase based on 2013
prices) on non-dairy and non-alcoholic beverages with added sugar, including powdered sugar-
sweetened beverages based on their reconstitution and flavoured or sweetened dairy products
that are not milk, came into effect on 1 January 2014 (Colchero et al., 2017). The Ministry of
Finances became responsible for collecting the excise tax on sugar-sweetened beverages from
the manufacturers, with the expectation that this tax would be entirely passed on to consumers
at the point of sale, as it happened with tobacco products. The regulation allows for the tax to
be adjusted when the cumulative inflation rate compared to January 2014 in Mexico reaches
10% (Colchero et al., 2017).

Civil society organizations played a crucial role co-designing, advancing and defending the tax
policy once it went into effect. To create a strong unified voice with the public and policymak-
ers, an alliance of close to thirty non-governmental organizations (NGOs), led by El Poder del
Consumidor (The Consumer’s Power), formed a coalition that partnered with academic and
international organizations. This coalition lobbied Congress for sugar-sweetened beverages
taxes, front-of-package and marketing legislations, conducted extensive evidence-based advo-
cacy and designed and implemented a strategic social marketing campaign that included the
timely release of high-impact policy reports, press releases and conferences, highly visible pub-
lic demonstrations (Figures CS13.1 and CS13.2), and a mass muti-component media campaign
through multiple communication channels including print media, street billboards, subway
stations posters (Figures CS13.3–13.5), TV and radio public service announcements. Campaign
messages and dramatic images highlighted the exceedingly high content of sugar-sweetened
beverages, and the harmful relationship between high sugar consumption, obesity and diabetes
(Figure CS13.4), and how the tax revenue could be used to improve access to drinking water in
schools and public spaces (Figure CS13.5). The campaign also exposed legislators opposed to
the tax measures. The strategic civil society-academic partnership allowed for effective and rapid
translation of scientific findings to both the public and policymakers and added credibility to the
social marketing campaign.

13.5 Outcomes
In Mexico, Congress approval of excise taxes on sugar-sweetened beverages and taxes on
nonessential energy-dense food was made possible through the strong cooperation and
strategic coordination of a coalition involving an alliance of civil society organizations, aca-
demia, and the legislative and executive branches of government. As a result of strategic
evidence-based advocacy led by this coalition, the Ministry of Finances began implement-
ing the sugar-sweetened beverages and nonessential energy-dense food taxes in January
2014 and mandated food producers to paying these taxes based on accurate estimations
(Colchero et al., 2017).
 CASE STUDY 13 291

Figure CS13.1 Demonstration in front of the Ministry of Health in Mexico City dramatically

highlighting the 500,000 due to diabetes that happened during President
Calderon’s administration (2006–2012). It received widespread media
coverage as shown by the print media clip at the Bottom left of the image
Source: Courtesy of Alejandro Calvillo, El Poder del Consumidor.

Evidence collected in 2014 showed in urban areas that the tax was fully passed on to consumers
through increased product prices. Nielsen Mexico’s Consumer Panel Services showed that in
both 2014 and 2015 there were significant declines in the taxed beverages purchased by house-
holds across socioeconomic levels, but reductions were stronger in the poorest households that
experienced declines in sugar-sweetened beverages purchases of 18.8 ml per capita per day in
2014 and of 29.3 ml per capita per day in 2015 (Colchero et al., 2017). Therefore, the policy was
not only effective during its first year of its implementation, but it became even more effective
during its second year. Furthermore, the fact that it worked the best among the poorest members
of society indicates that from a public health perspective the tax policy has a strong potential to
reduce inequities in adverse health outcomes related to the excessive consumption of added
sugars.

These results, which showed that the taxes were working, were crucial for the civil society organi-
zations alliance to prevent an attempt by the sugar-sweetened beverages industry in September
2015 to repeal the tax measure a year after it took effect by claiming that it had been ineffective.
This illustrates how crucial research was in Mexico not only for the design, approval into law and
launch of the implementation of the tax policy as well as but also for facilitating evidence-based
advocacy to defend and keep the policy in place despite the strong opposition from the powerful
food industry.
292 Rafael Pérez-Escamilla

Figure CS13.2 A public demonstration in front of Mexico’s COFEPRIS (equivalent to the

USA’s FDA) showcasing Coca Cola’s polar bear symbol in front of a huge
banner indicating the hundreds of thousands of deaths that had happened
as a result of diabetes during President Calderon’s administration
(2006–2012)
Source: Courtesy of Alejandro Calvillo, El Poder del Consumidor.

13.6 Lessons for the planet

Although Mexico was not the first country to implement an excise tax policy on sugar-sweet-
ened beverages, the highly participatory whole of society process that it followed and the highly
innovative and effective social marketing campaign that implemented to garner public support
to pass the law and then to overcome resistance to its regulation from very powerful industries
(Carriedo et al., 2021) caught the attention and imagination of the world. As a result, Mexico’s
sugar-sweetened beverages tax law experience has influenced and facilitated the rapid dissemi-
nation of this policy in Latin America and beyond. To date, over 50 locations worldwide have
adopted sugar-sweetened beverages taxes, and fully consistent with the findings from Mexico, a
recent systematic review showed that this policy works at reducing purchase and consumption
across very diverse social, political and economic and cultural contexts (Teng et al., 2019).

In conclusion, crucial to the success of the tax policy in Mexico was that inclusion of a well-coor-
dinated civil society alliance with strong expertise in lobbying. This alliance was crucial for ana-
lyzing the political environment, mapping positions among congressmen and promoting the tax
initiative within Congress. This well-organized strategy which drew heavily from the civil society
partners’ strengths including the academic sector, was instrumental in overriding efforts from
the taxes’ opponents, mainly the food industry, to undermine the effort before during and after
 CASE STUDY 13 293

Figure CS13.3 This campaign material displayed in public spaces including subway stations
and busy streets billboards asks, “Would you drink 12 spoons of sugar?”,
“Why you drink soda?”, “Would you give them [children] 12 spoons of
sugar?” and “Why do you give soda to them [children]?” The subway
billboard also states that “soda is sweet, diabetes is not.” (continued)
Source: Courtesy of Alejandro Calvillo, El Poder del Consumidor.
294 Rafael Pérez-Escamilla

Figure CS13.3 (continued)

the law was passed (Pérez-Escamilla et al., 2017; Carriedo et al., 2021). This was a Mammoth chal-
lenge given that industry invested heavily in forming a strong anti-tax alliance together with food
retailers and sugar producers; strongly lobbied congress and policymakers claiming policy would
lead to strong discontent among the population and the closure of factories and the loss of jobs
in the country; advised the population against supporting the “Bloomberg tax” (injecting a xen-
ophobic sentiment given that the USA-based Bloomberg Philanthropies funded the campaign
and related research); messaged that lack of physical activity – not nutrition – was the problem;
funded anti-tax “consumer associations”; funded academicians to conduct studies contradicting
the vast majority of evidence available in support of the policy and had a strong presence in main-
stream media channels that did not give space to the civil society organizations efforts to reach to
the public to counteract many of its unfounded claims.

The success of the sugar-sweetened beverages tax policy is now having ripple effects within Mexico
and beyond. Building from the strong partnership that led the charge with the sugar-sweetened
beverages taxes, including its civil society alliance, and building from the experiences of Chile and
other Latin American countries, Mexico recently successfully passed its front of package warning
labels and marketing protection law that came into effect in 2020. This ripple public health nutri-
tion policy effect within and across countries may empower countries to join forces to continue
pushing for the urgent reform of global food systems to bring the obesity and related non-com-
municable diseases pandemic under control. This effort needs to be substantially strengthened
by addressing the social determinants of health considering the political economy factors that
currently drive the quite unhealthy food systems all over the world (Perez-Escamilla et al., 2018;
 CASE STUDY 13 295

Figure CS13.4 Dramatic image highlighting the serious consequences of diabetes

including limb amputations and blindness. The key messages of this
campaign material displayed through multiple channels including print
media and subway stations reads “First came obesity and then diabetes,”
“let’s demand soda marketing regulations” and “Let’s demand that
package labels warn us.” (continued)
Source: Courtesy of Alejandro Calvillo, El Poder del Consumidor.
296 Rafael Pérez-Escamilla

Figure CS13.4 (continued)

Figure CS13.5 Multimedia campaign message delivered in public spaces indicating that

sugar-sweetened beverages taxes could be used to provide drinking
water in schools and public spaces. Billboard also indicates “Soda is sweet,
diabetes is not.” (continued)
Source: Courtesy of Alejandro Calvillo, El Poder del Consumidor.
 CASE STUDY 13 297

Figure CS13.5 (continued)

Carriedo et al., 2021). This case study leaves little doubt that civil society organizations alliances
will have a central role to play to also attain this goal across the globe.

Case study questions

1. Was it justifiable to target sugar-sweetened beverages with excise taxes in Mexico to cope with
obesity pandemic?

2. What explains the success that Mexico had designing, launching, and thus far sustaining the
sugar-sweetened beverages tax policy?

References
Carriedo, A., Koon, A.D., Encarnación, L.M., Lee, K., Smith, R., & Walls, H. (2021). The political economy
of sugar-sweetened beverage taxation in Latin America: Lessons from Mexico, Chile and Colombia.
Global Health, 17(1), 5. doi: 10.1186/s12992-020-00656-2
Colchero, M.A., Rivera-Dommarco, J., Popkin, B.M., & Ng, S.W. (2017). In Mexico, evidence of sus-
tained consumer response two years after implementing a sugar-sweetened beverage tax. Health Aff
(Millwood), 36(3), 564–571. doi: 10.1377/hlthaff.2016.1231
Perez-Escamilla, R., Bermudez, O., Buccini, G.S., Kumanyika, S., Lutter, C.K., Monsivais, P., & Victora,
C. (2018). Nutrition disparities and the global burden of malnutrition. BMJ, 361, k2252. doi: 10.1136/
bmj.k2252
Pérez-Escamilla, R., Lutter, C.K., Rabadan-Diehl, C., Rubinstein, A., Calvillo, A., Corvalán, C., & Rivera,
J.A. (2017). Prevention of childhood obesity and food policies in Latin America: From research to
practice. Obes Rev, 18 (Suppl 2), 28–38. doi: 10.1111/obr.12574
Rivera Dommarco, J.A., González de Cosío, T., García-Chávez, C.G., & Colchero, M.A. (2019). The role
of public nutrition research organizations in the construction, implementation and evaluation of
evidence-based nutrition policy: Two national experiences in Mexico. Nutrients, 11(3), 594. doi:
10.3390/nu11030594
Teng, A.M., Jones, A.C., Mizdrak, A., Signal, L., Genç, M., & Wilson, N. (2019). Impact of sugar-
sweetened beverage taxes on purchases and dietary intake: Systematic review and meta-analysis.
Obes Rev, 20(9), 1187–1204. doi: 10.1111/obr.12868
 Case study
14
The Baby Killer revisited
Regulating the marketing of
breast milk substitutes
Gerard Hastings, Kathryn Angus,
Douglas Eadie and Kate Hunt

14.1 Introduction and problem definition

It is nearly fifty years since the charity War On Want published its landmark report “The Baby
Killer” (Muller, 1974). It exposed the shocking problems being caused across the world by “the
promotion and sale of powdered baby milks,” which were pulling women away from breastfeed-
ing to lethal effect. The reaction was dramatic and determined: at a grassroots level there was a
global boycott of products made by the biggest culprit, the food giant Nestle; and upstream, the
World Health Assembly (WHA), a United Nations body made up of representatives from nearly
200 countries, developed the International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes (WHO
1981) which required companies to acknowledge the superiority of breast milk, and outlawed any
advertising or promotion of what are now called breast milk substitutes (BMS).

It seemed that the problem had been solved, and the world’s attention drifted away. In reality,
BMS marketing did not stop and remains widespread to this day because some countries (e.g.
the USA) have not adopted the Code, and across the world, industry has developed follow-on
and specialist milks which they use to promote BMS by proxy. That is, they are branded in exactly
the same way and the boundaries between BMS and follow-on and other products have been

DOI: 10.4324/9781003200086-25
 CASE STUDY 14 299

deliberately blurred. The WHA has moved to close these loopholes by clarifying that the Code
also applies to these products, but the marketing continues. The advent and proliferation of digi-
tal media have further undermined the Code.

This marketing is living up to its notorious ancestry. A recent analysis shows that if all babies were
breastfed as the World Health Organization (WHO) recommends, over 800,000 infant deaths
would be avoided each year (Hastings et al 2020). The analysis also shows that BMS harms the
intellectual development of the baby to such an extent that it is possible to detect the impact
on the GDP of a predominantly bottle-fed population. In addition, there is an increased risk of
breast cancer for the mother, and significant ecological harm: packaging, supply chains and
bottle-feeding apparatus all have a carbon footprint and introduce durable plastics into the envi-
ronment. The competition, breast milk, has none of these drawbacks, and comes with natural
antibodies that turn it into “a personalised medicine for infants”; manufactured products cannot
begin to replicate these benefits. Breast milk is also much cheaper. Bottle feeding a baby for six
months in the UK cost £175 (approx. US$210) in 2019 for the cheapest own-label products, and
more than double that for a premium brand, and these figures do not include any equipment,
such as bottles, teats and sterilisers. Comparable data from the USA suggested that it could cost
between US$451 and $810 to buy BMS product to feed a baby for 6 months.

There are some advantages to bottle-feeding: for some women, breastfeeding can be difficult
to instigate and maintain so BMS is a necessary alternative; conflicts can arise (for mothers or
observers) between the feeding and sexual functions of the breast; and unsupportive public and
workplaces make breastfeeding difficult. The fact that breastfeeding is not readily accommodated
by the world of work worldwide makes it particularly challenging for women to breastfeed in the
absence of or beyond any period of maternity leave. This is a marked problem in low-income
countries where welfare systems are less well-developed. However, in most cases, when taken in
the context of threats to the baby’s life and future prospects, or the risk of cancer, these benefits
become much less persuasive.

The World Health Organization – the executive arm of the WHA – has now decided that action
is needed. A stronger light needs to be shone on BMS marketing practices, the world’s attention
recaptured and the regulatory controls greatly strengthened. As a first step, it commissioned The
Institute for Social Marketing and Health at the University of Stirling to conduct a critical analysis
of current BMS marketing practices.

14.2 Primary research

The link between commercial marketing and ill-health has been established in many markets –
tobacco, processed food and alcohol as well as BMS – so there was no need to prove cause and
effect. Rather WHO wanted to know more about the nature and extent of BMS marketing, and
in particular how it manages to persuade so many parents to opt for a product that is so clearly
inferior to breastmilk.

We used a mixed methods approach involving two linked data collection exercises: a review of
publicly available data on the global marketing of breast milk substitutes, followed by qualita-
tive interviews with marketing practitioners with experience of breast milk substitutes and food
300 Gerard Hastings et al.

marketing and infant feeding experts (n = 20). Further details on the methodology can be found
here (Hastings et al., 2020). Previous studies have described BMS marketing and tried to unpick its
impact on behaviour; to our knowledge, ours is the first investigation to look underneath the hood
and examine how the engine works. We also assessed the size and power of the BMS Industry, to
provide an indication of the resources it has at its command.

