2022 International Conference on Connected Systems & Intelligence (CSI)

The factors for choosing among NB-loT,

LoRaWAN, and Sigfox radio communication
technologies for loT networking
Esad Kadusic, Member, IEEE Christoph Ruland, Life member, IEEE Narcisa Hadzajlic
University ofSarajevo University ofSiegen University ofZenica
Sarajevo, Bosnia & Herzegovina Siegen, Germany Zenica, Bosnia & Herzegovina
[email protected] [email protected] [email protected]

Natasa Zivic, Senior member, IEEE

Leipzig University ofApplied Sciences
Leipzig, Germany
[email protected]

Abstract- The designing process of an loT (Internet of choice depends on various factors such as the required data
Things) network requires adequate knowledge of various rate and cost constraints. For distributed endpoints over a large
communication technologies that make the connection of the and distant area, LPWAN or cellular connections are needed.
loT modules possible. Many important factors such as
2022 International Conference on Connected Systems & Intelligence (CSI) | 978-1-6654-5815-3/22/$31.00 ©2022 IEEE | DOI: 10.1109/CSI54720.2022.9923999

scalability, bandwidth, data rate (speed), coverage, power The power consumption of each node increases for greater
consumption, and security support need to be considered to distances, which can lead to ecological problems since the
answer the needs of an loT application with regards to the used batteries ofthe end device may pile up fast in nature. So,
implemented radio communication technology. This paper loT network designers need deep research on the radio
studies the choices of three major LPWAN (Low-Power Wide- communication technologies that will be used in such cases to
Area Networks) technologies that are currently leading in the decrease unwanted power consumption as much as possible.
market of radio communication technologies. Focusing on The network designer also must take other factors into account
Sigfox, LoRaWAN (Low-Range Wide-Area Networks), and NB- to control the efficiency ofthe applied radio technology based
loT (Narrow-Band Internet of Things), this work intends to give on the use case.
the respective pros and cons of the mentioned technologies and
a clear view of the recent trends and effective choices of radio LPWAN technologies are characterized by very low levels
communication technologies for major smart loT applications. of power consumption, optimizing the battery life of more
than 10 years for each node, briefmessaging mechanisms with
Keywords-Low-Power Wide-Area Network (LPWAN), the length of an SMS, decreased device costs of a few dollars,
Narrow-Band loT (NB-loT), Low-Range Wide-Area Network and coverage optimization. On top of that, LPWAN eases the
(LoRa WAN}, Sigfox, Radio communication, loT, Bandwidth, network installation by reusing some of the existing cellular
Battery life, Coverage, Scalability, Data rate, Security, components and provides enhanced scalability features. Major
Modulation, Handover security support for node authentication and loT platform
integration is also included.
I. INTRODUCTION
Various communication technologies have been LPWANs are divided into two subgroups (Fig. 1)[33] of
developed depending on the deployment characteristics and the 3GPP-based, i.e. licensed technologies, and Non-3GPP-
requirements of loT. Achieving end-to-end connectivity for based or unlicensed ones. NB-IoT (Narrowband loT) which is
every two nodes when establishing radio technologies is standardized by the 3GPP standards body, LTE-MTC (LTE-
crucial to loT. Based on the use cases, the connectivities are Machine-Type Communication), and EC-GSM-IoT
divided into three categories. The first two classes include the (Extended Coverage-GSM-IoT) with capabilities to support
existing 2G/3G/LTEfWi-Fi networks while the third one existing cellular networks, all fall into the first category.
considers smart approaches to loT connection encompassing The most known unlicensed radio technologies include
low power consumption and faster throughput for a huge LoRaWAN which is promoted by the LoRa Alliance, Sigfox
number of connections while decreasing the costs. Short or which is a global network based on proprietary technology
medium-range wireless protocols such as Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, from Sigfox, and RPMA (Random Phase Multiple Access)
and ZigBee are range and power restricted and not ideal for offered by Ingenu company. Weightless technology standard
loT applications. The traditional long-range wireless also falls into this category and enables the data exchange
protocols usually have power requirements beyond the between a base station and thousands of machines using
restrictions of battery-powered devices [I]. unoccupied TV transmission channels with high levels of
The third class, Low Power Wide Area Networks security [2][3]. RPMA and Weightless are not considered in
(LPW AN), are evolving the loT development supporting this paper for the analysis due to their possible interference
node's low-power consumption in wide-area networks, in occurrence from WiFi and Bluetooth and some limited
licensed and unlicensed bands. Predictions indicate that the hardware availability [4][5].
connectivity revenue ofLPWAN technologies is rising to $7.5 In the following sections, the three most used radio
billion in 2022 [2]. technologies in the loT market, Sigfox, LoRaWAN, and NB-
Technologies like Bluetooth or Zigbee (personal Area loT are compared in detail regarding important factors such as
Network-PAN) or Wi-Fi (Local Area Network-LAN) maybe data rate, latency, coverage, battery consumption, and so on,
suitable for sensors positioned near an aggregator or gateway to make a general conclusion on how the factors affect the
connected to the internet or a local network. The technology choice ofradio communication technology.