14.3 Behavioural objectives

To regain the world’s attention and stimulate a debate amongst non-governmental organisations
(NGOs), policymakers and nation states about the need for much more effective regulation of
BMS marketing.

14.4 Intervention
There was no intervention in a conventional sense: we had no media budget or new prod-
uct development strategy. We just had data with which to make an impact. Our aim, therefore,
was to publish the study in a highly regarded peer-reviewed journal and disseminate it through
respected professional networks. The project was not expected to “regain the world’s attention”
on its own; it was nested in a wider programme of work including:

•• A much bigger WHO/UNICEF-funded mixed method study of 8350 pregnant women and
mothers, and 300 health professionals from Bangladesh, China, Mexico, Morocco, Nigeria,
South Africa, United Kingdom and Vietnam.

•• A series of three articles targeted at The Lancet, a world-leading medical journal explaining in
turn: 1) the health benefits of breastfeeding; 2) the nature and extent of BMS marketing; and
3) the political economy of the BMS market.

•• A new debate at the World Health Assembly (target date: 2023).

14.5 Outcomes
14.5.1 Findings
The results of our study make uncomfortable reading. New parents are often extremely vulner-
able; raising a baby is immensely challenging, and almost all parents are primarily motivated by
doing the “best” for their child in whatever circumstances they find themselves. They badly need
reassurance and support. They also need a convenient and dependable way of feeding their child:
a healthy diet compatible with hectic modern life, and the norm of working mothers and fathers.
BMS companies have developed an intimate understanding of these needs and are delivering
to them with a combination of “sympathetic” relationship building, non-judgmental support,
individually targeted communications, a readily available range of reliable products and the con-
struction of reassuringly familiar and evocative brands. Digital marketing, where the social and
commercial have melded, is greatly enhancing their efforts, whilst making the breadth of indus-
try marketing strategies increasingly difficult to track and document. As one marketing expert
explained, for many pregnant women, the first point of contact is with the brands rather than
health services.
 CASE STUDY 14 301

The reach and wealth of the multinational corporations have turned this soft power into a very
hard global force. The BMS market is worth about US$70bn per annum and is controlled by six
of the most powerful food companies in the world, with massive household and global reach.
High-profit margins offer attractive investment and business opportunities. Marketing spend is
extremely difficult to quantify accurately but certainly runs into billions of dollars annually, which
is used to target governments and stakeholders as well as consumers. This is corporate marketing
at its most powerful and disturbing.

The concerns are twofold. First, in most cases, BMS feeding is not the best option, from a health
or ecological standpoint. As noted above, its use is causing immense harm to babies, mothers
and the environment. Second, the marketing is built on deception. BMS is in reality the definitive
one-size-fits-all product. By law, all products must have the same formulation, as established by
independent research. The only permitted variation from this is for unproven additives, which if
they ever prove to be beneficial, would, again by law, have to be added to all BMS products. The
product ranges, the segmentation and bespoke targeting, the carefully honed brands, are simply
subterfuge. In the UK the two leading and supposedly very different brands which dominate the
market are in fact made by the same multinational.

Our study was limited to a small number of interviews and relied on access to secondary data,
mostly from high-income economy countries. Thus it is not representative and in particular,
reveals less than we would like about what is happening in the global south. Nonetheless, it pro-
vides key insights into how BMS marketing works, and adds to our understanding of how unscru-
pulous business causes harms to health.

14.5.2 Conclusions
There is an urgent need to shed more light on the harm being done by BMS marketing; its extent
is revelatory to all but a small group of public health experts. Even the marketing practitioners who
had worked in the industry were taken aback by it and began to express overt regrets about their
past actions. As one experienced executive put it: “everyone ‘drinks the Kool-Aid’ that it’s a good
thing.” Just as BMS is being normalised, so too is BMS marketing. Corporate marketing careers
move between companies and sectors – from BMS to supermarkets to tech – this unthinking and
completely unwarranted moral equivalence has to be challenged. The medical establishment has
also been pulled into this charade; just as 50 years ago it had to rethink tobacco, so today it needs
to review fundamentally its relationship with the BMS industry. The decision by the British Medical
Journal (The BMJ) and sister journals to refuse BMS advertising is a welcome move in this direction.

The regulation of marketing needs to be greatly strengthened; as one marketing practitioner

observed: “the most effective response would be to prohibit any BMS marketing at all; much like is
done with tobacco.” The point is well-made, but BMS is not tobacco; it can be an essential option
in specific circumstances – with preterm or SGA (small-for-gestational-age) infants, for instance,
or when, even with optimal support, breastfeeding proves impossible. The problem is not the
product but rather out-of-control marketing, which is driving dangerous over-consumption in
the interests of profits.

This needs to change. The sole purpose of communications about BMS should be to help parents
and carers make the best possible decision for the baby. Advertising does nothing to help in
302 Gerard Hastings et al.

this regard. It promotes spurious product differences and reinforces these with confected brands.
In its digital form, which has become so prominent in recent years, it is particularly manipulative.
All this advertising should cease forthwith, as demanded by the WHO Code four decades ago. The
packaging should be unbranded and become a platform for objective guidance, from an accred-
ited public health source, explaining the product contents, how it should be used and by whom.
Point-of-sale activity should add further health promotion support, again from an independent
source. Pricing also needs to be tightly regulated; BMS is immensely profitable for a small number
of multinational corporations, while the costs to society are enormous. In addition, it should no
longer be possible to use price as a bogus indicator of quality.

Only with these radical revisions will we get a BMS market that serves the needs of babies and
their parents rather than shareholders. They are big steps that will take careful, sustained man-
agement and will meet resistance from very powerful vested interest. In other contested fields,
where radical change is needed, such as tobacco and climate, a Framework Convention, with its
global reach, has provided the answer; the equivalent is now needed for infant feeding (Hastings
et al., 2020).

14.5.3 Impact
•• Our study was published in Globalization and Health (Hastings et al., 2020), a respected inter-
national public health journal, where the article has been accessed 30K times and cited by 34
other academic articles in the 21 months since publication. The article was widely shared on
social media among professionals and other networks, the lead author was interviewed by
news media, and the full article was translated into Italian and disseminated by NGO IBFAN
Italia. The study was presented at numerous conferences including a global event organised
by WHO and UNICEF in May 2022 to mark the fortieth anniversary of the adoption of the
Code.

•• The larger UNICEF/WHO study has now also been published (Kingston et al. 2022) and given
a global launch.

•• The three paper Lancet Series is under review.

•• A Group Action legal case against the BMS industry has begun in the USA, and one of our
study’s authors has been retained as an expert witness.

The long-term goal of strengthening the regulation of BMS marketing has not yet been achieved,
but it has been advanced.

14.6 Lessons for the planet

1. Breastfeeding is the ultimate example of an ecological feeding system: there are no, facto-
ries, supply chains, plastics or equipment; no profits or losses. It is time-honoured and deeply
respectful of nature. The rest of our food system can learn invaluable lessons from it.

2. There are very real limits to commodification. The same powerful marketing tools that are
used to push the consumption of tobacco, alcohol and fast food are being applied to BMS and
the harms to health are equally unacceptable. We need a profound rethink of these business
models.
 CASE STUDY 14 303

Case study questions

1. What role can evidence play in policy change?

2. What ethical problems did the research with marketing practitioners throw up?

References
Hastings, G., Angus, K., Eadie, D., & Hunt, K. (2020) Selling second best: How infant formula marketing
works. Globalization and Health, 16: 77. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12992-020-00597-w
Kingston, G., Maplethorpe, N., Spencer, M., Power, G., Symington, L., Jones, H., & Walsh Glinert, K.
(M&C Saatchi World Services) (2022) Multi-Country Study Examining the Impact of Breast-milk
Substitutes Marketing on Infant Feeding Decisions and Practices: Commissioned Report. Geneva:
World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF). https://
apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/354094. Accessed 26 May 2022.
Muller, M. (1974) The Baby Killer. London: War On Want. https://waronwant.org/sites/default/files/
THE%20BABY%20KILLER%201974.pdf. Accessed 18 May 2022.
WHO. (1981) International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes. Geneva: World Health
Organization (WHO). https://www.who.int/nutrition/publications/code_english.pdf. Accessed 18
May 2022.
 Case study
15
Healthy breakfasts in
Armenia
Rowena Merritt and Nanna Skau

15.1 Introduction and problem definition

Malnutrition has been identified as a global health crisis, with the World Health Organisation
(WHO) identifying nutrition as the main cause of death and disease in the world (WHO, 2019).
Rates of malnutrition are continuing to rise, due to the nutrition transition that many developing
countries are experiencing, where undernutrition remains alongside micronutrient deficiencies
and rapidly growing overweight/obesity rates.

The 2018 Global Nutrition Report identified two forms of malnutrition affecting Armenia: over-
weight and anaemia (Developments Initiative, 2018). In terms of prevalence of overweight and
obesity in adolescents, the recent Childhood Obesity Surveillance Initiative (COSI) Armenia
study found that 27.7 per cent of surveyed children were overweight, and 12.6 per cent were
obese. The gender disaggregation analysis showed that 30 per cent of boys and 25.4 per cent of
girls were overweight. Similar tendency was observed for obesity as well, for which boys are more
obese than girls (15 per cent and 10 per cent, respectively). Increases in overweight and obesity
rates add to the burden of several non-communicable diseases (NCDs) including cancers, heart
disease and diabetes affecting the performance of the workforce of current and future generations
and thereby having significant socio-economic impacts on the country.

Healthy breakfast consumption is associated with positive outcomes for diet quality, micronutri-
ent intake, weight status and lifestyle factors (Balvin Frantzen et al., 2013). Breakfast has been

DOI: 10.4324/9781003200086-26
 CASE STUDY 15 305

shown to positively affect learning in children in terms of behaviour, cognitive and school per-
formance (Littlecott et al., 2016). However, formative research conducted by the World Food
Programme (WFP) in Armenia highlighted that many families do not see the value or the need
to consume a healthy breakfast. Or, when breakfast is consumed, this is often an unhealthy one
consisting of tea or coffee with added sugar and biscuits and sweets. The research also highlighted
that the lack of healthy breakfasts meant that children were more likely to snack on unhealthy
foods on their way to school, or during breaks.

To improve nutrition outcomes among children and adolescents in Armenia, WFP prioritised the
development of social behaviour change interventions, activities, and messages to increase the
consumption of healthy breakfasts.

15.2 Primary research

In-depth qualitative interviews were conducted with parents, school-aged children (ranging
from 8–18 years of age), teachers and school heads, and shop keepers. The research explored
participant’s attitudes, perceptions and behaviours in relation to breakfast consumption.
Wider questions were also asked to understand people’s motivations and aspirations, includ-
ing: Who do you trust? What makes you smile? What are your hopes for the future? When
you look back on your childhood, what are your fondest memories? These questions were
important as it stopped the research looking at nutrition in a silo, and instead helped to iden-
tify the cultural, social, and behavioural dynamics which influenced food preferences and
eating habits.

The research found that most people did not have breakfasts as they “did not have time” in
the morning. There appeared to be no understanding of the importance and value of giving
a child a good breakfast before they go to school. This was despite the parents wanting their
children to achieve good grades and perform well at school. The lack of breakfasts often led
to unhealthy snacking patterns. The research also found that children had enormous influ-
ence and control over what they ate and were often allowed to snack on unhealthy foods.
Parents often felt as if they had little control over what the children ate and/or appeared
unconcerned about the lack of breakfast consumption or the resulting snacking choices and
habits.

Other key insights identified which focused on the Armenian cultural values, lived history and
social norms, included:

•• Armenians love their children. Armenian’s love and praise their children very much; chil-
dren are seen as the nation’s future citizens who will preserve and continue the Armenian
legacy, identity and culture. Armenian families are ready to sacrifice to a great extent in order
to secure their children’s dreams and aspirations. Parents are also often very lenient with
their children giving their children much say and control within a household. The formative
research showed that this trait is reflected in the adult’s inability to say no to unhealthy foods,
if their children ask for them, as such, they end up making separate dishes (often unhealthy)
for their children on regular basis.
306 Rowena Merritt and Nanna Skau

•• Armenians are often very traditional and conservative․ Preservation of the national and
cultural identity is a priority for Armenian families. In order to preserve the Armenian iden-
tity, Armenians tend to keep traditions alive through their practices, eating habits, festivals
and celebrations.

•• Sense of humour. Armenians are known for their unique sense of humour and quickly rep-
licate and respond to received humour. This sense of humour came through strongly during
the in-depth qualitative interviews.

•• Social influence. Habits and lifestyles established early in life and the influences of the
surrounding social environment have an impact on the future health and development of
Armenian children. The formative research showed that mothers have little control over what
their children eat as children get older and more influenced by their peers. Word of mouth
also seemed to be a powerful communication channel. However, people were often fearful of
gossip and liked to keep many matters private. This meant that often they trusted the advice
of immediate family members above others.

15.3 Behavioural objectives

The objective of the project was to increase the consumption of healthy breakfasts among
school-aged children (aged 6–11 years old) and their parents. The project focused on pri-
mary-school aged children due to WFP’s existing links to primary schools through their
school lunch programme. Unhealthy breakfasts consisted of tea, coffee and biscuits and/or
sweets.

15.4 Interventions
To increase the consumption of healthy breakfasts, WFP Armenia developed a Social Behaviour
Change Strategy. The Strategy used the findings from the formative research and the behavioural
science literature to develop a mix of interventions aimed at the children. A bold and humorous
campaign was developed to challenge social norms, create a sense of need, and depict breakfasts
as a way of showing love to family members and helping people to understand the value of eating
a healthy breakfast in relation to achieving more in life (including greater wealth). Details of the
campaign are presented in Table CS15.1.

The campaign was supported by a set of interventions, which aimed to support positive changes
in buying and eating habits, by creating new cues and prompts, and generating social com-
mitment and utilising all communication channels including social media. The interventions
included:

•• Food truck located outside of school offering healthy breakfasts.

•• Goal setting with students committing to eat healthy breakfasts for 60 consecutive days. The
activity was supported by a habit tracker where the students could keep a record of their
breakfast consumption.

•• Interactive community theatre delivered in schools to the children and teachers.

 CASE STUDY 15 307

Table CS15.1 Campaign details

Campaign positioning Helping you make the most out of each day. Healthy food fuels
and promise your day and future.