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 2022 International Conference on Connected Systerns & Intelligence (CSI)

(UNB) modulation to achieve an ultra-low noise level [10].

• Promoted by tele communication operato rs
• Operato r-level securi ty & quality as surance On the other hand, it has large coverage of an entire city using
• Promo t ion from t he government only one base station in a range of over 40 km, in contrast to
• Belter m obility for moving nodes
• M uch higher data rates
LoRaWAN which has a lower range for rural areas. Belgium,
which has a total surface of nearly 45000 km2, is entirely
covered by only seven Sigfox base stations [11]. A Sigfox
• Diffic ult for inde pende nt comp an ies signal can delve down to objects found underground or inside
• Smaller signal coverage
• Need more time for market matur ity buildings. However, some tests show a low level of
• Higher node & bas e stat ion cos ts performance of the Sigfox network due to a very high number
of collisions in a 5000 node scenario [7].
• Star of st ars topo logy LoRaWAN has a star-of-stars topology where the gateway
• low node cost s is a relaying bridge between the nodes and centralized
• Simplifie d de ploymen t
• More chip m anufacturer s
intelligence, NetServer, with wired and/or wireless
• Well.develop ed ecosystem connections. NetServer is connected to another application
server of loT applications while managing rednndant packets
and checking security [11]. LoRaWAN uses a dynamic data
• Spectral int erference rate with different spreading factors that can shift up to 9.375
• Vulne rab le to channel jam
• li mite d use r pe rmission
kbps [12]. A not too narrow bandwidth of aronnd 125 kHz,
• li mite d use sce narios allows LoRaWAN to show robustness against some channel
characteristics such as frequency selection and the Doppler
effect [13].
Fig . 1 The classification of LPW AN technologies and the pros and
cons of the technologies in each category NB-IoT's channels are an extended model of the LTE
(Long-Term Evolution) design. An NB-IoT carrier uses
II. SIGFOX, LORAWAN, NB-IoT twelve 15 kHz sub-carriers for a total of 180 kHz [12] and
coexists with GSM (Global System for Mobile
To choose an LPWAN technology depending on the
communications) and LTE under licensed frequency bands.
specific needs for any smart loT solution, essential features
As NB-IoT is extended from LTE, its frequency bandwidth
like battery lifetime, scalability, deployment, data range,
corresponds to one resource block in GSM and LTE
coverage, security, and cost have to be taken into
transmission . NB-IoT has three operation types: the stand-
consideration [6] (Table 1).
alone type of operation utilizing GSM frequencies, the Guard-
A. Power Consumption band operation in the unused resource blocks within an LTE
Sigfox technology has a fixed bandwidth of 100Hz for its carrier's guard-band, and the in-band operation utilizing
D-BPSK (Differential Binary Phase-Shift Keying) resource blocks within an LTE carrier [14].
modulation technique which is part ofthe UNB (Ultra-Narrow The design ofNB-loT offers 20dB coverage, more than 15