Campaign Personality • Tongue in cheek – reminding people why their norms are not
healthy or aspirational for their children.
• Inspirational, helping you (your children) to achieve your
dreams – let their future shine.
• Healthy on the inside, happy on the outside.
• Time goes so fast, make every second count.
• Showing love and affection.
• Health equals wealth (all the things you can achieve if you
have your health, and what healthy children can achieve now
and, in the future).
Campaign tone Overall, the tone of all activities, materials and messages was
focused on the love family members have for each other and
their children, as opposed to “preachy,” as well as:
• Reflecting – Acknowledging the busy chaos of most young
families.
• Questioning of social norms – Just because that is the way,
does not mean it is right.
• Aspirational – “It goes so fast. Make time last.” Make the
most of every second.
• Motivating /Linking health with wealth – Focusing on all the
things adults and children can achieve if they have a healthy
breakfast, including being more effective at work and achieving
more at school, helping children reach their career dreams.
• Practical – Some tips to help you make the most out of your day.
Campaign slogan This day is yours.
Messaging The healthy breakfast campaign messaging reflected the fact the
most people think it does not really matter if children do not eat
breakfast, thereby challenging this notion in terms of reducing
the ability of young people to make the most of their day and
achieve their aspirations in terms of study, sports and hobbies.

Other interventions were developed which were aimed at parents or were focused on both par-
ents and children, including:

•• PR activities, including a breakfast competition and interactive games.

•• Facebook page and other social media activities aimed at parents.

All the interventions were carefully pre-tested before implementation, and co-design workshops
were held with 30 children and their parents to create the campaign messages, logo and materials.
308 Rowena Merritt and Nanna Skau

Figure CS15.1 Campaign materials

 CASE STUDY 15 309

15.5 Outcomes
The Strategy was shared with the Ministry of Education, Science, Culture and Sports and the
Ministry of Health, and from April-June 2021 was piloted in partnership with the government
departments. To gain rapid feedback on the effectiveness of the interventions, Nimble Trials
methodology as used. Nimble Trials seek to decrease the gap between research and action by
testing short-term outcomes quickly and cheaply and by gaining rapid feedback on behavioural
interventions (Peace, 2018).

15.5.1 Sample size

The interventions were implemented in three schools, with a fourth school acting as a control
group (receiving no interventions). The schools selected were compatible in relation to the social-
economic profile of students. Within each school, 30 parents and 20 children were systematically
randomly selected, resulting in a total sample size of 200 participants.

15.5.2 Data collection

Two surveys were conducted: one with school-aged children and one with their parents. The
baseline data was collected in April 2020, and the follow-up work was conducted 6 weeks later at
the start of June 2020. The same participants were interviewed at both timepoints.

15.5.3 Measures
The key outcome measure included changes in breakfast consumption among children and par-
ents and consumption of healthy breakfasts.

15.5.4 Multi-faceted interventions

Table CS15.2 details the interventions each of the pilot schools received. A different mix of inter-
ventions was implemented in different schools. By testing different intervention mixes, the trial
data can identify which mix of interventions is the most effective.

Table CS15.2 Intervention mix, by school

Intervention type School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4

Overarching campaign

Goal setting/Habit tracker

Community theatre
performance
PR activities

Food truck
310 Rowena Merritt and Nanna Skau

School 4 was the control group and received no interventions and was in a different province. The
campaign was just implemented at a local level to reduce the risk of the messages being received
by School 4. During the evaluation this was checked for, but the findings showed that the cam-
paign messages had remained within the intervention area.

15.5.5 Parents findings

When asked about their consumption of breakfasts, there was an increase in the number of parents
eating a healthy breakfast across all groups receiving the interventions, with the greatest increase
seen in School 3, the school where the whole intervention mix was implemented (Figure CS15.2).
This compares to the control group, where a decrease of 25% in breakfast consumption was reported.

There were increases in the consumption of healthy breakfasts, when compared to the control
school (School 4). School 3 reported the greatest increase of 22% between baseline and follow-up.
There was only a slight increase in School 1 (3%) (Figure CS15.3). There was also an increase in
the number of parents in Schools 1–3 stating that they ate breakfast 5–7 days a week in the follow-
up survey, an increase of 13% (from 50% at baseline to 63% at follow-up). By comparison, in the
control school (school 4), there was a decrease of 17% in the number of parents eating breakfast
5–7 days a week between baseline and follow-up (a decline from 44% to 27%).

15.5.6 Children’s findings

As with the parents, there was an increase in the number of students eating breakfast in all the inter-
vention groups, and a decrease of 12% in the control group. The greatest increases were seen in
Schools 2 and 3 (Figure CS15.4). The greatest increase of 33% was seen in School 3 which received all
the interventions, including the food truck, which increased from 62% at baseline to 95% at follow-up.

When asked what they had eaten for breakfast, there was a positive increase in the number of
students eating a healthy breakfast in Schools 1 to 3. The greatest increase was seen in School 3
(Figure CS15.5).

Figure CS15.2 Responses to the question to parents: Did you eat breakfast today?
 CASE STUDY 15 311

Figure CS15.3 Percentage of parents who ate a healthy breakfast

15.6 Lessons for the planet

Children are in some cultures the main “influencers” on food consumption behaviours of them-
selves and their families and are to a large extend influencing each other’s food behaviours, for
example related to breakfast consumption and snacking. This project was designed with posi-
tive and aspirational messages engaging the school-going children in reflections about the future

Figure CS15.4 Responses to the question to students: Did you eat breakfast today?
312 Rowena Merritt and Nanna Skau

Figure CS15.5 Percentage of students who ate a healthy breakfast

and “growing to one’s potential” rather than prescriptive messaging and learning about nutrition
values of “carrots.” The campaign was designed to have the children and parents realising the
connection between healthy breakfast consumption to physical and mental growth and therefore
change behaviour.

Case study questions

1. Why was it important to ask broader questions such as Who do you trust? What makes you
smile?, etc.

2. What do you think are some of the advantages of using the Nimble Trial methodology?

References
Balvin Frantzen, L., Treviño, R.P., Echon, R.M., Garcia-Dominic, O., & Dimarco, N. (2013). Association
between frequency of ready-to-eat cereal consumption, nutrient intakes, and body mass index in
fourth- to sixth-grade low-income minority children. Journal of the Academy Nutrition and Dietetics,
113, 511–519. doi: 10.1016/j.jand.2013.01.006
Development Initiatives (2018). 2018 Global Nutrition Report: Shining a Light to Spur Action on
Nutrition. Bristol, UK: Development Initiatives.
Littlecott, H., Moore, G., Moore, L., Lyons, R., & Murphy, S. (2016). Association between breakfast
consumption and educational outcomes in 9–11-year-old children. Public Health Nutrition, 19(9),
1575–1582. doi:10.1017/S1368980015002669
Peace, F. (2018). Policy evaluations fail too often. Here’s how to make them more nimble. Retrieved 15
February 2022, from https://apolitical.co/solution_article/policy-evaluations-fail-too-often-heres-
how-to-make-them-more-nimble/
World Health Organization. (2019). Malnutrition is a world health crisis. 26 September 2019. Retrieved
15 February 2022, from https://www.who.int/news/item/26-09-2019-malnutrition-is-a-world-
health-crisis
 Case study
16
Social marketing at
multiple levels of the
fashion system with
fashion revolution
Anna Earl and Ann-Marie Kennedy

16.1 Introduction and problem definition

Fashion Revolution was founded in 2013 because of the Rana Plaza Factory disaster where 1,138
people lost their lives due to the clothing factory collapsing. They aim to combat the negative
effects of fast fashion. It is a non-profit organization that focuses on creating behaviour change
through social marketing at multiple levels of the fashion system. It is a self-proclaimed fashion
activism movement, mobilising citizens, brands, and policymakers through research, educa-
tion and advocacy. It is a change-oriented organization, with the aim to impact the fast fashion
system and make sure that every employee in the system is seen and heard. They also create
pressure points for relevant stakeholders forcing transparency in fashion supply chains. Fashion
Revolution has a presence in 94 countries, this creates collective and global movements driving
change throughout multiple levels of the whole fashion system.

While Fashion Revolution has made a lot of progress in fighting inequality in pay and poor work-
ing conditions, there is still a lot of work that needs to be done to change the system entirely.
Fashion Revolution attracts a lot of small-to-medium enterprises (SMEs) to join their movements.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003200086-27
314 Anna Earl and Ann-Marie Kennedy

However, there is still a lack of accountability by big brands globally. This creates issues around
transparency of the supply of materials and production of fast fashion goods. Fashion Revolution
is faced with a challenge of attracting different audiences, such as big brands, to join their move-
ment for the fast fashion industry to become more transparent.

Furthermore, because the majority of workers in the fast fashion industry are women, the
pay gap still remains an issue due to gender inequality, as well as many workplaces not meet-
ing humane conditions and requirements. This movement has created many small wins
throughout the fast fashion system, though they are still on the path to global and macro
levels of change. Hence, another challenge that Fashion Revolution faces is making sure that
the movement influences the sought change areas in key aspects of the system, and that the
key players such as governments and major fashion brands and retailers are committed to
these changes.

16.2 Primary research

Fashion Revolution undertakes regular surveys of different stakeholders each year. This
includes Consumers, Supply Chains, and Fashion and Retail Brands. The latest includes a con-
sumer survey of 5000 people in 2020. This focused on the effects of fast fashion on people’s
purchasing behaviours including people from the UK, France, Spain, Germany and Italy, aged
16–75. Specifically, it asked what conditions people felt were important in the way their clothing
was made. Their yearly Fashion Transparency Indexes feature research they have done to ascer-
tain the level of disclosure and transparency regarding supply chains and sustainable practices
of 250 of the largest fashion brands according to a very thorough methodology. They score
publicly available information on companies’: 1) Policy and commitments; 2) Governance;
3) Traceability; 4) Supply chain due diligence and 5) Recent issues. Finally, they also continually
undertake more in-depth research into supply chains for 62 major fashion brands beyond their
publicly available documentation and publish this each year. The outcome of these pieces of
research is up-to-date information on the key areas where companies need to change, key areas
where there is synergy between what customers hold important and these areas for change, and
key areas where policy change can be used effectively to mitigate negative environmental and
social impacts.

16.3 Behavioural objectives

Their overall aims span across the whole system to include macro policy level change,
meso industry level change, and micro cultural change. They lobby and advocate for policy
changes, regulation changes and law enforcement regarding “corporate accountability,
transparency, working conditions and environmental practices.” While their meso-level
aims include undertaking research into both environmental and social impacts of fash-
ion brands’ supply chains and publishing reports to promote accountability, drive change,
and create consumer pressure. They also aim to highlight responsible brands. Lastly, their
consumer-based micro-level aims are to increase awareness and education regarding fast
fashion impacts on people and the planet, as well as drive collective consumer action. They
also seek to help people to purchase less new clothing and take care of their current cloth-
ing for longer.
 CASE STUDY 16 315

16.4 Intervention
Fashion Revolution (2020a, 2021a, 2021b, 2021c, n.d) intervene in three main ways. First, through
its campaigns such as Fashion Revolution Week where the global community comes together to
remember those who died as a result of the Rana Plaza disaster. Specific campaigns on social media
include “#Who Made My Clothes,” “#I Made Your Clothes,” “#Who Made My Fabric” and “#I Made
Your Fabric,” which is an important tool for activism. Consumers are encouraged to post pictures
of themselves with their clothes on their own and fashion brands/retailers social media holding
signs with the appropriate #sentence. The aim is for retailers to respond in kind with the answers
and increase transparency and awareness of the working conditions of the people who made the
clothes or fabric. Fashion Revolution uses these campaigns and blogs to enhance activism and
give customers voice. This intervention can be quite powerful in creating change and impact of the
fast fashion system, if these voices are heard by necessary audience. Resources that they provide
that help consumers and organisations to get involved include guides for each stakeholder group
(citizens; brands/wholesalers/retailers/distributors; farmers/producers/factories; trade unions);
guides on how to be a fashion revolutionary, to host an event; to buy #haulternative (e.g. pre-loved
clothing); and how to get in contact and share views with policymakers and brands.

Second, Fashion Revolution engages in education of consumers and provides a number of free
courses. This has proven to be an effective way to educate customers about their consumption
habits, impact on climate change and socio-economic impact in developing countries. 24,000
people completed the online course in 2021. This led to consumers wanting to know where their
clothes come from. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, consumers became more vigilant about
their clothes, hence the need to be more educated. This intervention tool has had a significant
influence on consumers’ engagement with the fast fashion industry. In support of this, they also
offer educational toolkits and reports for meso-level intervention in the form of policy dialogue
toolkits, case studies and evaluations of policy interventions. There are sections and learning
resources aimed at primary, secondary and college educators and their students.

Third, collaboration with governments is another level of intervention that Fashion Revolution
employs to make changes. For example, the long-standing collaboration with British Council and
the programme offered to younger generations to become advocates of sustainable, ethical and
socially engaged fashion. This intervention is designed to help SMEs to engage in a more sus-
tainable design and production of fashion, which is achieved by creating knowledge, skills and
networks of leaders in fashion industry, governments and consumers. These networks should
encourage conversations among different stakeholders, and reach momentum that will lead
to change in the system by amending policies and behaviours. They also take on specific lob-
bying over policies and regulations including the UK and Australian Modern Slavery Acts, and
Mandatory Human Rights and Environmental Due Diligence legislation in the EU. The key issue
of these interventions, is their implementation across 94 countries, which may be challenging to
achieve due to varying economic and political environments of these countries.

16.5 Outcomes
The historical analyses indicate that social media presence has intensified over the years and the
campaigns mentioned above do indeed give voices to consumers. These campaigns create collec-
tive action, which is important in changing the system. They also lead to activism, which can have
316 Anna Earl and Ann-Marie Kennedy

a significant impact socio-economic change of the workers in the fast fashion industry. Through
the use of blogs and increase in social media campaigns, Fashion Revolution has made important
changes for the industry in terms of policy change and government engagements (Table CS16.1).

Consumer behaviour has become more sophisticated over the years because of the availability
of and access to information regarding fast fashion practices. The increase of this information
together with availability of resources available to consumers, enables them to question the cur-
rent practices and engage in co-creation of new practices. The co-creation process is really impor-
tant in terms of listening and valuing consumers’ voices that come through blogs and campaigns
(Table CS16.1).

16.6 Lessons for the planet

The fast fashion system presents a wicked problem that by its very nature presents impact on all
areas of sustainability. Presently, according to the transparency index’s and reports from Fashion
Revolution we can see that many of these impacts are negative. Fashion Revolution is campaign-
ing to right these wrongs according to many different areas, and many different levels of the
system.

Fast fashion can exploit workers who may be enslaved, in danger, overworked, abused or dis-
criminated against. Fashion Revolution has driven policy acceptance against some aspects
of this with regards workers’ rights, human slavery, and safe and healthy working conditions.
This aspect includes fair and equal pay. To address this, Fashion Revolution created a peti-
tion for living wages to be implemented in the fashion industry supply chain. The petition
targeted existing businesses as well as governments to change policies in relation to the mini-
mum wage.

Fast fashion also has many detrimental effects on our natural environment. It’s use of resources
can deplete our virgin resources, increase soil degradation, and increase air and water pollut-
ants, harming ecosystems. By increasing consumer acceptance and knowledge of circular econ-
omy practices, reusing, recycling, upcycling, and repairing clothing, Fashion Revolution aims to
address this from a consumer perspective.

Transparency index indicated that transparency behaviour by big brands worldwide remains low,
at approximately 18%. Transparency of the supply chain is important. Their transparency index
also helps to highlight the impacts that individual brands and retailers are having on the environ-
ment, both the natural and social environment and is being used as a lever for change. Lastly,
another lesson is the importance of the collective movement and its positive impact it makes on
consumers, farmers, and brands. The collective action illustrates that Fashion Revolution global
network has become stronger over the years and engages in activism which can lead to changes
in consumer buying behaviours. This is crucial because global collective movement can create
powerful shifts in the fast fashion system.
Table CS16.1 A selection of the key outcomes of the different campaigns in 2021

Education Consumer Industry Policy

Fashion 63,000 reads of 4.9 billion global press reach 434 global partnerships 51 Policymakers engaged
Revolution resources 569 million social media reach 228 Student ambassadors
Week 24, 000 new globally
230,000 global network event
learners in online attendees
courses
4.2 million posts with Fashion
Revolution hashtags
#Who Made 851,000 posts using the hashtag 223,000 responses
My Clothes? – Events, shop displays, blog
#I Made Your posts, videos and podcasts on
Clothes? the topic from throughout the
supply chain and among fashion
brands and retailers.
#What’s In My Get involved 20,700 Instagram posts using
Clothes? guides highlighting the hashtag
the impact on
the planet of the
fashion supply
chain
#Who Made 5,000 Instagram posts using the 1,000 responses from brands
My Fabric? - #I hashtag and producers.
Made Your 100 Influencer press releases 3600 emails sent to brands by

CASE STUDY 16
Fabric globally consumers

(continued)

317
 318
Table CS16.1 A selection of the key outcomes of the different campaigns in 2021 (continued)

Anna Earl and Ann-Marie Kennedy

Education Consumer Industry Policy
#Loved Clothes Upcycling Tutorials 7000 views of upcycling 7 video tutorials were created
Last created. tutorials. showcasing Latin American
Book published Community upcycling and repair Upcyclers.
with Penguin. events.
Fashion Open 17,700 event attendees 30 plus videos produced
Studio 15,900 Instagram followers 70 plus designers showcased
from 20 plus countries
Hyeres Fashion Festival
masterclass and mentorship
programme on sustainability in
Fashion.
Lobbying and Lobbying positively contributed
Policy Advocacy to the adoption of the new
International Accord for Health
and Safety in the Textile and
Garment Industry by over 102
international brands include
13 major brands, replacing the
Bangladesh Accord.
Contributed to the EU Strategy
for sustainable textiles.
Strengthened UK Modern
Slavery Act
Contributed to the EU Directive
on Mandatory Human Rights,
Environmental and Good
Governance Due Diligence.
Online Courses Fashion’s
Future and the
Sustainable
Development
Goals – 32,000
learners
Who Made My
Clothes? – 18,200
learners

CASE STUDY 16
319
320 Anna Earl and Ann-Marie Kennedy

Case study questions

1. What are the sustainability related issues to the clothes we wear?

2. Name an intervention that Fashion Revolution ran at each of the micro, meso, and macro
levels.

References
Fashion Revolution (2020a). Consumer Survey Report 2020. Accessed 12/12/21, available at: https://
www.fashionrevolution.org/resources/consumer-survey/
Fashion Revolution (2021a). Fashion Revolution Transparency Index 2021. Accessed 12/12/21, avail-
able at: https://issuu.com/fashionrevolution/docs/fashiontransparencyindex_2021
Fashion Revolution (2021c). Out of Sight: A Call for Transparency from Field to Fabric 2021.
Accessed 12/12/21, available at: https://issuu.com/fashionrevolution/docs/tna_fr_freedomfun-
dreport_261121_v3.5
Fashion Revolution (2021b). Fashion Revolution Impact Report 2021. Accessed 12/12/21, available at:
https://www.fashionrevolution.org/impact/
Fashion Revolution (n.d.). Manifesto for a Fashion Revolution. Accessed 12/12/21, available at: https://
www.fashionrevolution.org/manifesto/
 Case study
17
Autism
Change your reactions
Sandra C. Jones, Jennifer Lowe,
Nicola Edwards and Jade Maloney

17.1 Introduction and problem definition

In 2008, the United Nations officially proclaimed 2 April as “World Autism Awareness Day” high-
lighting the need to improve quality of life for all autistic people. The World Health Organization
(WHO) recognises the diversity of autism as a neurodevelopmental condition which often mani-
fests as differences in social interaction, communication, behaviour and interests. Although 1 in
160 people are autistic, many experience stigma, discrimination and human rights violations due
to a lack of public awareness on a global scale (WHO, 2022).

The Sixty-Seventh World Health Assembly urges member states to support research and pub-
lic campaigns to raise awareness about autism and remove stigmatisation. With a population of
more than 25.6 million people, it is estimated that 1 in 70 Australians are on the autism spectrum.
Although the “neurodiversity paradigm” was conceptualised by an autistic Australian academic
and continues to be promoted by researchers and advocates, there have been no public health
campaigns dedicated to autism education in Australia.

In 2017, the Parliament of Victoria’s “Inquiry into Services for People with Autism Spectrum
Disorder Final Report” recommended an extensive public education campaign about autism
(Parliament of Victoria, 2017). As the peak body for autistic people and their supporters in

DOI: 10.4324/9781003200086-28
322 Sandra C. Jones et al.

Victoria, Amaze commissioned a research project in partnership with the Australian Catholic
University to better understand the community’s knowledge of and attitudes towards autism and
gain firsthand insights into the lived experiences of autistic people.

17.2 Primary research

The research consisted of two ground-breaking studies which examined autism in Australia,
resulting in novel and invaluable insights. Led by Professor Sandra Jones, a participatory approach
informed the design, implementation and evaluation to highlight autistic perspectives.

17.2.1 Study one: Community knowledge and attitudes

The first study focused on the community’s knowledge of and attitudes towards autism, with more
than 2,400 non-autistic Australians participating in the online survey. This research revealed that
98% of those surveyed have heard of autism and 86% have contact with an autistic person. One
in four have an autistic family member and one in five have an autistic friend. Despite seemingly
high levels of public awareness and connection, only 29% of respondents believe they know how
to support an autistic person (Jones et al., 2021).

17.2.2 Study two: Autistic peoples lived experiences

The second study sought to capture the perspectives of autistic people and their families, based on
their lived experiences within their communities, attracting over 1,200 responses. When autistic
people and their families were asked whether other people in the community knew how to sup-
port them, a meagre 4% agreed, highlighting a more nuanced opportunity to bridge the evident
gap between autistic and non-autistic Australians (Jones et al., 2022). The autism community
expressed a desire for the public to have an increased awareness of five common challenges: dif-
ficulties in social situations, anxiety about unexpected changes, needing extra time to process
information, sensory sensitivities and meltdowns. More than half of autistic Australians reported
feeling socially isolated and experiencing negative day-to-day interactions, with 81% receiving
stares and 61% being subjected to “tutting” and “headshaking” from community members when
in public (Jones et al., 2022).

17.2.3 Key collective findings

Although the majority of Australians conveyed a level of autism awareness, autistic people and
their families still reported high incidence of negative day-to-day experiences in their communi-
ties, specifically relating to various aspects of social interactions out in public.

This dissonance highlights the lack of research which has aimed to integrate autistic and non-
autistic community members’ perspectives to improve broader societal cohesion in Australia.

Collectively, the findings of studies one and two indicate a decisive need for autism-focused edu-
cation and communication initiatives that are developed in collaboration with the autistic and
autism communities to ensure meaningful participation and inclusion is achieved. More specifi-
cally, the broader community’s lack of understanding about how autism might affect an individu-
al’s behaviour gives rise to myths and misperceptions that may lead to negative attitudes towards
autism, autistic people, their families, carers and friends.
 CASE STUDY 17 323

It is noteworthy that autistic and non-autistic adults in Australia similarly recognised that autis-
tic people are subjected to discrimination and exclusion within the broader community. Public
education efforts which strive to inform others about the needs of autistic people and their fami-
lies would contribute towards better supports, inclusion and societal acceptance. The utility of
integrating the perspectives and lived experiences of autistic and non-autistic Australians across
these studies have firmly established that autism awareness is not akin to possessing, practic-
ing and implementing the skills required to engage with autistic people through individualised
adjustments and/or accommodations across range of settings.

17.3 Behaviour objectives

Based on the key findings gleaned from research studies one and two, Australia’s first autism
public education campaign aimed to influence behavioural change across both individual and
collective levels of society, with the overarching aim to foster understanding, acceptance and
engagement. Ultimately, the community autism education campaign sought to create a more
inclusive community for autistic Victorians, their families, carers and friends.

As a social marketing campaign, the autism community education initiative moved towards
advancing longer-term strategic objectives and implementing short-term marketing activities
that are built upon three core campaign goals:

1. More Victorians understand the facts and reject myths and misperceptions about autism.

2. More Victorians know how to act and what to do to support autistic people.

3. Autistic people and their families/carers feel better understood and included by society.

Fundamentally, the research findings make clear that autism awareness does not translate into
autism-friendly practices adopted by the wider community. The autistic community has clearly
surmised their day-to-day interactions with others across a range of everyday settings and social
contexts may cause confusion, distress and often result in feelings of exclusion, stigmatisation and
discrimination.

Whilst being autistic may inherently be challenging in settings such as supermarkets where the
lights are bright and consumers are manoeuvring between aisles, more often than not, the reac-
tions of non-autistic community members towards autistic people were detrimental. Having
identified this nuanced aspect of public social interactions as problematic, the core behavioural
objective for the autism social marketing campaign was to change the way that members of the
community respond and react towards autistic individuals and their families.

Overcoming these barriers commonly experienced by autistic people in everyday community set-
tings provides an opportunity for authentic autistic inclusion and community engagement.

17.4 Intervention
In line with a participatory research approach, the advertising campaign concepts were co-
created with input and feedback from over 200 autistic people, their families and carers. The
integrity and authenticity of the portrayal and representation of the autistic community were
324 Sandra C. Jones et al.

honoured by the intentional decision to cast actually autistic actors in the role of autistic people
in each of the advertisements. The creative suite of three advertisements aligned with the autism
communities’ priorities for the public to have an increased awareness of meltdowns, sensory
sensitivities and needing extra time to process information across three commonly recognised
community contexts. A short description of each advertisement is outlined below; each scenario
has a “before” and “after” version, based on the idea that the general public change their actions.

17.4.1 Supermarket checkout

A mother is clearly struggling to juggle paying for her groceries and caring for her autistic
school-aged son who is being tactile and jumping up and down in what may be perceived as a
“meltdown.” In the “before” scenario, shoppers are judgemental, making comments about the
need for her to discipline her son, whilst the “after” scenario depicts shoppers offering to help
the mother with her shopping bags. This makes an obvious positive difference to the mother
(Figure CS17.1).

17.4.2 In the office

A young autistic woman is shown sitting at her desk in the office, looking overwhelmed with
an emphasis placed on the sounds of phones ringing, people talking and the big bright office
lights above her head, leading her to put on her sunglasses. The “before” scenario depicts her
work colleagues laughing, insinuating she was hungover from a big night out, but the “after”
scenario demonstrates an understanding of sensory sensitivities with a colleague asking if
she could put the blinds down for her. The young autistic woman is grateful for their support
(Figure CS17.2).

Figure CS17.1 A still image from the “Supermarket Checkout” advertisement shown on
television
 CASE STUDY 17 325

Figure CS17.2 A still image from the “In the Office” advertisement shown on television

17.4.3 Ordering at a Café

A young autistic man is shown sitting at a café with a friend when the waiter comes to take their
order. Observing the autistic man’s lack of eye contact and delay in responding to the question
about what kind of coffee he would like, the waiter defaults to asking his friend rather than waiting
for the autistic man to speak. In the “after” scenario the waiter asks the autistic man directly and
waits for his verbal response. The young autistic man simply needed more time to process the
question and appreciated the opportunity to speak for himself (Figure CS17.3).

Each of these advertisements are 30 seconds in length and ends with the voiceover “Autism,
change your reactions, change your actions.” The freeze end frame displays the logo which
was specifically designed for the autism public education campaign and the website address
“changeyourreactions.com” is presented as a simple reminder of the desired behavioural change
as the advertisements call to action. The inclusion of the microsite address also provides the audi-
ence with a real-time opportunity to explore additional resources and engage across social media
platforms (Figure CS17.4).

The social marketing campaign “Autism: Change Your Reactions” is the first-of-its-kind. Aligned
with the integrated social marketing communications philosophy and practice of selecting and
coordinating all social marketing communication elements, the public education campaign fea-
tured above the line (ATL) and below the line (BTL) advertising to achieve campaign goals. Given
ATL advertising is used to reach large audiences via mass media promotion and BTL advertising
seeks to target smaller audience segments, adopting both strategies provides a holistic approach
which often yields greater return on investment.

The social marketing campaign ran in two waves, with $909,000 spent between 17 Feb – 15
March 2020 and an additional $600,000 spent between 25 April and 22 May 2021. ATL and
326 Sandra C. Jones et al.

Figure CS17.3 A still from the “Ordering at a Café” advertisement shown on television

BTL advertising channels included social media platforms Facebook, Instagram, Pinterest and
Twitter, free-to-air and on-demand television, radio spots, newspapers, digital displays within
shopping centres and outdoor advertising across digital billboards and metropolitan buses. The
custom-designed microsite “changeyourreactions.com” offers all visitors an opportunity to learn
more about autism through frequently asked questions and practical support guides. The website
content has been strategically segmented based on the target audience’s needs (Figure CS17.5).

Figure CS17.4 A screenshot of the “Autism: Change Your Reactions” advertising

campaign end tag
 CASE STUDY 17 327

Figure CS17.5 A screenshot from the changeyourreactions.com website homepage which

shows the campaign’s target audience has been segmented according to
their information needs

17.5 Outcomes
As a pioneering social marketing campaign in Australia, measuring the success of the “Autism:
Change Your Reactions” initiative was challenging due to an absence of benchmarking metrics
and the unprecedented circumstances surrounding the COVID-19 pandemic occurring during
the planned campaign period. It is estimated that social media advertising generated 13.6 million
impressions. It is worth noting that 29.9% of the impressions on social media were attributable to
advertisements written in languages other than English, targeting Victorian audiences who are
culturally and linguistically diverse. The total reach generated by each marketing channel varied
with television generating 1.6 million views, radio reaching 1.2 million listeners and newspaper
readership at 560,000. Even with Metropolitan and Regional Melbourne in and out of lockdowns
during the campaign, the outdoor advertising campaign achieved reach across 38.3% of the metro
market and digital displays in shopping centres generated 1.1 million impressions. BTL advertis-
ing efforts were also fruitful with an additional 18.5 million impressions attributable across 466
media items.