Band) modulation type. Along with Chirp Spreading years of operation on a single battery charge, and
Spectrum (used by LoRaWAN systems) and Narrow-Band compatibility with existing cellular network infrastructure [1].
(used by NB-IoT), this modulation requires low power to NB-IoT allows connectivity of more than lOOk devices per
ensure node and loT base station connection [7]. The solution base station compared to 50k per cell for Sigfox and
that enables Sigfox to optimize battery usage is using small LoRaWAN, offering a maximum payload length ofup to 1600
packets of 12 bytes payload frame, which will have only 26 bytes. This number for LoRaWAN is 243 bytes at maximum,
bytes on-air so the modules can support data transmission for and for Sigfox is the lowest, only 12 bytes [6].
decades [7] [8].
C. Data Rate
LoRaWAN devices do not connect with a specific
Sigfox's data rate is fixed to 100bps, with the limitation of
gateway. In its star topology, end devices broadcast to one or a maximum of 140 messages per day. LoRaWAN provides a
more given gateways. The back-end servers of the gateways
higher transmission speed ranging from 0.3 up to 27 kbps
decide on which gateway to handle the received packets depending on the spreading factor and bandwidth [9]. NB-IoT
achieving a higher level of management. Based on the limits,
has a peak data rate of 26 kbps in the downlink and 66 kbps in
LoRaWAN defines three classes (class A, B, and C) of energy
the uplink. However, in the extended coverage areas, the
consumption for end devices. The class A devices have a basic
speed is as low as a few kbps [15]. One research focused on
set of features that all devices must implement, the class B
moving end devices at high speeds showed that some of the
devices possess scheduled listening windows, and the class C LPWAN technologies could be used for loT applications with
devices are ready for bi-directional commnnication at any
fast-moving end devices. Using the UDP (User Datagram
time [9]. Sleep mode is used in many LPWAN technologies
Protocol) protocol for packet transmission, NB-IoT could be
today as long as the application needs a considerable reduction
used to track the rough locations ofmoving vehicles due to the
of the amount of consumed energy. NB-IoT end-device needs
broad coverage, and also the around 6% packet loss rate and
additional energy due to synchronous commnnication and the
11 seconds average packet delay [16].
handling of the quality of services, but this additional energy
consumption helps NB-IoT to provide low latency in the loT D. Latency
connectivity [6]. The time that it takes for a request to travel from the sender
B. Deployment to the receiver to process the request has limitations in
practice, which prevents the latency time to be as close to zero
The data transfer speed in Sigfox is as low as 100bps, at
as possible [10]. One laboratory experiment, where the end-
maximum [7]. It uses a 100 Hz bandwidth ultra-narrow band
to-end latency was measured for LoRaWAN and NB-IoT,

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 2022 International Conference on Connected Systerns & Intelligence (CSI)