The “Autism: Change Your Reactions” evaluation survey found 46% recalled the campaign, 91%
found it believable and 57% felt motivated to take action as a result of seeing it. Moreover, 90%
of respondents were concerned about how others treat autistic people and 51% were concerned
about their own treatment of autistic people. Pleasingly, over 41% of respondents reported talking
about the advertising campaign with someone else. Whilst there is evidence the campaign began
to generate the intended behavioural changes, supporting inclusion is a long-term process, and
there remains a need to increase understanding of autism and how to support autistic people
among the Victorian community.
328 Sandra C. Jones et al.

Whilst quantitative online survey data results and digital analytics provide one perspective of the
social marketing campaigns success, the views of the general public and members of the autistic
and autism communities must also be taken into consideration during the evaluation. The quali-
tative data collected from the autism community in Victoria suggests the campaign has resulted
in positive real-world outcomes that have translated toward improving the lives of autistic people,
their families and the wider community.

“I have seen more tolerance and acceptance. The campaign has facilitated a discussion
between myself - mother to a beautiful boy with ASD - and strangers at shops parks etc
within our community.”

“I think families are becoming more educated in advocating for their loved ones and
fostering authenticity and educating others. There is a growing awareness around
ableism which helps.”

17.6 Lessons for the planet

Despite the proliferation of autism research over the last 20 years, there have been limited studies
examining the inclusion of autistic people in their local communities. The research conducted
by Australian Catholic University and Amaze clearly demonstrates an urgent need to improve
society’s acceptance and inclusion of autistic people of all ages. It is imperative to remain cog-
nisant of the findings that community awareness of autism does not automatically extend to an
understanding of how to support autistic people. Based on collective responses to the “Autism:
Change Your Reactions” campaign, we encourage social marketing researchers and practition-
ers to consider the development and implementation of autism initiatives that are informed by
and developed with autistic people, rather than for them. Public education campaigns that are
intentionally co-created with autistic people and their families will move towards the creation of
a more inclusive, informed and welcoming community for everyone.

Case study questions

1. In considering the research findings and desired behavioural changes, why was a social mar-
keting campaign considered more appropriate than a health education initiative?

2. Research findings highlighted five common challenges among the autistic community,
three of which were addressed by the “Autism: Change Your Reactions” advertisements.
The two remaining experiences autistic people would like the general public to know more
about are their difficulties in social situations and anxiety about unexpected changes.
Describe the “before” and “after” scenarios if you were responsible for creating these two
advertisements.

Videos
Each of the 30-second “Autism: Change Your Reaction” advertisements can be viewed via the
Amaze Channel on YouTube using the following links:

•• Supermarket Checkout: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_okvxXNZA14

 CASE STUDY 17 329

•• In the Office: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gv_9XbbLvTs

•• Ordering at a Café: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C5DrKv1h3Z4

References
Jones, S.C., Akram, M., Gordon, C.S., Murphy, N., & Sharkie, F. (2021). Autism in Australia: Community
knowledge and autistic people’s experiences. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,
51(10), 3677–3689. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-020-04819-3
Jones, S.C., Gordon, C.S., Akram, M., Murphy, N., & Sharkie, F. (2022). Inclusion, exclusion and isola-
tion of autistic people: Community attitudes and autistic people’s experiences. Journal of Autism
and Developmental Disorders, 52(3), 1131–1142. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-021-04998-7
Parliament of Victoria. (2017). Inquiry into services for people with Autism Spectrum Disorder
Final Report. https://www.parliament.vic.gov.au/images/stories/committees/fcdc/inquiries/58th/
Autism/FCDC_58-03_Autism_report.pdf
World Health Organization. (2022). Autism. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/
autism-spectrum-disorders
 Case study
18
Active play for 0–3 years
old in Galway city
Christine Domegan, Tina Flaherty,
Dmitry Brychkov, Evelyn Fanning
and Caroline Murray

18.1 Introduction and problem definition

National and international research show that what happens to a child during pregnancy and the
first 2 years of life will influence the child’s health and well-being for their lifetime (Child Research
Network 2017; Centre for Community Child Health, 2018). This is a critical developmental stage as
it is within early childhood that a child’s brain and biological system rapidly develop (Canny et al.,
2017). Favourable experiences, which occur during this critical stage, impact positively on the
child’s development including social, motor, cognitive and linguistic development (Canny et al.,
2017). Evidence suggests that leading an active lifestyle in early childhood is likely to translate into
high activity during adulthood (National Childhood Network, n.d). An active lifestyle during the
early years has multiple benefits including development of bones and muscles, movement skills,
development of coordination and development of self-confidence (Maternal and Early Years, n.d;
HSE, n.d). Importantly, it lays the foundations for the attitudes, skills and behaviours for lifelong
improved health and well-being.

In early childhood, active play is the most appropriate form of physical activity as it helps learn-
ing, communication and improves confidence. Active play can be found in almost all types of
physical activity including everyday tasks (climbing steps), unstructured tasks (lying and rolling),

DOI: 10.4324/9781003200086-29
 CASE STUDY 18 331

structured tasks (Incy wincy spider), and active travel like walking. The World Health Organization
published guidelines in 2019 (WHO 2019) for physical activity for children. These guidelines sug-
gest that:

•• Infants less than 1 year should be physically active several times a day in a variety of ways,
particularly through interactive floor-based play; more is better. For those not yet mobile,
this includes at least 30 minutes in prone position (tummy time) spread throughout the day
while awake and

•• Children 1 and 2 years old should spend at least 180 minutes in a variety of physical activities
at any intensity, including moderate- to vigorous-intensity physical activity, spread through-
out the day; more is better.

In a national context, guidelines on physical activity for Ireland cover children and young people
aged 2–18 years and suggest; all children and young people should be active, at a moderate to
vigorous level, for at least 60 minutes every day. Include muscle strengthening, flexibility, and bone-
strengthening exercises 3 times a week.

18.2 Primary research

In the formative research stage, a systematic literature review was undertaken to understand other
successful interventions that targeted increasing physical activity and active play opportunities among
0–3 years olds. This review uncovered relatively few interventions, which specifically aimed to increase
or improve physical activity among 0–3 years olds. Generally, the physical activity element was part of
a wider objective, for example, obesity prevention or bone formation in premature babies.

This review was supplemented by the collection of primary survey data from key stakehold-
ers (n = 115) including dissenting voices, who identified and listed their top three barriers and
enablers, with clarification statements to active play for 0–3 years olds in Galway city. This data
identified all the barriers or inhibitors and drivers or bright spots perceived by stakeholders to
affect active play for 0–3 years olds in Galway city.

The second stage entailed paired comparisons that generated 40 barrier and enabler themes,
22 of which were negative (barriers) and 18 of which were positive (enabling) to active
play for 0–3 years olds in Galway city. Causes and effects and the dynamic multi-causal
relationships between all these perceived forces were then analysed based on the sys-
tems group modelling (n = 7). The central driving forces and rooted patterns within the
system were identified. This resulted in the generation of a multi-causal active play for
0–3 years olds systems map which represented the interactions between the structural,
behavioural and stakeholder elements that hinder and/or enable active play for 0–3 years
old in Galway city.

The final stage, a triangulation stage, involved key informant interviews with other system stake-
holders (n = 5) beyond the modelling group to verify the map and ensure it is representative of
what is currently taking place in Galway city among 0–3 years old and active play. This final stage
also identified solutions and leverage points across the active play systems map.
332 Christine Domegan et al.

18.3 Behavioural objective

The project’s overarching goal was to identify evidence-based active play/physical activity strate-
gies covering multiple levels and multiple stakeholders to increase opportunities for 0–3 years old
active play/physical activity in Galway city.

18.4 Outcomes
System stakeholders (see Figure CS18.1) included local and national HSE stakeholders, crèches
and preschools, parent and toddler groups, child and family agency stakeholders, city council
stakeholders, community and voluntary representatives, national organizations, private child-
care providers and stakeholders from the education and media sector.

The stakeholders identified 239 barriers to active play and from these, 8 underlying forces and
factors which are interconnected. One hundred and twenty-nine solutions were identified to
address the barriers and underlying forces. These findings are illustrated in Figure CS18.2.

The systems map presents a visualization of all the dynamics at work in relation to active play for
0–3 years old in Galway city. The map captures the interrelated factors and incorporates diverse
perspectives, experiences, and structural issues. It illustrates the micro, individual variables,

Figure CS18.1 Stakeholder representation

 CASE STUDY 18 333

Figure CS18.2 A social marketing systems map of the factors that influence active play for
0- to 3-year-olds in Galway City

such as awareness and motivation; the meso factors such as the public health nurse and parent
groups as well as the macro, organizational and structural components such as health and safety
in crèches together with the interplay between them.

The map identifies “lack of co-ordination/integration of national and local policy” and “parenting
motivation and lifestyle” as the dominant dynamics that currently undermine or block (act as a
barrier to) active play in 0–3 years old in Galway city. These form negative feedback loops, which
are examples of vicious loops. The map also identifies “parent support and resources,” “registered
childcare setting” and “targeted interventions” as the bright spots or positive patterns (enablers)
that facilitate active play for 0–3 years old in Galway city. These enablers form positive feedback
loops.

To address these dynamics, 25 solutions were identified by the stakeholders, including address-
ing the funding around active play facilities, lobbying policymakers, educating stakeholders and
developing/improving initiatives targeting parents and 0–3 years old (Table CS18.1).

Parenting and parents’ lifestyle: Parents, parents’ lifestyles and parenting are not homogenous
but are heterogeneous behaviours; parenting is strongly influenced by the parent’s status in life.
Parents who are living in poverty or substandard conditions, their ability in relation to active
play is negatively impacted by their living conditions. The heterogeneous parenting and life-
styles strongly influence’s parents’ motivation to want to actively engage in these activities with
334 Christine Domegan et al.

Table CS18.1 P
 otential solutions identified by stakeholders to address the barrier “lack of
co-ordinated/integrated local and national policy”

Funding: • More funding needed.

• Often pots of money come about through council, etc., and there is
often very little lead time so need to have projects ready.
• Government-subsidized access to resources and supports for vulnerable
parents and children.
• Provide funding for parents to purchase all weather suits to allow their
children to play outdoors.
Policy: • Need a “champion” to advocate and lobby government on need for
policy.
• Increased presence of community Gardaí.
• City development plan is currently being developed – look at that and
see how you can lobby to better support 0–3.
• Lobby for parks and recreation officer in Customs house.
• Establish local policy in Galway to build evidence of effect.
• Local policy: planning needs to factor in play spaces and make conscious
decisions about the requirements for play facilities.
• Lobby for free childcare for 0–3 years old.
• Lobby for cross-funding between departments and local authorities.
• Intervene in the escalating costs of insurance for indoor play centres so
they can stay open and not put up their prices.
• Look at planning by design for inclusion – consider all citizens and
consider those who might live differently.
• Local council need more power/autonomy in decisions and
implementation.
• Explore inspection of active play for 0–3 in early years settings.
Education: • Educate the public on being more proactive in the development
planning processes; this will help with ensuring there are adequate play
spaces and facilities.
• Need to educate parents and stakeholders that play is not just about
physical development, it is also about emotion and psychological
development and the child using their imagination. For example, a play
space does not have to be somewhere that has a swing, it can be an
area designed that could have interesting rocks or boulders or logs.
• There needs to be a balance between awareness /good practice and
the practical resources that parents require.
 CASE STUDY 18 335

Initiatives: • Use a system like the Planet Youth system where each child is given a
specific fund to be spent on their active play activities per year, such as
€100 per child per year, that can be used for water babies, active play
centres, best start club or gymnastics.
• Seek the roll out of the “Leisure card” that WRDTF are looking at that
has been used in Iceland. This would allow parents access to water
activities and soft play where there are income restrictions.
• Show parents where all the local areas are for active play – David and
Joann Curran used to have a book on family time and in it they listed all
the local parks, etc., you could go with your family, the distance to them
and how to access them.
• Increase the number of free indoor spaces for 0–3 years old in Galway
city – for example, in parks have part that is covered so parents can
meet and be covered.
• Expand the public health nurse service to allow every family to receive
support on active play not just a focus on physical milestones or
introduce a service like Family Nurse partnerships or Parents as Teachers.
• Consulting with communities so that appropriate supports are offered
and so that local communities “take pride” in the maintenance and use
of their resources.

their 0–3 years old. Parents and children also spend lots of time watching screens indoors. This
discourages children spontaneously engaging in active play. Due to the abundance of screens,
parents and children sit for long periods, fuelling a sedentary lifestyle. Other parents and fami-
lies have very busy lives with work and family commitments and have a perception that they do
not have the time to spend playing with the child indoors or outdoors. The perceived inclement
weather also hinders active play among 0–3 years old. Parents do not want their child outside in
bad weather and/or do not have appropriate clothing for different weather conditions.

To address parenting and parents’ lifestyles, stakeholders generated 18 potential solutions. The
solutions focused on policy implementation around the areas of marketing equipment to par-
ents, educating parents on the importance of active play, and targeting initiatives such as weaning
workshops and developing initiatives such as Play Cafes (see Table CS18.2).

18.5 Lessons for the planet

•• Complex problems such as Active Play for 0–3 years old spanning stakeholders from chil-
dren and parents to policymakers require a highly collaborative and participatory systems
approach, reflective of UN SDG #17 to listen to and learn from all the system members.

•• The dominant dynamics in a deeply entrenched provisioning system map will highlight the
forces that undermine or block significant progress being made. Other dynamics will suggest
bright spots or seeds of improvement for nurturing.
336 Christine Domegan et al.

Table CS18.2 P
 otential solutions identified by stakeholders to address the barrier
“parenting and parents’ lifestyle”

Policy: • Cease the marketing of devices that stop children from moving, such as
the bumbo.
• Prohibiting the sale of swings or baby-holding implements that have a
screen holder attached to them.
• Lobby council to provide funding for the likes of water babies and run
them on the weekends so it can be a family activity.
Education: • Promotional campaign about tummy time for early years.
• Promote indoor play activities.
• Promote set times to play with children.
• Educate on lifestyle and the benefits eating healthy can have on energy
levels.
• Promote the concept that raingear/appropriate clothes can overcome
weather barriers. Encourage families to get out regardless of
incremental weather conditions.
• Have more facilities like kids’ space as they offer a great service and are
very price conscious. It is for children under 7 so parents do not have to
worry about their young child being knocked by an older child.
Initiatives: • Weaning workshops and babies are often weaned once they start being
more mobile, could a part of that workshop cover active play even if
it is just ten or so minutes on the importance of avoiding screens and
allowing movement.
• Play Café: The idea of a centre that would focus on community
transmission of peer parental support and evidence-based information
including promotion of activity for babies and children.
• Whatever is ran, there needs to be something in it for the parent also.
• Workplace programmes/communication/promotion focused on
emphasising the importance of spending time with your child.
• Do not have a generic campaign. Get insight into different cohorts of
people and their needs, lifestyles, etc. For example, look at developing
targeted groups. For example, a traveller only baby and toddler group.
Sometimes minority groups want to be integrated and want mixed groups
but sometimes, initially, it is better to have a traveller only group because
their background and living conditions are so different to other parents.
• Supports and intervention for managing screen time for the entire family.
• Focus on attachment between the parent and baby – similar to the
circle of security parenting programme.
• Have an informal support group for parents who don’t have family or
friend support.
• Design a campaign, using the media, to raise awareness of the new
guidelines on screen time.
 CASE STUDY 18 337

•• Various stakeholders, with on-the-ground knowledge, and lived experiences will identify and
collectively, develop solutions and leverage points to address the harmful dominant dynam-
ics and facilitate bright spots. These solutions are the starting point in the development of the
systemic change strategy. In addressing these behaviours and structures, greater opportuni-
ties exist to create positive change.

Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank Galway City Early Years subcommittee of Galway Children and
Young People’s Services Committee and all the stakeholders who participated in this case study.

Case study questions

1. Inspections plus risk and Lack of awareness and understanding are other blocking dynamics
evident in the provisioning systems map. What “Acceptable,” “Appealing,” “Affordable” and
“Accessible” solutions would you recommend?

2. The provisioning systems map identifies “Parent support and resources,” as one of the drivers
or enablers currently facilitating active play for 0–3 years olds in Galway city.

“Parent support and resources – Parents will often ring/text each other to get out and meet up, have
fun with the kids and socialise. When parents link up with each other, this increases the opportu-
nity for parents and children to go out to play and be active; offsetting the lack of parent interest
or motivation. Parents meeting up and going out to play is facilitated by free/low-cost parent and
toddler/parent and baby groups. Parents meeting up and going out to play is also facilitated by
the abundance of natural spaces and parks in Galway city such as the prom in Salthill, woods and
beaches. These natural spaces facilitate different organisations and institutions to provide parks
and playgrounds where parents can meet up and children can actively play. The need for parents
to meet other parents also contributes to the provision of indoor soft play equipment and the pro-
vision of indoor facilities by private operators including soft play activity centres. Parent to parent
promotion drives private parenting websites/app, for example, Rollercoaster.ie that promote a
range of issues including active play. These private parenting websites/apps reinforce parent-to-
parent promotion. The public health nurse who talks to parents about tummy time, promotes
active play and directs parents to public health websites such as MyChild.ie, and offers booklets
as part of the National Healthy Childhood programme also drives parent-to-parent promotion.
The public health nurse and the public heath websites promote events such as the national play
day that takes place each year.”

What “Acceptable,” “Appealing,” “Affordable” and “Accessible” solutions would you recommend
as an intervention or leveraging mix?

References
Canny, M., Clarke, A., Cooney, F., Heslin, J., Jennings, P., Mason Mohan, C., McDermott, R., &
McNamara, A. 2017. The impact of early childhood on future health. Retrieved from: https://www.
cypsc.ie/_fileupload/Documents/News%20and%20Events/The%20Impact%20of%20Early%20
338 Christine Domegan et al.

Childhood%20on%20Future%20Health,%20FPHM%20RCPI,%20May%202017.pdf
Centre for Community Child Health. 2018. The First Thousand Days- Our Greatest opportunity, policy
brief Number 28. Murdoch Children’s Research Institute/The Royal Children’s Hospital, Parkville,
Victoria
Child Research Network. 2017. The impact of early childhood on future health. Retrieved from: https://
childrensresearchnetwork.org/knowledge/resources/the-impact-of-early-childhood-on-future-
health
National Health Network. n.d. Introduction - Promoting Active Play (Physical Activity) in Early Years
Settings. Retrieved from: https://www.ncn.ie/index.php/2-ncn/155-introduction-promoting-
active-play-physical-activity-in-early-years-settings
World Health Organization. 2019. Guidelines on Physical Activity, Sedentary Behaviour and
sleep for children under 5 years of age. Retrieved from: https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/
handle/10665/311664/9789241550536-eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
Index

Note: Page references in italics denote figures, in bold tables and with “n” endnotes.

Abbeyleix vi expenditure 132; outdoor 326, 327;

Aboriginal people see First Nations programmatic 8; propaganda 130; tobacco
above the line (ATL) advertising 325 49, 60, 72, 82, 98; see also branding;
academic writing 247 marketing
accessible offers 66 affordable offers 65–66
achievability: of objectives 63–65; and strategic “Agents of Change contest” 199
planning 63–65 AgitÁgueda: Arts Festival 197, 197;
Act-Belong-Commit campaign 216, 219; bodypainting 202
cultural adaptation of 216–217; and Águeda, Portugal 195–203; behavioural
indigenous beliefs about emotional well- objectives 197–198; C-Change: Arts and
being 216; and indigenous beliefs about Culture Leading Climate Action in Cities
social well-being 216 196; Climate Change Adaptation Plan
action research 70–72, 71; defined 2019–2027 197; intervention 198–201;
70; evaluation questions 70, 80–83; introduction and problem definition
intervention-building questions 70, 74–80; 195–196; lessons for the planet 202–203;
preparatory questions 70, 72–74 outcomes 201–202; primary research
active audiences 92, 93 196–197; Smart City Lab 200; social
active competition 26–28, 31 innovation journey at 195–203
active play: for 0–3 years old in Galway 330–337; Almeida, Laura 199
behavioural objective 332; introduction and alternatives 123–136; and consumers 124–125;
problem definition 330–331; lessons for the hyperconsumption 129–131; indigenous
planet 335–337; outcomes 332, 332–335, communities 133–136; marketing
333, 334–335, 336; parenting 333–335, 336; perspective 131; wooded isle 126–129
parents’ lifestyle 333–335, 336; primary Aluna 134
research 331; social marketing systems Amaze 322, 328
map of factors influencing 333; stakeholder Amazon 4
representation 332 American Civil War 89
activism 315–316 American Declaration of Independence 129
advertising 3, 63–64, 301; above the line (ATL) American Dream 92
325; below the line (BTL) 325–326; and anaemia 222, 304
communication 91–92; early models of Anand, Marisha 63, 188–194
91–92; effects, Rosser Reeves model 130; Andreasen, Alan 37
340 Index

Angus, Kathryn 298–302 Australian Modern Slavery Acts 315

Anibaldi, Renata 249–264 Australian Sports Commission (ASC) 282–283
anti-microbial resistance (AMR) 235 Australian universities: connection to place
antimicrobial resistant genes (ARG) 235 206; as culturally safe places for First
anti-vax movement 29, 97 Nations peoples 204–208; findings and
Anwar-McHenry, Julia 215–220 outcomes 206–207; introduction and
appealing offers 65 problem definition 204–205; lessons for the
Apple 4 planet 207–208; primary research 205–206;
Armenia 11, 61, 81, 95; healthy breakfasts in relationality 207
304–312; World Food Programme (WFP) in autism 321–329; autistic peoples lived
305–306 experiences 322; behaviour objectives 323;
Armenians: sense of humour 306; and social collective findings 322–323; community
influence 306; and their children 305; knowledge and attitudes 322; intervention
as traditional and conservative 306 323–327, 324, 325, 326, 327; introduction
Arnold, Ben 193 and problem definition 321–322; lessons
artificial intelligence (AI) 114 for the planet 328; in the office 324, 325;
arts and climate crisis 195–203 ordering at a café 325–326, 326, 327;
Arts and Culture Leading Climate Action in outcomes 327–328; primary research
Cities 195 322–323; supermarket checkout 324, 324
aspiring communities 240–247; behavioural “Autism: Change Your Reactions” advertising
objectives 241–243, 242; and connection 325, 326, 327, 327, 328
240–247; and creativity 240–247; felt autistic peoples lived experiences 322
evidence and the unseen 245–246;
intervention 243; introduction and problem “The Baby Killer” report 298
definition 240–241; lessons for the planet Baby Killer revisited 298–302; behavioural
246–247; outcomes 243–246; pockets of objectives 300; conclusions 301–302;
power 246–247; primary research 241; findings 300–301; impact 302; intervention
and relationships 247; “Slow Tiny Acts of 300; introduction and problem definition
Resistance (STaRs)” 244–245; and unseen as 298–299; lessons for the planet 302;
felt evidence in 240–247 outcomes 300–302; primary research
The Aspiring Communities Fund 247n1 299–300
Asset-Based Community Development Bagozzi, R. 46
(ABCD) work 241 Bakan, Joel 11, 97, 110
Attar, Farid ud-Din 147 barrier analysis 168
attitudes 180–189, 210–211, 223, 230, 305, 322; barriers: behavioural 168; segmentation 61;
and active play 330; towards autism 322 structural 168
audience: as active participant 92, 93; Bathing Water Directive (BWD, 2006/7/EC)
passive 92 (BWD) 235
austerity 240, 246 Beesabathuni, Kalpana 222–232
Australian Catholic University 322, 328 behaviour: and climate crisis 37; commercial
Australian First Nations community: determinants of 108; and social context
Aboriginal well-being 215–216; Act-Belong- 39–40; social determinants of 18; and social
Commit campaign 216–217; behavioural marketing 5–6, 34; and Stages of Change
objectives 217–218; indigenous beliefs Theory 37–38; victim blaming 23; see also
about social/emotional well-being 216; human behaviour
intervention 219; introduction and problem behavioural barriers 168
definition 215–216; lessons for the planet behavioural enablers 168
220; outcomes 219–220; primary research behavioural objectives: active play 332;
216–217; social/emotional well-being Águeda, Portugal 197–198; aspiring
intervention in 215–220 communities 241–243, 242; Australian First
Australian Human Rights Commission 210 Nations community 217–218; autism 323;
 Index 341

Baby Killer revisited 300; civil society “Carbon Literacy Training” 199
alliance 289; Fashion Revolution 314; carbon neutrality 58, 93; achieving 19; and
gender inequality 284–285; healthier sustainable tourism 46
masculinities 211; healthy breakfasts in Carson, Rachel 132
Armenia 306; Lake Tuggeranong 253; LCC Carter, Jennifer 204–208
wildlife movement campaign 270; Malawi categorical imperative 146
223; meat thermometer 190–191 causal loop diagrams (CLDs) 168–169, 169
behavioural outcomes: LCC wildlife C-Change project 195–199, 200, 201–202
movement campaign 275–276 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
behavioural scientists 49 25, 113
behaviour change theory 107–108 Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) 131
behaviour change wheel 190, 190 change 2; climate (see climate change); and
behaviour strategy, and meat thermometer 191 Exchange Theory 43–44; and stakeholders 59
below the line (BTL) advertising 325–326 changeyourreactions.com 326, 327
Bernays, Edward 130, 144 Chemie Grünenthal GmbH 82
biomimicry 263 Childhood Obesity Surveillance Initiative
Blink (Gladwell) 85 (COSI) Armenia 304
Bloomberg Philanthropies 294 children: Armenians and their 305; baby
Bloomberg tax 100, 294 milk industry 111; branding 110–113; and
Blue Space System: quality through healthy breakfasts in Armenia 310, 311, 312;
stakeholder engagement 234–239; and marketing 128; see also teenagers
stakeholders classified in 237 choice ordering 96
Body Bags commercial 98 Chueiri, Alexandra 234–239
bog(s) vi, 163 citizen empowerment 199
bottle-feeding 111, 299 ‘Civil Disobedience’ (Thoreau) 149
branding 96–98, 102; assets 254, 256; baby Civil Liberties Movement 3
milk industry 111–112; children 110–113; Civil Rights movement 55
infant formula 111–112; see also advertising civil society alliance: behavioural objectives
branding identity: and key messages 254, 254, 289; intervention 290; introduction and
255; and narrative 254, 254, 255 problem definition 288; lessons for the
breastfeeding 77–78, 298–302 planet 292–297; and Mexican sugar-
breast milk substitutes (BMS) 298–300; sweetened beverages tax policy 288–297;
regulating marketing of 298–302 outcomes 290–291; primary research 289
Brennan, Linda 209–214 Clic. Lab 199
British Council 315 client orientation 18, 20–22, 27–28, 135
British-Irish Agreement Act 194 Clifford, Eoghan 179–186
British Medical Journal (The BMJ) 301 climate breakdown 116–118
Brockenhurst, Robert 152 climate change/crisis 26, 36–38; and arts and
Brychkov, Dmitry 179–186, 330–337 culture 195–203; and Australian Islanders
Burke, Liam 234–239 133; and behaviour 37; community
business 109, 131; impact on lives 3; social awareness of 199; and contemplation 37;
consequences of 107; strategic plans 101 factors influencing position on 38–43;
butterfly effect 42 and indigenous communities 133–136;
mitigation and adaptation 195–196; and
Cambridge Analytica 114–115 oil industry 109; and pre-contemplation
Campbell, Colin 240–247 37; and Stages of Change Theory 37; and
Camus, Albert 147–148 stories/storytelling 100; and tourism 46
Canadian Tar Sands 129 climate justice 2, 151
capitalism 92; computational 115; free-market clustering 96, 168
246; good side of 125–126; surveillance 8 Co-Create-Build-Engage 184
carbon footprint 26, 46, 111, 157, 193, 232, 299 co-create sessions 185–186
342 Index

co-creation 212, 250 corporate marketing 106–107; power of 108–110;

co-design 212, 250, 251 reality of 131–133; regulation of 113; see also
Codina, Víctor 78 marketing
collective action 6, 9, 30, 136, 155 corporate social responsibility (CSR) 73, 108
collective agency, and human rights 147–150 cost, and gender inequality 286
collective orientation 18, 22–26, 28 Couceiro, Carla 195–203
colonialism 134–135 Covid-19 pandemic 16, 29, 97, 106, 117, 126,
Columbus, Christopher 125, 126–127 201–202, 315, 327
commercial marketing 3–5, 8, 10–11, 26–27, Craft Butchers of Ireland 192–193
107, 115, 140, 158, 299; see also marketing Creating Collective Solutions (CCS) process
commitment 30, 45; political 202; and 250–252, 252, 253
trust 29 creative orientation 18, 22, 28
communication: and advertising 91–92; creative strategy 254–263
critical awareness 100–101; digital creativity, and aspiring communities
confirmation 93; limits of 101–102; Lincoln’s 240–247
lessons on 89–90; participatory 93; and critical awareness 100–101
shared creativity 94–95; of social marketers critical marketing 26, 27, 105–120; behaviour
88–102; and stories 99–100; strategy 254, change theory 107–108; branding 110–113;
257, 258–259; working of 91–93 health issues 26, 27, 106–107; see also
communities vi; aspiring 240–247; First corporate marketing; marketing
Nations 206, 207, 215–220; Indigenous 216, critical thinking: and commercial marketing
219; knowledge and attitudes 322 107; importance of 6
competition 59; active 26, 28, 31; passive 26, critical thought 115, 119
27, 31 Crying Indian ad 101
competitive analysis 118–119 cultural adaptation of Act-Belong-Commit
competitive orientation 18–19, 26–27, 28 campaign 216–217
competitive strategy 59 cultural heritage 22, 195
completion, as projective technique 96 cultural interface 205
complex exchanges 46–47 culture: and climate crisis 195–203; First
complex relational exchanges 29–30 Nations 206; indigenous 39, 127
computational capitalism 115 Cuong Pham 249–264
Conference of the Parties on Climate Change customer-defined quality 131
(COP) 19, 134
conformity values 45 data 79–80; collection, digital research 79;
connection, and aspiring communities primary (see primary research/data);
240–247 secondary (see secondary research/data)
consumer behaviour 189, 316; see also Davis, Wade 126, 128, 133
behaviour de Andrade, Marisa 240–247
consumerism 4, 124, 126, 132 de Castro, Raquel 179–186
consumers: and alternatives 124–125; Delsahut, Fabrice 127
socialization 112–113; sovereignty 132 denormalization 40
consumption 117; cultural meaning to 91; dental health 23–24
downsides of 4; dysfunctional 106–107; Deontological theory 146
human 159–161; and marketing 113 deregulation 246
continuous learning 56 descriptive norms 40
Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) detailed complexity 170
148, 149 DiClemente, C.C. 37
cooperation 29, 59, 290; and coordination 203; digital billboards 326
voluntary 54 digital capability 8, 115
coordinated action 263 digital communications 93, 94
Cordova, Lopez 60, 94 digital ethnography 185–186
 Index 343

digital marketing 113–116, 254, 300; see also teacher network 184–185; energy literacy
marketing modules 185; identification of new
digital research 79–80; and intervention- stakeholder roles 181; in-depth interviews
building questions 79; pros and cons of 182; intervention and outcomes 184–186;
79–80; see also online research introduction and problem definition
digital technology 8, 107–108, 113–116 179–180; lessons for the planet 186;
digital tools 72 primary research 180–184; stakeholder
Dingeldei, John 209–214 segmentation 181–182; survey 180–182;
disadvantaged communities 241; see also value exchange mapping 180, 180
aspiring communities energy literacy modules 185
Djokovic, Novak 97 energy-saving activities 182
Dobbing, Jean 240–247 energy-saving behaviours: casual (routine)
Doherty, Edelle 179–186 performers of 182; regular performers of 182
Domegan, Christine 29, 179–186, 234–239, engagement strategy 257, 260, 260
330–337 English as a Second Language (ESOL) 244
Donnar, Glen 209–214 Equifax 114
Donovan, Robert J 215–220 Estima, Ana 195–203
Drane, Cathy 215–220 ethical dilemmas 142
Duane, Sinead 26, 29, 234–239 ethical risks: and intervention 143–145; and
Duffy, Sarah 282–286 research ethics 145; in social marketing
dynamic complexity 170 141–145
dynamics 168; analysis 168–169; and systems ethics 8–9, 139–152; research 145; tackling
map 168–169 ethical issues 145–146
European Green Deal 235, 238
Eadie, Douglas 298–302 European imperial ventures 126
Earl, Anna 30, 313–320 European Social Fund (ESF) 247n1
ecological crisis 140; see also climate European Union (EU): Mandatory Human
change/crisis Rights and Environmental Due Diligence
ecosystems 152, 234; balanced 263; earth’s legislation 315; URBACT 195–196
140, 152; and fashion 316; planetary 19; evaluation: outcome 81–82; process 80–81;
school 181; vital 163 real change in real world 240–247; “Slow
Edwards, Nicola 321–329 Tiny Acts of Resistance (STaRs)”6 to 244–245;
Egg-hub 222–223 social marketing strategic plan 67
Elite Butchers 193 evaluation research questions 70, 80–83;
El Poder del Consumidor (The Consumer’s outcome evaluation 81–82; process
Power) 290 evaluation 80–81, 81; reflective 84
Emmett, Steve 4 exchange analysis 165–167
emotional well-being: Aboriginal 215–216; Exchange Theory 43–44, 47, 149
in Australian First Nations community Experian 114
215–220; indigenous people’s beliefs
about 216 Facebook 201, 254, 326
emotions 90; empathy 95–96; negative 95; Fanning, Evelyn 330–337
positive 95; trust 96–98 Farrell, Maeve 234–239
empathy 95–96 fascism 92–93
empowerment: citizen 199; grassroots 5, 144 fashion activism movement 30, 313, 315–316
enablers: analysis 168; behavioural 168; Fashion Revolution: behavioural objectives
structural 168 314; Fashion Transparency Indexes
ENERGE project 179–187; behavioural 314; founded in 313; intervention 315;
objectives 184; co-create sessions 185–186; introduction and problem definition
digital ethnography 185–186; digital 313–314; lessons for the planet 316;
platform 185; ENERGE committees and outcomes 315–316, 317–319; primary
344 Index

research 314; social marketing of fashion Gladwell, Malcolm 85

system with 313–320 global change 1, 9, 170; social marketing
Fashion Revolution Week 315 (see social marketing)
Fashion Transparency Indexes 314 Globalization and Health 302
feedback loops 168 Global North 124, 124–125, 147; consumerism
felt evidence and the unseen 245–246 in 124; inequality in 124
Fernandes, Viktor 199–200; materials Global Nutrition Report (2018) 304
workshop 201, 201 Global South 124, 124, 132, 133, 147
fiduciary imperative 110 Good Friday Agreement 194
“Fight BAC/Thermy” campaign 189 good theory 36
Finn, Fiona 209–214 Google Scholar 72
First Nations 94, 204–207: and Act-Belong- grassroots empowerment 5, 144
Commit framework 216; Australian greenwashing 59, 73
universities as culturally safe places for Gualinga, Nina 135, 151
204–208; beliefs about emotional well-being Guterres, António 19, 110
216; beliefs about social well-being 216;
communities 206, 207, 215–220; culture 206, Harari, Yuval 2
208; health and well-being of 220; in higher harm(s): of carbon fuels 109; ecological 111;
education 204–205; intergenerational social to health/planet 109; of infant formula 111;
mobility for 204; language groups 217; lived planetary 106–107, 117
experience of 207; mental health of Harris, Tristan 115, 116
215–216; social/emotional well-being Hastings, G. 44, 129, 298–302
215–216 healthier masculinities: behavioural objectives
Flaherty, Tina 330–337 211; intervention 212–213; introduction and
Floyd, George 55 problem definition 209–210; lessons for the
Food and Drug Administration 25 planet 213; outcomes 213; participatory
foodborne illnesses 188 co-design defining 209–214; participatory
Foote, Liz 5 co-design supporting 209–214; primary
fossil fuel: extraction 26; funding 73; industry research 210–211
110; job loss in 58; see also carbon footprint health issues: client orientation 27–28; and
Framework Convention on Tobacco Control corporate marketing 109; critical marketing
(FCTC) 59–60, 302 26, 27, 106–107; dental health 23–24;
framing, and positioning 66 dysfunctional consumption 106–107;
free-market capitalism 246; see also capitalism inequalities 62
Freire, Paulo 78 healthy breakfast consumption 304–305
Freud, Sigmund 130 healthy breakfasts in Armenia 304–312;
Friedman, Milton 109, 110 behavioural objectives 306; children’s findings
From the Heart of The World 134 310, 311, 312; interventions 306–307, 307, 308;
Fyall, Felicity 240–247 introduction and problem definition 304–305;
lessons for the planet 311–312; multi-faceted
Galway, Ireland 330–337, 333 interventions 309, 309–310; outcomes 309,
gender inequality 282–286; cost 286; 309–311, 310, 311; parents findings 310;
intervention 285–286; mental health and primary research 305–306
resilience resources 286; network effects healthy lifestyle, promoting 282–286
286; outcomes 286; primary research hedonism value 45
283–284 Hewitt, Jon 209–214
General Booth 4–5 The Hidden Persuaders (Packard) 132
General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) 80 Higham, Charles 119
General Electric 97 high self-interest values 45
Gettysburg military cemetery 89–90 HIV/AIDS 85
Gilbey, Kathryn 204–208 Hollinsworth, David 204–208
 Index 345

hope 125 intervention-building questions 70, 74–80

Huma Betang 135 interventions: Águeda, Portugal 198–201;
human behaviour 64; collective action 6; aspiring communities 243; Australian First
grassroots empowerment 5; and social Nations community 219; autism 323–327,
marketing 5–6; see also behaviour 324, 325, 326, 327; Baby Killer revisited 300;
human consumption 159–161 civil society alliance 290; and ethical risks
human rights 8–9, 133, 139–152; and collective 143–145; Fashion Revolution 315; gender
agency 147–150; right to participation inequality 285–286; healthier masculinities
150–151; and social marketing 148–149 212–213; healthy breakfasts in Armenia
humble egg in Malawi 222–232 306–307, 307, 308; Lake Tuggeranong
humour and Armenians 306 253; LCC wildlife movement campaign
Humphrey, Jordan 193 271–273; Malawi 224–229, 225, 226, 227,
Hunt, Kate 298–302 228, 229; multi-faceted 309, 309–310;
Hunt, S.D. 29 testing mentality 83; university-based 210;
Hurley, Erin 266–281 upstream 145
hyperconsumption 126, 129–131 interviews: individual in-depth 75; qualitative
interviewing 75
IBFAN Italia 302 “In the Office” advertisement 325
ice cream 120 Ipsos MRBI 193
If this is a Man (Levi) 146 Ireland 163
“#I Made Your Clothes” 315 Irwin, Paul 100
imperative: categorical 146; fiduciary 110 “Is It Done Yet?” campaign 189
imperialism 126
implementation 213; awareness campaign Jones, Sandra C. 321–329
measures 275; ENERGE project 186; of plan Journal of Macromarketing 173
70; programme 81–83; public health policy Journal of Marketing 5
100; and social marketers 55 Journal of Public Policy and Marketing 107
in-depth interviews 182 Journal of Social Marketing 32, 51, 68, 86,
indicators: relationship 170; systems social 120, 173
marketing 170–172, 171
indigenous communities 133–136, 216, 219 Kant, Immanuel 146
indigenous cultures 39, 127 Katz, E. 91
Indigenous Data Sovereignty movement 206 Keep America Beautiful 101
indigenous people see First Nations Kennedy, Ann-Marie 30, 313–320
indigenous wisdom 127 Kennedy, J. 188
individual in-depth interviews 75 King, Martin Luther 3, 43, 54–55, 67
individualised values 44 Klein, Naomi 11
industrial epidemics 106, 113; climate knowledge: community 322; indigenous 134;
breakdown 116–118 individual 36; and relationship marketing
inequalities: gender 42, 47, 58, 282–286; and 170; traditional 134; transfer 170
Global North 124; health issues 62; racial koala conservation: LCC wildlife movement
55; structural 148 campaign 276, 277, 278; leveraging
infant formula 111–112 partnerships for 276, 277, 278
injunctive norms 40 Kotler, P. 5, 44
“Inquiry into Services for People with Autism Kubacki, K.A. 148
Spectrum Disorder Final Report” 321
Instagram 193, 326 Lake Tuggeranong: biomimicry 263;
International Code of Marketing of Breast- branding assets 254, 256; CCS process
milk Substitutes (WHO) 298 250–252, 252, 253; co-design 250, 251;
Interpretive Structural Modelling (ISM) communication strategy 254, 257, 258–259;
software 252 coordinated action 263; creative strategy
346 Index

254–263; engagement strategy 257, 260, 260; and problem definition 266–267; koala
intervention 253; introduction and problem conservation 276, 277, 278; lessons for
definition 249–250; outcomes 263, 264; the planet 276–280; outcomes 273–276;
primary research 250–253; targeted groups partnership and collaboration 271; primary
263; treatment areas 260, 263 research 267–270; social media and positive
Lancet Series 302 change 278, 279, 280, 281; social media
Laranjeira, Célia 195–203 outcomes 273–275
Layard, Richard 64 Lorenz, Edward 42
Lazarsfeld, P. 91 Lowe, Jennifer 321–329
Leaf Collective 94–95, 249–264; behavioural Lowry, R. 44
objectives 253; biomimicry 263; branding low universalism mutuality value 45
assets 254, 256; branding identity, narrative Lucas, Teghan 156
and key messages 254, 254, 255; CCS Luisa Lopez Cordova, 249–264
process 250–252, 252, 253; co-design 250,
251; communication strategy 254, 257, Malawi: behavioural objectives 223;
258–259; coordinated action 263; creative findings 230–232; humble egg in 222–232;
strategy 254–263; engagement strategy 257, interventions 224–229, 225, 226, 227, 228,
260, 260; intervention 253; introduction 229; introduction and problem definition
and problem definition 249–250; lessons for 222–223; lessons for the planet 232;
the planet 263; outcomes 263, 264; primary outcomes 229–232; primary research 223
research 250–253; targeted groups 263; malnutrition 222, 304
treatment areas 260, 263; website 254 Maloney, Jade 321–329
learning: continuous 56; progressive 56; and Man Cave 212
relationship marketing 170 Manchester Arts Sustainability Team (MAST)
Lefebvre, R.C. 61 196–198; members 198, 198
Lenziemill 222 Mandatory Human Rights and Environmental
lessons for the planet: active play 335–337; Due Diligence legislation (EU) 315
Águeda, Portugal 202–203; aspiring Mandela, Nelson 99
communities 246–247; Australian First mapping 58, 79, 96, 165–167, 166; and
Nations community 220; Australian exchange analysis 165–167; stakeholder
universities 207–208; autism 328; Baby 167; value exchange 180, 180
Killer revisited 302; civil society alliance marketing: of breast milk substitutes 298–302;
292–297; Fashion Revolution 316; healthier and children 128; commercial 3–4;
masculinities 213; healthy breakfasts in corporate 106–107; critical 26, 27, 106–107;
Armenia 311–312; LCC wildlife movement digital 113, 300; drawbacks of 4; origins of
campaign 276–280; Leaf Collective 263; 2–3; perspective 131; relationship 19, 29;
Malawi 232; PIER 238 social (see social marketing)
Levi, Primo 146–147, 148 marketing research 71, 81, 84–85, 101, 328
Lewin, Kurt 36, 70 Marlboro 98, 102
Lieberman, Mathew 160 Marques, S. 22, 29
lifeboat dilemma 141, 152 Marques, Susana 195–203
lifestyle illnesses 106 Martin, Micheál 28
Lima, Rodrigues 179–186 masculinities: healthier (see healthier
Lincoln, Abraham 89–90, 102 masculinities); participatory co-design
linear sequential models 91–92 209–214
Lingala, Srujith 222–232 materialism 126, 133
Logan City Council wildlife movement maternal undernutrition 222
campaign 266–281; behavioural objectives Matthews, Eric 192
270; behavioural outcomes 275–276; Maxwell, Hazel 282–286
inspiring real action for impact 277–278; McConnell, Jack 28
intervention 271–273; introduction McDonald’s 118–119
 Index 347