indicates that there is still a need for latency reduction in many F. Security
use cases. The results showed an average latency of 5 seconds Surveys show that up to 90% of connected devices are
in the case of LoRaWAN and 0.072 seconds for NB-IoT [4]. collecting sensitive information, and yet 70% of this data is
E. Modulation and Handover transmitted without encryption [20]. Sigfox and LoRa WAN
operate in unlicensed spectrum, while NBIoT uses licensed
Sigfox uses narrowband differential binary phase-shift
spectrum as other cellular technologies (2G,3G,4G) [21]. The
keying (D-BPSK) modulation in unlicensed ISM bands. It
data collected and transmitted within loT networks are
decreases the experienced noise and power usage and
categorized as big data and considered unstructured which
increases the number of supported end devices per unit
makes it difficult to support security services [22]. Like other
bandwidth [4][14][17]. LoRaWAN's bidirectional
networking technologies, Sigfox, LoRa, and NB-IoT are
communication, provided by the chirp spread spectrum (eSS)
exposed to possible security attacks and issues like data-
modulation at low power, works well with channel noise and
focused and monetary-focused attacks, denial of service
enables interference resilience. Using different spreading
(DoS), hardware exploitations, spying, and hybrid attacks
factors (SF7 to SF12), LoRaWAN enables higher data rates at
with several goals at a time.
the expense of shorter ranges, and vice versa [14] [17]. NB-
loT uses narrowband modulation techniques for high linking Sigfox's security is based mainly on symmetric
capacity by encoding the signal in low bandwidth. Using t~e cryptography, while some features like encryption are not
single-carrier frequency division multiple access (FDMA) m provided by default. Sigfox has mechani.sm~ for crede~tial
the uplink, and orthogonal FDMA (OFDMA) in the downlink, provisioning, identity protection, authentication of devices,
the data rate is limited to 200 kbps in the downlink and 20 networks, messages, and subscribers; data integrity and
kbps in the uplink [14]. confidentiality, and fights packet replay attacks. It implements
non-IP data delivery (NIDD) over the air and the IP packets
The capability to pass mobile messages from one server
are delivered via VPN/SSL, which should provide sufficient
to another, or handover, is managed by the external Radio
security in this part ofthe network. There is no mechanism for
Access Network (RAN) in 3GPP technologies. Non3GPP
packet prioritization, forward secrecy, and algorithm
technologies manage handover without external support [18].
negotiation in Sigfox. LoRaWAN's securi~y is b~~ed. on
Handover is enabled for mobile devices in a Sigfox loT
symmetric cryptography and supports credential provisionmg,
network. As already mentioned, message handling in
data integrity and confidentiality, replay protection, reliable
LoRaWAN is avoided by the ability to receive each message
delivery, and network monitoring and filtering. Subscriber
from multiple base stations, hence LoRa WAN devices are not
authentication, Quality of service (QoS), and prioritization are
associated with a determined gateway [5][6][14]. Many
not supported in LoRa WAN. The security mechanisms ofNB-
features ofNB-loT that exist in LTE, have been removed to
loT resemble the ones defined in its root network system LTE.
keep it simple, reduce the costs, and minimize power
NB-IoT authentication and credential provisions are subject-
consumption. Handover is among those removed features so
based where the main assumption is that the identifier is
NB-IoT is not considered ideal for mobile end-devices[5][19]
unique and permanently mapped to a particular subject.
Table 1 An overview of the main features of Sigfox, NB-IoT and LoRaWAN

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 2022 International Conference on Connected Systerns & Intelligence (CSI)

LPWAN devices comprise some security for a low-power sensors in combination with timely controlled water sprayers
embedded system. Large-scale analyses show that low-power solve the problem of drought periods. Another example is the
embedded devices in most ofthe firmware are vulnerable [20]. Norway network operator, Telia, which has equipped 1000
sheep with NB-loT tracking collars to remotely track and find
Table. 1 gives an organized overview of all the them. Smart parking solutions are also functioning in many
characteristics of Sigfox, NB-IoT, and LoRaWAN radio
big cities like Las Vegas and Palo Alto in California, where
communication technologies described in this section. Based NB-IoT connected sensors installed at all the parking spots
on Table. 1, a respective and comparative chart has been given
pass the occupancy status to the cloud gniding the drivers
in Fig.2 [6][23][24][25][26][27]. through the shortest route to ensure safety and optimize
100 resources. In Rathdown, Ireland, all 530 traditional litter bins
90
80 are replaced with 420 units of BigBelly loT -enabled litter bins
70 over NB-IoT connection which has increased waste
60
management efficiency by a total of 85% and reduced waste
50
40 and its collection costs. Also, wearables for tracking visitor
30 engagements are used to track user movement and behavior,
20
like the ones made by Sirqui company to understand visitor
10
o preferences, walking paths, duration of stay, and queue lines.
Bandwidth Range Scalability Quality of Maximum Average Battery Module This adds entertainment and consumer services to the list of
service payload data rate life cost
NB-IoT use-cases.
length