McGloin, Aileen 63, 188–194 network effects, gender inequality 286

McHugh, P. 42, 83, 170 “neurodiversity paradigm” 321
measurability: of objectives 63–65; and new industrial revolution 8
strategic planning 63–65 Newton, Isaac 9
meat thermometer 188–194; behavioural New York Times 119
objectives 190–191; behaviour strategy Nicholas, Amberlee 215–220
191; intervention 191–193; intervention Nielsen Mexico: Consumer Panel Services 291
functions used 190–191; introduction and Nimble Trials 309
problem definition 188–189; lessons for the non-governmental organizations (NGOs)
planet 193–194; outcomes 193; partnership 290, 300
192–193; place 192; price 192; primary non-performers 182
research 189; product 192; promotion 192 norms: climate 41; descriptive 40; injunctive
mental health 157, 209, 240, 284–285: 40; social 41; Social Norms Theory 40–41
Aboriginal 215–216; positive 216, 220; and nudging, concept of 144
resilience resources 286
mental illness 151, 215–216, 219 objectives: achievability of 63–65;
Merritt, Rowena 22, 61, 222–232, 304–312 measurability of 63–65; strategic planning
Mesquita, Adriana 195–203 63–65
Mexico: COFEPRIS 292; prevalence of occasional performers of energy-saving
overweight and obesity 289; sugar- activities 182
sweetened beverages tax 288–297 offer formulation 65–66, 169–170; accessible
Milligan, Darragh 192 66; affordable 65–66; appealing 65
Mitakuya Oyasin 100 oil industry 73, 109
Moezzi, Mithra 100 “one-size-fits-all” approach 238
Monbiot, George 11 online research 79; see also digital research
monitoring: social marketing strategic plan 67; opinion leaders 91
social media 79 “Ordering at a Café” advertisement 326
Montgomery, Rilza 240–247 Organization for Economic Co-operation and
moral agency 140–141, 147, 150 Development (OECD) 41, 158
moral dilemmas 141 O’Shea, Michelle 282–286
morality 45–46, 139–152 outcome evaluation 81–82
moral values 45–46 outcomes: active play 332, 332–335, 333,
Morgan, R.M. 29 334–335, 336; Águeda, Portugal 201–202;
Morris, Dearbháile 234–239 aspiring communities 243–246; Australian
Mullins, Gareth 193 First Nations community 219–220;
multi-faceted interventions 309, 309–310 Australian universities 206–207; autism
Murray, Caroline 330–337 327–328; Baby Killer revisited 300–302;
Murray, Lesley A 215–220 civil society alliance 290–291; Fashion
mutuality 45–46 Revolution 315–316, 317–319; gender
mutually beneficial exchange 21–22; and inequality 286; healthier masculinities 213;
compromise 21; and Exchange Theory 44; healthy breakfasts in Armenia 309, 309–311,
motivation for 21 310, 311; LCC wildlife movement campaign
273–276; Leaf Collective 263, 264; Malawi
Nakata, M.N. 205 229–232
narratives 254, 254, 255 outdoor advertising 326, 327
National Agreement of Closing the Gap 204 overweight 19, 26, 111, 113, 119, 289, 304
National Institute of Public Health (INSP) 289 Oxfam 4
National Sporting Organisations (NSOs) 283
Native American storytelling 100 Packard, Vance 132
negative emotions 95 Palmers, Kate 283
Nestle 298 parenting and parents’ lifestyle 333–335, 336
348 Index

Parker, Lukas 209–214 pro-environmental values 45

participatory co-design: and healthier progressive learning 56
masculinities 209–214 projective techniques 96
participatory communications 93 Projeto Circular 199, 200
participatory research 76–78 propaganda 130
partnership: and LCC wildlife movement Propaganda (Bernays) 130
campaign 271; leveraging 276, 277, 278; provisioning systems 159–161, 161;
meat thermometer 192–193; safefood, with identification 165; problem 162–163; and
Craft Butchers of Ireland 192 systems maps 168
passive audience 92 public education campaigns 321, 323, 325, 328
passive competition 26, 27, 31 public health 8, 11, 20, 126; activity
peatlands vi, 163–165, 164, 169, 174n22 90; community 96; harm 8, 26, 126;
Peel, Nicole 282–286 interventions 126; research 289; Scottish
Pérez-Escamilla, Rafael 27, 111, 113, 129, 27–28
288–297 Pupavac, Vanessa 151
personification 96
PESTEL analysis 58 qualitative interviewing 75
Peyden Tshering, Puja 222–232 qualitative research 72, 75
PIER project 234–239; introduction and quantitative research 72, 75; questioning
problem definition 234–238; lessons for the procedures 75; sample selection 75
planet 238; stakeholder interviews 235–238,
236, 237 racial disharmony 59
PIER (Public health Impact of Exposure to Raciti, Maria 127, 204–208
antibiotic Resistance in recreational waters) Rana Plaza Factory disaster 313, 315
project see PIER project Reeves, Rosser 130
Pinker, Susan 160 regulation: of corporate marketing 113;
Pinterest 326 marketing of breast milk substitutes
Pippos, Angela 283 298–302
planetary harm 106–107, 117 relationality 205, 207
Ponting, Clive 126, 132 relational thinking 28–29
positioning: and framing 66; strategic planning relationship: and aspiring communities 247;
66–67 marketing 19, 29
positive emotions 95 research 69–86; action 70–72; digital 79–80;
power 246–247 ethics 145; online 79; participatory
preparatory research questions 70, 72–74 76–78; primary 72, 75; public health
primary research/data 72; active play 331; 289; secondary 72, 73–74, 79–80; social
aspiring communities 241; Australian First marketing 71, 81, 84–85, 101, 328
Nations community 216–217; Australian rights and responsibilities 140
universities 205–206; autism 322–323; right to participation 150–151
Baby Killer revisited 299–300; civil society ripple effect 100
alliance 289; Fashion Revolution 314; Ropati, Charitie 135
gender inequality 283–284; healthier Rowlings, J.K. 6
masculinities 210–211; healthy breakfasts in Roy, Arundhati 125
Armenia 305–306; LCC wildlife movement Rundle-Thiele, Sharyn 6, 249–264, 266–281
campaign 267–270; Leaf Collective 250–253;
Malawi 223; qualitative 72, 75; quantitative safefood 93, 188–189, 192; behaviour change
72, 75 wheel 190; created in 194; partnership with
priority group 62–63; accessibility 62; Craft Butchers of Ireland 192
responsiveness 62; viability 62 Saint-Exupéry, Antoine de 95
process evaluation 80–81, 81 Saiyeda, Zahraa 100
Prochaska, J.O. 37 Salamone, Vanessa 249–264
 Index 349

Salvation Army 4–5 Social Ecological Theory (SET) 42–43, 43, 158
Santos, Edson 195–203 social influence, and Armenians 306
Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind social innovation 195–203
(Harari) 2 social listening 79
school personnel, and energy use and social marketer(s) 9; collective orientation 24;
saving 181 communication 10, 88–102; competitive
Schumacher, Fritz 132 orientation 26–27; mutually beneficial
Schwartz, S.H. 44 exchange 21–22; roadmap 53–67; and social
The Sea Starts Here urban art installation context 39–40; and trust 29; and values 45
199, 199 social marketing 11, 107; and behaviour 34;
secondary research/data 72, 73–74; digital case studies from around the world 12–15;
research 79–80; importance of 74; online collective action 6; defined 5; effectiveness
research 79; and systems thinking 74 of 6–8; environment 57; ethical dilemmas
Second World War 148 142; ethical risks in 141–145; ethics in
segmentation: benefits and barriers 61; criteria 139–152; and Fashion Revolution 313–320;
in social marketing 61; past behaviour 61; grassroots empowerment 5; and human
personal characteristics 61; and strategic behavior 5–6; human rights in 139–152;
planning 60–62; as unfair 61 moral dilemmas in 141; morality in
self-interest values 45–46 139–152; orientations 17–31; overview 4–5;
sexual health 64 relational thinking 28–29; and removal of
Seydel, Tori 266–281 eucalypt leaves from stormwater drains
shared creativity, and communication 94–95 249–264; research 71, 81, 84–85, 101, 328;
shareholders 110, 302 strategic plan 55–56, 56; and strategic
Shell 4 planning 55–56, 56; strategic vision of 30;
Sight and Life (Humanitarian Think Tank) 222 systems 155–172; value-based exchanges
silent pandemic 235 46–48; see also marketing
Silent Spring (Carson) 132 Social Marketing @ Griffith 250, 267–268, 271
Silva, Luis 199–200 Social Marketing Quarterly 32, 51, 68, 86,
situation analysis 57–58 120, 173
Skau, Nanna 22, 61, 304–312 social marketing strategic plan 55–56,
“Slow Tiny Acts of Resistance (STaRs)”6 to 56; achievability 63–65; evaluation 67;
evaluation 244–245 formulating offer 65–66; measurability
Small is Beautiful, A Study of Economics as if 63–65; monitoring 67; positioning 66–67;
People Mattered (Schumacher) 132 priority group 62–63; segmentation and
small-to-medium enterprises (SMEs) 313, 315 targeting 60–62; systems 161–162, 162
smoking 20; active competition 26, 28; client social media 115; advertising and promotions
orientation 27–28; collective orientation 95; LCC wildlife movement campaign 278,
28; competitive orientation 28; creative 279, 280, 281; monitoring 79; outcomes
orientation 28; and intervention 145; 273–275; and positive change 278, 279, 280,
passive competition 26, 27, 31; Philip 281; and Social Listening 79
Morris Unsmoke campaign 57; relational social networking sites 79
thinking 28–29; Social Norms Theory 40; Social Norms Theory 40–41
truth campaign 97–98 social systems 160
social capital 41–42, 283–284; relational social well-being: Aboriginal 215–216; in
element of 41; structural aspect of 41; types Australian First Nations community
of 41, 42 215–220; indigenous people’s beliefs
Social Capital Theory 41–42, 283 about 216
social change 5–6, 18 Social: Why Our Brains Are Wired to Connect
Social Cognitive Theory 39, 39, 107 (Lieberman) 160
social context 23; and behaviours 39–40; and Solnit, Rebecca 1–2, 6, 16
social marketers 39–40 source effect 96–98
350 Index

Stages of Change Theory 34, 38; and behaviour Tapp, Alan xxii, 174n18
37–38; and climate crisis 37; weaknesses targeted groups 263
of 37 targeting: strategic planning 60–62; as
Stages of Exchange Theory 34 unfair 61
stakeholder analysis 59–60; systemic technology 58, 93; carbon-neutral 157; digital
163–165, 164 8, 107–108, 113–116
stakeholders 26, 158–159; and change 59; teenagers: and junk food 65; safe sex 64;
classified in the Blue Space System 237; smoking 44, 49, 95, 97; see also children
engagement, and Blue Space quality Teleological theory 146
234–239; PIER 235–238, 236, 237; Telford, Amelia 135
segmentation 181–182; in social system 28; Teller, Edward 109
and value exchanges 46 thalidomide scandal 82
Stiegler, Bernard 115 Theories of Social Change see Social Change
stimulation value 45 Theory
stockholders 110 theory 34–50; choosing 48–49; good 36;
stories/storytelling 76–77, 90; and climate 100; importance of 35–36; of social change 34;
Native American 100; power of 99–100 Stages of Change Theory 34, 37–38; Stages
strategic planning 53–67; evaluation 67; of Exchange Theory 34
monitoring 67; objectives 63–65; offer Thoreau, Henry David 149
formulation 65–66; positioning 66–67; Tkaczynski, Aaron 249–264
priority group, choosing 62–63; problem Tobacco Control 28
definition 57; segmentation 60–62; situation Torres Strait Islander 133, 134, 204, 208, 217
analysis 57–58; and social marketing 55–56, tourism: and climate change 46; sustainable
56; stakeholder analysis 59–60; targeting 46, 163
60–62 transparency index 316
structural barriers 168 treatment areas, and Lake Tuggeranong 260, 263
structural enablers 168 Trump, Donald 97
subjective values 44 trust 96–98; branding 96–98; and commitment
sugar-sweetened beverages tax policy: and 29; defined 29; and social marketers 29,
civil society 288–297; in Mexico 288–297 96–98; source effect 96–98
“Supermarket Checkout” advertisement 324 “Trust the Meat Thermometer” campaign 189,
SuperValu 192, 193 191, 192
surveillance capitalism 8 truth campaign 97
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 38, Twitter 79, 158, 275, 326
150, 157–158
sustainable energy performance: barriers and Umbrella Sky project 197
implemented measures 183; of schools 183; UN Climate and Biodiversity Treaty 156
in systemic school environment 179–187 UNICEF 302
sustainable tourism 46, 163 United Fruit Company 131
SWOT analysis 58 United Kingdom (UK): and alcohol advertising
systematic review 72–73 82; and bottle feeding 299; and Fashion
systemic change 30 Revolution 314; foodbanks in 124; intestinal
systemic school environment 179–187 disease in 188; Modern Slavery Acts 315;
systemic stakeholder analysis 163–165, 164 overweight or obese in 111; removal of
systems map 168–169 tobacco marketing 27
systems science 158–159 United Nations (UN) 148, 321; Sustainable
systems social marketing 155–172; indicators Development Goals 38, 150, 157–158, 235,
170–172 238; Universal Declaration of Human Rights
systems thinking 158, 210, 235, 238 9; World Tourism Organization 46
Szablewska, N. 148 United Nations Framework Convention on
Szreter, S. 283 Climate Change (UNFCCC) 19
 Index 351

Universal Declaration of Human Rights whistle blower 116

89, 148 “#Who Made My Clothes” 315
university-based intervention 210 “#Who Made My Fabric” 315
unseen as felt evidence 245–246; in aspiring wicked problems 212–213
communities 240–247 Wicked Problems studio 212, 214n1
upstream interventions 145 Wiebe, Gerhard 5
URBACT Local Groups (ULG) 196 wildlife movement campaign 272–273
Urban Art programme 197 Williams, Rowan 152
utilitarianism see Teleological theory women in sport roadshow (WISR) 282–286;
behavioural objectives 284–285; cost 286;
value(s): client orientation 22; conformity intervention 285–286; introduction and
45; defined 44; hedonism 45; high problem definition 282–283; mental health
self-interest 45; individualised 44; low and resilience resources 286; network
universalism mutuality 45; moral 45–46; effects 286; outcomes 286; primary research
pro-environmental 45; and social marketers 283–284
45; stimulation 45; subjective 44; at work wooded isle 126–129
and play 45 Woolcock, M. 283
value-based exchanges 46–48, 47 World Autism Awareness Day 321
value exchange mapping 180, 180 World Food Programme (WFP) 305
victim blaming 23, 142 World Health Assembly (WHA) 298–299,
The Village Effect: Why Face-to-Face Contact 300, 321
Matters (Pinker) 160 World Health Organization (WHO) 41, 57, 158,
vision 30, 54–55, 57, 84, 90 188, 289, 299, 302, 304, 321, 331; European
Volkswagen 4 region 106; Framework Convention on
Tobacco Control 59–60; World Food Safety
Wallace, David Foster 22–23 theme of 2021 193
Wal-Mart 4
War On Want 298 Yeats, W.B 98
Water Framework Directive (WFD, 2000/60/ Yue Xi 249–264
EC) (WFD) 235
Welles, Orson 91, 102 Zak, P. 44
WFP Armenia: Social Behaviour Change Zaltman, G. 5
Strategy 306 Zuboff, Shoshana 8, 115
WhatsApp 201 Zuckerberg, Mark 114, 115