_ NB-loT _ LoRaWAN _ Sigfox In general, NB-IoT is an operator-based cellular network

which makes it reliable, available, and secure. NB-IoT devices
Fig. 2 The respective view of the performance ofNB-IoT, are tailored for applications requiring battery power supply
LoRaWAN, & Sigfox on a scale of 0 to 100.
with a long lifetime, zero-touch operation (meaning no device
maintenance, battery recharge, and replacement, or stationary
III. THE STATE OF NB- tor operation for fixed device locations or the moving devices),
As seen in Table 1. and Fig 2., NB-IoT offers a wide coverage range, deep penetration in poor signaling
competitive edge over its LPWAN rivals regarding specific conditions, and lower costs [30].
requirements like indoor coverage and low device power
consumption for massive numbers of low-cost devices. NB- IV. THE GROWTH OF NB-IoT
loT can be deployed in almost any field from agriculture, The latest statistical analysis on commercial mobile loT
logistics, transportation, manufacturing, energy, and utilities, networks shows the dominance of the implementation ofNB-
to healthcare, and retail. Use-cases of NB-IoT are simple, loT around the globe. The total number of mobile loT
static, low-data, and low-energy; like crop and livestock networks from Febrnary 2022 was 170, among which 110 are
monitoring, fuel, water, and other pipeline and tank NB-IoT and 60 LTE-M networks [28]. The increasing use of
management applications, parking, waste management, street Narrowband loT throughout the world is one of the driving
lighting, and other applications of a smart city, home, and factors for the growth of the Narrowband loT Market. The
building. Asset tracking is another new form of loT global market ofNB-loT is projected to reach 1225.9 million
application where NB-IoT can be deployed. NB-IoT $ by 2027, rising from 213.1 million $ in 2020. [31].
connected sensors track and monitor the data in real-time to
offer huge opportunities for smart deployments [23][27]. Estimations indicate that by 2025 more than 5 billion
devices will be counected through 5G NB-IoT. One of the
NB-IoT networks have been already deployed for current applications of NB-IoT is its integration into the
industry and consumer markets with the potential to grow to Spanish Vodafone network since December 2016 by
one of the leading radio technologies in the domain of loT Vodafone and Huawei. Huawei's focus is to expand
design. Starting from agriculture, for instance, South African partuerships to apply this technology in many parts of the
nut farmer Happy Nut, turned to LPWAN solutions to world. Another example is the Ministry of Industry and
improve efficiency and yield. Moisture NB-IoT connected Information Technology of China which in May 2017 decided
to increase the commercial employment ofNB-loT in public
Other LPWAN sigfox LgRa WAN" LTE-tIl ~ NB-IOT
services [24]. Recent statistics also show the significant
140
growth rate of the use of NB-IoT radio technology in
120 comparison to other LPWAN technologies. One of the key
trends in 2021 was the expansion of LPWAN technologies,
100 especially NB-IoT, with counections growing by 61% year
over year [32].
80
V. CONCLUSION
60
Outlining major characteristics of main LPWAN
40 technologies, some crncial choice factors among them have
been given. Analyses, experiments, and statistics suggest that
the newest generation of NB-IoT, introduced by 3GPP 5G
cellular radio technology, is expected to advance the loT
. 20 19 vs. 2020 • 2020 vs, 202 1 domain revolution. It aims to support a massive number of
devices within a cell site sector, enable the devices and sensors
Fig. 3 Growth rates (%) of major LPWAN technologies_2019 vs. to draw low current (in the range of nanoamp) with a single
2020, and 2020 vs. 2021 [29J battery charge for up to 10 years, and achieve indoor and

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 2022 International Conference on Connected Systems & Intelligence (CSI)

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